
Class L L Z KOI 









c. 

HISTORY OF SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED POPULATION 



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^ I. DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 



iX 



II. STATES. 






By TraneSwr 

NOV 16 "'925 



PART I. 

HISTORY OF SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED POPULATlOiN IN THE DIS- 
TRICT OF COLUMBIA. 



SCHOOLS AKD EDUCATION OF THE COLOEED POPULATIOI^. 



I. Historical development of schools for the colored population in the District of Columbia. 

Period L— 1800 to 18G1. 

Pago. 

Pioneers in the instruction of colored children J95 

First school and school-house in J 807 ]95 

Census of Washington in 1807 j95 

The Bell and Browning families 19(j 

Mrs. Alethia Tanner iqq 

The school of the Resolute Beneficial Society 197 

Announcement in National Intelligencer August 29, 1818 197 

Mr. Henry Potter's school, 1809 ]9y 

Mrs. Hall's school 193 

Mrs. Mary Billings's school 198 

Mr. Shay's school 199 

The Smothers school-house 199 

John W. Prout j 99 

A free school 200 

The Sunday school 200 

Rev. John F. Cook 200 

The Snow riot, September, J 835 201 

Union Seminary 201 

Louisa Parke Costin's school 203 

The Wesleyan Seminary 2U4 

First seminary for colored girls, 1827 204 

Maria Becraft 204 

St. Frances' Academy for colored girls 205 

Oblate Sisters of Providence Convent, Baltimore 205 

Miss Myrtilla Miner 206 

Seminary and plan of a female college 209 

Miss Emily HowJand 210 

Arabella Jones's school -211 

Mary Wormley's school 211 

Mrs. Mary Wall's school 212 

Benjamin McCoy's and other schools 212 

Thomas Tabb's school 213 

Dr. John H. Fleet's school 213 

John T. Johnson's school 213 

Charles H. Middleton's school 214 

First movement for a free colored public school 215 

Alexander Cornish and others • 215 

Alexander Hays 215 

Joseph Mason's school, Georgetown 216 

Thomas H. Mason's school 2J6 

Mr. and Mrs. Fletcher's school 216 



Miss E. Anne Cooke. 



216 



Miss A. E. Washington's school 216 

Catholic free colored school 2I7 

Elizabeth Smith, Isabella Briscoe, Charlotte Beams, James Shorter 217 

Charlotte Gordon, David Brown, and other teachers 217 

Churches, parochial and Sunday schools 217 

Catholic Church — Rev. L. Neale — Father Van Lommel 217 

Father McElroy — Sisters of the Visitation 218 

Separate galleries — Baptist — Methodist 219 

African Methodist Episcopal church 219 

Episcopal church— Rev. S. H. Tyng— Rev. C. P. Macllvaine 219 

Early Sabbath schools — Separate schools 220 

Observations on the first half century of school history 220 

Note— Prospectus of St. Agnes's Academy 222 

193 



194 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

Period IL— 1861 to 1868. 

1. — Cities of Washington and Georgetown. 

Page. 

Eelief societies and first schools for contrabands 223 

American Tract Society— National Freedmen's Relief Society 221? 

American Tract Society of Boston , 224 

The appeal to the country for help in 1864 224 

American Missionary Association 225 

Pennsylvania Freedmen's Relief Association 22r) 

Philadelphia Friends' Freedmen's Eelief Association — 226 • 

African Civilization Society 226 

Reformed Presbyterian Mission — Old School Presbyterian Mission 226 

New York Freedmen's Relief Association 226 

New England Freedmen's Aid Commission. New England Freedmen's Aid Society 227 

New England Friends' Mission — 227 

Washington Christian Union • 228 

Maine Universalist schools 228 

Miss Rebecca R. Elwell's school 228 

Statistics of Relief societies' schools in 1864 229 

Day schools in ] 864-65— Night schools 1864-65 230 

Day schools and night schools in 1865-66-67 - ■ 230 

Withdrawal of Relief societies in 1867 2.32 

Colored Orphans' Home 233 

Mrs. J. F. Potter — Mrs. Pomeroy — Mrs. Breed — Mrs. Trumbull 233 

Schools for colored girls by Miss Washington and Miss Jones - . 239 

St. Aloysius school for girls— Mrs. E. B. Wood 239 ' 

St. Martin's school— J. R. Fletcher's school ' 240 

Joseph Ambush — Mrs. C. W. Grove— Mrs. Ricks — Rev. C. Leonard. ,. 240 

Colfax Industrial Mission— Miss Walker's Industrial school * 241 

National Theological Institutes and Universities 243 

Rev. Edmund Turney, D. D. — ^National Theological Institute 243 

Vight schools^^Female Collegiate Institute . 244 

jliss La'vinia Warner — Washington Waller — Arhngton school ' 244 

Wayland Tlieological Seminary ' 245 

Howard University — Rev. B. F. Morris 245 

Howard Theological Seminary — H. A. Brewster 246' 

D. B. Nicnols— Senator Pomeroy , 247 

Charter of Howard University, approved March 2, 1867 248 

List of trustees and other officers. Grounds — Buildings 249 

Normal and Preparatory Department. Medical Department — Law Department '251 

Public schools for colored children 252 

Statistics of schools and school children 253 

School property —Trustees — Teachers— Grades 254 

School funds — Refugees and Freedmen's fund 258. 

Retained bounty fund — School fund 259 

Congressional legislation 260 

Summary of Institutions in Washington and Georgetown 262 

2. — Colored scliools in WasMngton county. 

Legislation in 1856 and 1862 264 

Act of 1864 — Remarks of Hon. James W. Patterson 2gp 

School funds — School-houses — Census of 1867 270 

Population of children under 20 bj^ single years 271 

Mrs. David Carroll's school in 188 1 272 

Schools — School lots and buildings 274 

Commissioners and trustees. Summary of schools, scholars and property 280 

3. — Colored schools in Alexandria. 

Mrs. Cameron's school — A free school — Mount Hope Academy — Sabbath schools 283 

Retrocession in 1846, and its influence on schools 284 

First schools for contrabands in 1861 — Julia A. Wilbur 285 

Schools organized in 1863, 1864, 1865, 1866 287 

Summary of schools and scholars 292 

Notes — American Tract Society 294 

Labors of Rev. H. W. Pierson, D. D 294 

Banneker, the colored astronomer 297 

Sabbath school in Georgetown in 1816. African Education Society 298 

General review and conclusion 299 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 



PERIOD 1.-1801-1861. 



The struggles of the colored people of the District of Columbia, in securing for themselves 
the means of education, furnish a very instructive chapter in the history of schools. Their 
.courage and resolution were such, in the midst of their own great ignorance and strenuous 
opposition from without, that a permanent record becomes an act of justice to them. In the 
language of Jefferson to Banneker, the black astronomer, it is a publication to which their 
"whole color has a right for their justification against the doubts which have been entertained 
of them." Though poor, proscribed and unlettered, they founded, in their humble way, an 
institution for the education of their children within less than two years after the first school- 
house of whites was buiU in the city. The sentimentagainst the education of the colored classes 
was much less rigorous in the early history of the capital than it was a third of a century 
later. The free colored people were sometimes even encouraged, to a limited extent, in their 
efforts. to pick up some fragments of knowledge. They were taught in the Sunday schools 
and evening schools occasionally, and respectable mulatto families were in many cases 
allowed to attend, with white children, the private schools and academies. There are scores 
of colored men and women still living in this District who are decently educated, and who 
never w^nt to any but white schools. There arc also white men and women still'alive here, 
who went to school in this city and in Georgetown with colored children and felt no offence. 
Another fact important to be considered is that the colored people, who first settled in Wash- 
ington, constituted a very superior class of their race. Many of them were favorite family 
servants, who came here with congressmen from the south, and with the families of other 
public officers, and who by long and faithful service had secured, by gift, purchase, or oth- 
erwise, their freedom. Others were superior mechanics, house servants, and enterprising in 
various callings, who obtained their freedom by their own persevering industry. Some, 
also, had received their freedom before coming to this city, and of these there was one family, 
to be referred to hereafter, which came from Mount Vernon. Still the number of those who 
could read, even of the very best class of colored people, was very small. 

THE FIRST SCHOOL AND SCHOOL HOUSE. 

The first school-house in this District, built expressly for the education of colored children, 
was erected by three men who had been born and reared as slaves in Maryland and Virginia. 
Their names were George Bell, Nicholas Franklin and Moses Liverpool. It was a good one- 
story frame building, and stood upon a lot directly opposite to and west of the liouse in which 
the mother of Daniel Carroll, of Duddington, then resided, and where the Providence Hos- 
pital now stands. It was built about the year 1807, and a school, under a white teacher, 
Mr. Lowe, was opened there as soon as it was finished. It was a full school, and continued 
several years, after which, for a time, the house was used as a dwelling. The following is 
a summary from the census- of Washington taken in 1807, the year in which this colored 
school-house was built : 



White males 2,139 

White females 2,009 

Male slaves 409 

Female slaves ; 479 

Male non-resident slaves 55 

Female non-resident slaves 61 

Free black males 126 



Free black females 153 

Free mulatto males - 95 

Free mulatto females 120 

Total white 4,148 

Total free colored 494 

Total slaves 1,004 

Total colored 1,498 



It is seen from these figures that when this school was put into operation there was a pop- 
ulation of 494 souls only to represent it that being the number of free colored persons. On the 

195 



196 SCHOOLS OF THE COLOKED POPULATION. 

other hand, with a population of more than 4,000, the white residents had the year before built 
but two public school-houses for white scholars, one in the eastern and the other in the west- 
ern section of the city, though there were three or four small private schools. The three 
men who built the school-house had at that time just emerged from the condition of slaves, 
and knew not a letter of the alphabet. Franklin and Liverpool were caulkers by trade, hav- 
ing come from the sea-coast in the lower part of Virginia, and were at work in the Navy Yard. 
How they secured their freedom is not clearly known, though the tradition is that Franklin, 
experiencing religion, was made free by his master, who was a member of the Methodist 
church, the discipline of which at that time admitted no slave to membership.* These two 
men worked at their trade all their lives, raised up their families with all the education their 
means would afford, and their grandchildren are now among the respectable colored people 
of this city, 

THE BELL AND BROWNING FAMILIES. 

George Bell was the leading spirit in this remarkable educational enterprise, and was 
conspicuous in all efforts for the benefit of his race in this community. He was the 
slave of Anthony Addison, who owned a large estate upon the borders of the District 
beyond the Eastern Branch, and his wife, Sophia Browning, belonged to the Bell family, on 
the Patuxent. When the commissioners were surveying the District in 1791 they received 
their meals from their cabin across the Eastern Branch, and the wife used often to describe 
the appearance of Benjamin Banneker, the celebrated mathematician and astronomer, who 
was one of the surveying party by invitation of the commissioners. She had a market gar- 
den and used to attend the Alexandria market every market day, though she had a family 
of three sons and a daughter. In this manner she saved four hundred dollars without the 
knowledge of her owner, who was Mrs. Rachel Pratt, (Bell,) the mother of Governor Pratt, 
of Maryland. This money was intrusted to a Methodist preacher, who bought the hus- 
band's freedom with it, and shortly afterwards, while the wife was dangerously sick, her 
freedom was bought for five pounds Maryland cun-ency by the husband. These purchases 
were effected about six years before the building of the school-house. Two of the sons, 
born in slavery, the father purchased a few years later; the third was accidentally killed in 
Washington, and the daughter they could not buy, her mistress declining peremptorily to 
relinquish her, but making her free by her will at her decease, which occurred many years 
later in Georgetown. These children belonged, as did the mother, to Mrs, Pratt. The two 
boys were purchased "running" — while on the foot as runaways — the one for $750 and the 
other for $450. The first free-born child, widow Harriet Dunlap, a woman of much intel- 
ligence and singular clearness of memory, born in 1S03, is still living and resides here, as 
do also Margaret, who was freed by Mrs. Pratt, and the two younger sons. The two sons 
that were purchased were both lost at sea. Mrs. Dunlap, and her next sister, Elizabeth, 
after the Bell school, as it may be called, closed, went for brief periods successively to schools 
taught by Henry Potter, an Englishman, by Anne Maria Hall, and Mrs. Maria Haley. 
There were several colored children in Mrs. Haley's school, and some complaints being made 
to the teacher, who was an Irish lady, the two Bell girls were sent to the school in Baltimore, 
taught by Rev. Daniel Coker, who subsequently, as a colored Methodist mission.ary, became 
conspicuously known throughout the Christian world by his wise and courageous work in 
the first emigration to Liberia. They remained at this school two years and a half, from 1812 
to 1815. George Bell died in 1843, at the age of 82 years, and his wife some years later, 
at the age of 86. They left all their children not only with a good education but 
also in comfortable pecuniary circumstances. The mother was a woman of superior character, 
a,s were all the family. One sister was the wife of the late Rev. John F. Cook, and 

* The Methodist Discipline as amended in 1784 prescribed among other rules the following two : 

First. Every member of our Society who has slaves in his possession shall, within twelve months after 

notice given to him by the assistant, legally execute an instrument whereby he emancipates and sets free 

every slave in his possession. 
Second. No person holding slaves shall in future be admitted into our Society or to the Lord's Supper, till 

he previously complies with these rules concerning slavery. 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 197 

another was Mrs. Alethia Tanner, whose force of character and philanthropy gave her 
remarkable prominence here and elsewhere among her race, and commanded the respect 
of all who knew her. All of the Browning family belonged to Mrs. Rachel Pratt. Mrs. 
Tanner commenced her remarkable career by the purchase of her own freedom for $1,400. 
The last payment of $275 was made June 29, 1810, and her manumission papers from Mrs. 
Rachel Pratt bear date July 10, 181 0. In 1826 she purchased her older sister, Laurena Cook, 
and five of the Cook children, four sons and a daughter. One of these sons, then sixteen 
years old, was afterwards known and respected for more than a quarter of a century by all 
classes in this community as an able and enlightened school teacher and clergyman. His 
name was John F. Cook. In 1828 she purchased the rest of the Cook children and their 
offspring as follows : Hannah and her two children, Annette and her two children, Alethia and 
her child, George Cook and Daniel Cook, comprising, in all, her sister with ten childrenand 
five grandchildren, paying for the sister $800, and for the children an average of $300 
each. She also purchased the freedom of Lotty Riggs and her four children, and of John 
Butler, who became a useful Methodist minister; and in 1837 she purchased the freedom of 
Charlotte Davis, who is still living in this city. The documents showing these purchases 
are all preserved in the Cook family. Mrs. Tanner was alive to every wise scheme for the 
education and elevation of her race. It was through her efforts, combined with those of her 
brother in law, George Bell, that the First Bethel Church on Capitol Hill was saved for that 
society. When the house was put up at auction by the bank which held the notes of the 
society, these two individuals came forward, bid in the property, paid for it and waited for 
their pay till the society was able to raise the money. Mrs. Tanner, at her death in 1864, 
left a handsome property. Her husband died many years before, and she had no children. 
She was the housemaid of Mr. Jefferson during his residence at the capital, and Richard 
M. Johnson, who was her friend, appears as the witness to the manumission papers of Lau- 
rena Cook, her sister, and of John F. Cook, the son of Laurena, whose freedom she bought 
while Mr. Johnson was United States senator. 

THE SCHOOL OF THE RESOLUTE BENEFICIAL SOCIETY. 

After the Bell school-house had been used several years as a dwelling, it was in 1818 again 
taken for educational purposes, to accommodate an association organized by the leading 
colored men of the city, and for the specific purpose of promoting the education of their race. 
The courage of these poor men, nearly all of whom had but a few years previously emerged 
from bondage and could not read a syllable, cannot be justly estimated without recalling the 
fact, that at that period the free colored people were considered everywhere in the south as a 
nuisance, and very largely so through the north. The Savannah Republican newspaper, in 
1817, in a carefully prepared article on the subject, said : "The free people of color have never 
conferred a single benefit on the country. They have been and are a nuisance, which we wish 
to get rid of as soon as possible, the filth and offal of society;" and this article was copied 
approvingly into leading, temperate northern journals. It will be seen from the announce- 
ment that this school was established upon the principle of receiving all colored children who 
should come, tuition being exacted only from such as were able to pay ; that it was more nearly 
a free school than anything hitherto known in the city. The announcement of this school, 
which appeared in the columns of the Daily National Intelligencer, August 29, 1818, is full of 
interest. It clearly indicates, among other things, the fact that at that period there were some 
slave owners in this District who were recognized by the colored people as friendly to the educa- 
tion of their slaves ; a sentiment, however, which, in the gradual prostitution of public opinion 
on the subject, was very thoroughly eradicated in the succeeding forty years. But what is 
of special significance in this remarkable paper is the humble language of apology in which 
it is expressed. It is plainly manifest in every sentence that an apology was deemed neces- 
sary from these poor people for presuming to do anything for opening to their offspring the 
gates of knowledge which had been barred to themselves. The document reads as follows : 

^'A School, 

" Founded by an association of free people of color, of the city of Washington, called the 



198. SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

'Eesolute Beneficial Society,' situate near the Eastern Public School and the dwelling of 
Mrs Fenwick, is now open for the reception of children of free people of color and others, 
that ladies or gentlemen may think proper to send to be instructed in reading, writing, 
arithmetic, English grammar or other branches of education apposite 'to their capacities, 
by a steady, active and experienced teacher, whose attention is wholly devoted to the pur- 
poses described. It is presumed that free colored families will embrace the advantages thus 
presented to them, either by subscribing to the funds of the society or by sending their chil- 
dren to the school. An improvement of the intellect and morals of colored youth being the 
objects of this institution, the patronage of benevolent ladies and gentlemen, by donation or 
subscription, is humbly solicited in aid of the fund, the demands thereon being heavy and the 
means at present much too limited. For the satisfaction of the public, the constitution and 
articles of association are printed and published. And to avoid disagreeable occurrences, no 
writings are to be done by the teacher for a slave, neither directly nor indirectly, to serve the 
purpose of a slave on any account whatever. Further particulars may be known by apply- 
ing to any of the undersigned otfieers. 

"WILLIAM COSTIN, President. "ARCHIBALD JOHNSON, Marshal. 

" GEORGE HICKS. 'Vice-President. " FRED. LEWIS, Chairman of the Committee. 
" JAMES HARRIS, Secretory. " ISAAC JOHNSON, ? ^ ... 

" GEORGE BELL, TrcasMrer. " SCIPIO BEENS, i^^o'nmtuee. 

" N. B. — An evening school will commence on the premises on the first Monday of Octo- 
ber, and continue throughout the season. 

iy°"The managers of Sunday schools in the eastern district are thus most dutifully 
informed that on Sabbath days the school-house belonging to this society, if required for the 
tuition of colored youth, will be uniformly at their service. 

''August 29, 3«." 

This school was continued several years successfully, with an ordinary attendance of fifty 
or sixty scholars, and often more. The first teacher was Mr. Pierpont, from Massachusetts, 
a relative of the poet; and after two or three years, was succeeded by John Adams, a shoe- 
maker, who was the first colored man who taught in this District, and who, after leaving 
this school, had another, about 18'22, near the Navy Department. The Bell school-house 
was after this period used as a dwelling by one of Bell's sons, and at his father's decease fell 
to his daughter Elizabeth, the wife of Basil Sims. Soon afterwards Sims and his wife both 
died, leaving a handsome property for their children, which, however, was totally dissipated 
by the executor. The Bell school-house and lot were sold for taxes ; the children when com- 
ing of age vainly seeking its recovery. 

MR. HENRY POTTER'S SCHOOL. 

The third school for colored children in Washington was established by Mr. Henry Potter, 
an Englishman, who opened his school about 1 809, in a brick building which then stood on the 
southeast corner of F and Seventh streets, opposite the block where the post office building 
now stands. He continued there several years and had a large school, moving subsequently to 
what was then known as Clark's row on Thirteenth street west, between G and H streets north. 

MRS. hall's school. 

During this period Mrs. Anne Maria Hall started a school on Capitol Hill, between the Old 
Capitol and Carroll row, on First street east. After continuing there with a full school 
for some ten years, she moved to a building which stood on what is now the vacant por- 
tion of the Casparis House lot on A street, close to the Capitol. Some years later she w6nt to 
the First Bethel church, and after a year or two she moved to a house still standing on E 
street north, between Eleventh and Twelfth west, and there taught many years. She was a 
colored woman from Prince George's county, Maryland, and had a respectable education, 
which she obtained at schools with white children in Alexandria. Her husband died early, 
leaving her with children to support, and she betook herself to the work of a teacher, which 
she loved, and in which, for not less than twenty-five years, she met with uniform success. 
Her schools were all quite large, and the many who remember her as their teacher speak of 
her with great respect. 

MRS. MARY BILLING'S SCHOOL. 

Of the early teachers of colored schools in this District there is no one whose name is men- 
tioned with more gratitude and respect by the intelligent colored residents that that of Mrs. 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 199 

Maij Billing, who established the first colored school that was gathered in Georgetown. She 
was an English woman ; her husband, Joseph Billing, a cabinet maker, coming from England 
in 1800, settled with his family that year in Washington, and dying in 1807 left his wife with 
three children. She was well educated, a capable and good woman, and immediately com- 
menced teaching to support her family. At first, it is believed, she was connected with the 
corporation school of Georgetown. It was while in a white school certainly that her atten- 
tion was arrested by the wants of the colored children, whom she was accustomed to receive 
into her schools, till the opposition became so marked that she decided to make her school 
exclusively colored. She was a woman of strong religious convictions, and being English, 
with none of the ideas peculiar to slave society, when she saw the peculiar destitution of the 
colored children in the community around her, she resolved to give her life to the class who 
seemed most to need her services. She established a colored school about 1810, in a brick 
house still standing on Dunbarton street opposite the Methodist church, between Congress 
and High streets, remaining there till the winter of 1820-'21, when she came to Washington 
and opened a school in the house on H street near the Foundry church, then owned by Daniel 
Jones, a colored man, and still owned and occupied by a member of that family. She died 
in 1826 in the fiftieth year of her age. She continued her school till failing health, a year or 
so before her death, compelled its relinquishment. Her school was always large, it being 
patronized in Georgetown as well as afterwards by the best colored families of Washington, 
many of whom sent their children to her from Capitol Hill and the vicinity of the Navy Yard. 
Most of the better educated colored men and women now living, who were school children in 
her time, received the best portion of their education from her, and they all speak of her 
with a deep and tender sense of obligation. Henry Potter succeeded her in the Georgetown 
school, and after him Mr. Shay, an Euglishman, who subsequently came to Washington and 
for many years had a large coloi'ed school in a brick building known as the Round Tops, in the 
western part of the city, near the Circle, and still later removing to the old Western Academy 
building, corner of I and Seventeenth streets. He was there till about 1830, when be was con- 
victed of assisting a slave to his freedom and sent a term to the penitentiary. Mrs. Billing 
had a night school in which she was greatly assisted by Mr. Monroe, a government clerk and a 
Presbyterian elder, whose devout and benevolent ch aracter is still remembered in the churches . 
Mrs. Billing had scholars from Bladensburg and the surrounding country, who came into 
Georgetown and boarded with her and with others. About the time when Mrs. Billing 
relinquished her school in 1822 or 1823, what may be properly called 

THE SMOTHERS SCHOOL-HOUSE 

was built by Henry Smothers on the corner of Fourteenth and H streets, not far from the 
Treasury building. Smothers had a small dwelling-house on this corner, and built his school- 
house on the rear of the same lot. He had been long a pupil of Mrs. Billing, and had 
subsequently taught a school on Washington street, opposite the Union Hotel in Georgetown. 
He opened his school iu Washington in the old corporation school-house, built in 180G, but 
some years before this period abandoned as a public school-house. It was known as the 
Western Academy, aud is still standing and used as a school-house on the corner of I and 
Nineteenth streets west. When his school-house on Fourteenth and H sti^eets was finished 
his school went into the new quarters. This school was very large, numbering always more 
than a hundred and often as high as a hundred and fifty scholars. He taught here about 
two years, and was succeeded by John W. Prout about the year 1825. Prout was a man of 
ability. In 1831, May 4, there was a meeting, says the National Intelligencer of that date, 
of " the colored citizens, large aud very respectable, in the African Methodist Episcopal 
church," to consider the question of emigrating to Liberia. John W. Prout was chosen to 
preside over the assemblage, and the article in the Intelligencer represents him as making 
"a speech of decided force and well adapted to the occasion, in support of a set of resolu- 
tions which he had drafted, and which set forth views adverse to leaving the soil that had 
given them birth, their true and veritable home, without the benefits of education.'" The school 
under Prout was governed by a board of trustees and was organized as 



200 SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 



A FREE SCHOOL, 

and so continued two or three years. The number of scholars was very large, averaging a 
hundred and fifty- Mrs. Anne Maria Hall was the assistant teacher. It relied mainly for 
support upon subscription, twelve and a half cents a month only being expected from each 
pupil, and this amount was not compulsory. The school was free to all colored children, 
without money or price, and so continued two or three years, when failing of voluntary 
pecuniary support (it never wanted scholars) it became a regular tuition school. The school 
under Mr. Prout was called the " Columbian Institute," the name being suggested by John 
McLeod, the famous Irish schoolmaster, who was a warm friend of this institution after 
visiting and commending the scholars and teachers, and who named his new building in 
1835 the Columbian Academy. The days of thick darkness to the colored people were 
approaching. The Nat. Turner insurrection in Southampton county, Virginia, which occurred 
in August, 1831, spread terror everywhere in slave communities. In this district, imme- 
diately upon that terrible occurrence, the colored children, who had in very large numbers 
been received into Sabbath schools in the white churches, were all turned out of those schools. 
This event, though seeming to be a fiery affliction, proved a blessing in disguise. It aroused 
the energies of the colored people, taught them self-reliance, and they organized forthwith 
Sabbath schools of their own. It was in the Smothers' school-house that they formed their 
first Sunday school, about the year 1832, and here they continued their very large school 
for several years, the Fifteenth-street Presbyterian Church ultimately springing from the 
school organization. It is important to state in this connection that 

THE SiJNDAY SCHOOL, 

always an extremely important means of education for colored people in the days of slavery, 
was emphatically so in the gloomy times now upon them. It was the Sabbath school that 
taught the great mass of the free people of color about all the school knowledge that was 
allowed them in those days, and hence the consternation which came upon them when they 
found themselves excluded from the schools of the white churches. Lindsay Muse, who 
has been the messenger for eighteen Secretaries of the Navy, successively, during forty years, 
from 1828 to the present time ; John Brown ; Benjamin M. McCoy ; Mr. Smallwood ; Mrs. 
Charlotte Norris, afterwards wife of Rev. Eli Nugent ; and Siby McCoy are the only sur- 
vivors of the resolute little band of colored men and women who gathered with and guided 
that Sunday school. They had, in the successor of Mr. Prout, a man after their own heart, 

JOHN F. COOK, 

who came into charge of this school in August, 1 834, about eight years after his aunt, Aletbia 
Tanner, had purchased his freedom. He learned the shoemaker's trade in his boyhood, and 
worked diligently, after the purchase of his freedom, to make some return to his aunt for the 
purchase money. About the time of his becoming of age he dislocated his shoulder, which 
compelled him to seek other employment, and in 1831, the year of his majority, he obtained 
the place of assistant m^senger in the Land Office. Hon. John Wilson, now Third Auditor 
of the Treasury, was the messenger, and was Cook's firm friend till the day of his death. 
Cook had been a short time at school under the instruction of Smothers and Prout, but when 
he entered the Land Office his education was at most only the ability to stumble along a 
little in a primary reading book. He, however, now gave liimself in all his leisure moments, 
early and late, to study. Mr. Wilson remembers his indefatigable application, and affirms 
that it was a matter of astonishment at the time, and that he has seen nothing in all his 
observation to surpass and scarcely to equal it. He was soon able to write a good hand, and 
was employed with his pen in clerical work by the sanction of the Commissioner, Elisha 
Hayward, who was much attached to him. Cook was now beginning to look forward to the 
life of a teacher, which, with the ministry, was the only work not menial in its nature then 
open to an educated colored man. At the end of three years he resigned his place in the 
Land Office, and entered upon the work which he laid down only with his life. It was then 
that he gave himself wholly to study and the business of education, working with all his 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 201 

might ; his school numbering quite a hundred scholars in the winter and a hundred and fifty 
in the summer. He had been in his work one year when the storm which had been, for some 
years, under the discussion of the slavery question, gathering over the country at large, burst 
upon this District. 

THE SNOW RIOT, 

or "Snow storm," as it has been commonly called, which occurred in September, 1835, is 
an event that stands vividly in the memory of all colored people who lived in this com- 
munity at that time. Benjamin Snow, a smart colored man, keeping a restaurant on the 
corner of Pennsylvania avenue and Sixth street, was reported to have made some remark 
of a bravado kind derogatory to the wives of white mechanics ; whereupon this class, or 
those assuming to represent them, made a descent trpon his establishment, destroying all his 
effects. Snow himself, who denied using the offensive language, with difficulty escaped 
unharmed, through the management of white friends, taking refuge in Canada, where he 
still resides. The military was promptly called to the rescue, at the head of which was 
General Walter Jones, the eminent lawyer, who characterized the rioters, greatly to their 
indignation, as "a set of ragamuffins," and his action was thoroughly sanctioned by the 
city authorities. 

At the same time also there was a fierce excitement among the mechanics at the Navy 
Yard, growing out of the fact that a large quantity of copper bolts being missed from the 
yard and found to have been carried out in the dinner pails by the hands, the commandant 
had forbid eating dinners in the yard. This order was interpreted as an insult to the white 
mechanics, and threats were made of an assault on the yard, which was put in a thorough 
state of defence by the commandant. The rioters swept through the city, ransacking the 
houses of the prominent colored men and women, ostensibly in search of anti-slavery papers 
and documents, the most of the gang impelled undoubtedly by hostility to the negro race 
and motives of plunder. Nearly all the colored school-houses were partially demolished and 
the furniture totally destroyed, and in several cases they were completely ruined. Some 
private houses were also torn down or burnt. The colored schools were nearly all broken 
up, and it was with the greatest difficulty that the colored churches were saved from destruc- 
tion, as their Sabbath schools were regarded, and correctly regarded, as the means through 
which the colored people, at that time, procured mirch of their education. 

The rioters sought, especially, for John F. Cook, who, however, bad seasonably taken 
from the stable the horse of his friend Mr. Hayward, the Commissioner of the Land Office, 
an anti-slavery man, and fled precipitately from the city. They marched to his school-house, 
destroyed all the books and furniture and partially destroyed the building. Mrs. Smothers, 
who owned both the school-house and the dwelling adjoining and the lots, was sick in her 
house at the time, but an alderman, Mr. Edward Dyer, with great courage and nobleness of 
spii'it, stood between the house and the mob for her protection, declaring that he would 
defend her house from molestation with all the means he could command. They left 
the house unharmed, and it is still standing on the premises. Mr. Cook went to Columbia, 
Pennsylvania, opened a school there, and did not venture back to his home till the autumn 
of 183G. At the time the riot broke out, General Jackson was absent in Virginia. He 
returned in the midst of the tumult, and iunnediately issuing orders in his bold, uncompro- 
mising manner to the authorities to see the laws respected at all events, the violence was 
promptly subdued. It was nevertheless a very dark time for the colored people. The timid 
class did not for a year or two dare to send their children to school, and the whole mass of 
the colored people dwelt in fear day and night. In August, 1836, Mr. Cook returned from 
Pennsylvania and reopened his school, which under him had, in 1834, received the name of 

UNION SEMINARY. 

During his year's absence he was in charge of a free colored public school in Columbia, 
Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, which he surrendered to the care of Benjamin M. McCoy 
when he came back to his home, Mr. McCoy going there to fill out his engagement. 

He resumed his work with broad and elevated ideas of his business. This is clearly seen 



202 SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 

in the plan of his institution, embraced in the printed annual announcements and programmes 
of his annual exhibitions, copies of which have been preserved. The course of study 
embraced three years, and there was a male and a female department, Miss Catharine 
Costin at one period being in charge of the female department. Mr. Seaton, of the National 
Intelligencer, among other leading and enlightened citizens and public men, used to visit 
his school from year to year and watch its admirable working with deep and lively interest. 
Cook was at this period not only watching over his very large school, ranging from 100 to 
150 or more pupils, but was active in the formation of the " First Colored Presbyterian 
church of Washington," which was organized in November, 1841, by Rev. John C. Smith, 
D. D., and worshipped in this school-house. He was now also giving deep study to the 
preparation for the ministry, upon which in fact, as a licentiate of the African Methodist 
Episcopal church, he had already in some degree entered. At a regular meeting of "The 
Presbytery of the District of Columbia," held in Alexandria, May 3, 1842, this church, now 
commonly called the Fifteenth Street Presbyterian church, was formally received under the 
care of that Presbytery, the first and still the only colored Presbyterian church in this 
District. Mr. Cook was elected the first pastor July 13, 1843, and preached his trial sermon 
before ordination on the evening of that day, in the Fourth Presbyterian church (Dr. J. C. 
Smith's) in this city, in the presence of a large congregation. This sermon is remembered 
as a manly production, delivered with great dignity and force and deeply imbued with the 
spirit of his work. He was ordained in the Fifteenth-street church the next evening, and 
continued to serve the church with eminent success till his death in 1855. Rev. John C. 
Smith, D. D., who had preached his ordination sermon and been the devoted friend and 
counsellor for nearly twenty years, preached his funeral sermon, selecting as his text, ' ' There 
was a man sent from God whose name was John." There were present white as well as colored 
clergymen of no less than five denominations, many of the oldest and most respectable citizens, 
and a vast concourse of all classes, white and colored. " The Fifteenth-street church," in the 
words of Dr. Smith in relation to them and their first pastor, " is now a large and flourishing 
congregation of spiritually-minded people. They have been educated in the truth and the 
principles of our holy religion, and in the new present state of things the men of this church 
are trusted, relied on as those who fear God and keep his commandments. The church is the 
monument to John F. Cook, the first pastor, who was faithful in all his house, a workman 
who labored night and day for years, and has entered into his reward. 'Blessed are the dead 
who die in the Lord.' ' They rest from their labors and their works do follow them.' " 

In 1841, when he entered, in a preliminary and informal way, upon the pastorate of the 
Fifteenth-street church, he seems to have attempted to turn his seminary into a high school, 
limited to 25 or 30 pupils, exclusively for the more advanced scholars of both sexes, and his 
plan of studies to that end, as seen in his prospectus, evinces broad and elevated views — a 
desire to aid in lifting his race to higher things in education than they had yet attempted. 
His plans were not put into execution, in the matter of a high school, being frustrated by 
the circumstance that there were so few good schools in the city for the colored people, at 
that period, that his old patrons would not allow him to shut off the multitude of primary 
scholars which were depending upon his school. His seminary, however, continued to main- 
tain its high standard, and had an average attendance of quite 100 year after year till he 
surrendered up his work in death. 

He raised up a large family and educated them well. The oldest of the sons, John and 
George, were educated at Oberlin College. The other three being yoirng, were in school 
when the father died. John and George, it will be seen, succeeded their father as teachers, 
continuing in the business down to the present year. Of the two daughters the elder was 
a teacher till married in 1866, and the other is now a teacher in the public schools of this 
city. One son served through the war as sergeant of the 40th colored regiment, and another 
served in the navy. 

At the death of the father, March 21, 1855, the school fell into the hands of the son, John 
F. Cook, who continued it till May, 1857, when it passed to a younger son, George F. T. 
Cook, who moved it from its old home, the Smothers House, to the basement of the Presby- 
terian church in the spring of 1858, and maintained it till July, 1859. John F. Cook, jr. , who 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 203 

had erected anew school-house on Sixteenth" street, iu 1852, again gathered the school 
which the tempests of the war had dispersed, and continued it till June, 1867, when the new 
order of things had opened ample school facilities throughout the city, and the teacher was 
called to other duties. Thus ended the school which had been first gathered by Smothers 
nearly 45 years before, and which, in that long period, had been continually maintained 
with seldom less than 100 pupils, and for the most part with 150, the only suspensions 
being in the year of the Snow riot and in the two years which ushered in the war. 

The Smothers House, after the Cook school was removed, in 1858, was occupied for 
two years by a /ree Catholic school, supported by "The St. Vincent de Paul Society," a 
benevolent organization of colored people. It was a very large school with two departments, 
the boys under David Brown and the girls under Eliza Anne Cook, and averaging over 
150 scholars. When this school was transferred to another house, Rev. Chauncey Leonard, 
a colored Baptist clergyman, now pastor of a church in Washington, and Nannie Waugh 
opened a school there, in 1861, that became as large as that which had preceded it in the 
same place. This school was broken up in 1862 by the destruction of the building at the 
hands of the incendiaries, who, even at that time, were inspired with all their accustomed 
vindictiveness towards the colored people. But this was their last heathenish jubilee, and 
from the ashes of many burnings imperishable liberty has sprung forth. 
About the time that Smothers built his school-house, iu 1823, 

LOUISA PARKE COSTIN'S SCHOOL 

was established in her father's house on Capitol Hill, on A street south, under the shadow of 
the Capitol. This Costin family came from Mount Vernon immediately after the death of 
Martha Washington, in 1802. The father, William Costin, who died suddenly in his bed, 
May 31, 1842, was twenty-four years messenger for the Bank of Washington, in this city. 
His death was noticed at length iu the columns of the National Intelligencer in more than 
one communication at the time. The obituary notice, written under the suggestions of the 
bank officers, who had previously passed a resolution expressing their respect for his memory, 
and appropriating fifty dollars towards the funeral expenses, says : " It is due to the deceased 
to say that his colored skin covered a benevolent heart," concluding with this language: 
" The deceased raised respectably a large family of children of his own, and in the exercise 
of the purest benevolence took into his family and supported four orphan children. The 
tears of the orphan will moisten his grave, and his memory will be dear to all those — a 
numerous class — who have experienced his kindness ;" and adding these lines : 

" Honor and shame from no condition rise ; 
Act well your part — there all the honor lies." 

John Quincy Adams also, a few days afterwards, iu a discussion on the wrongs of slavery, 
alluded to the deceased in these words : " The late William Costin, though he was not white, 
was as much respected as any man in the District, and the large concourse of citizens that 
attended his remains to the grave, as well white as black, was an evidence of the manner in 
which he was estimated by the citizens of Washington." His portrait, taken by the direc- 
tion of the bank authorities, still hangs in the directors' room, and it may also be seen in the 
houses of more than one of the old and prominent residents of the city. 

William Costin's mother, Ann Dandridge, was the daughter of a half-breed, (Indian and 
and colored,) her grandfather being a Cherokee chief, and her reputed father was the father 
of Martha Dandridge, afterwards Mrs. Custis, who, in 1759, was married to General Wash- 
ington. These daughters, Ann and Martha, grew up together, on the ancestral plantations. 
William Costin's reputed father was white, and belonged to a prominent family in Virginia, 
but the mother, after his birth, married one of the Mount Vernon slaves by the name of 
Costin, and the sou took the name of William Costin. His mother being of Indian 
descent, made him, under the laws of Virginia, a free born man. In 1800 he married Phil- 
adelphia Judge, (his cousin, ) one of Martha Washington's slaves, at Mount Vernon, where 
both were born in 1780. The wife was given by Martha Washington at her decease to her 
granddaughter, Eliza Parke Custis, who was the wife of Thomas Law, of Washington. Soon 



204 SCHOOLS OF THE COLQEED POPULATION. 

after William Costin and his wife came to this city the wife's freedom was secured on, kind and 
easy terms, and the children were all born free. This is the accoimt which William Costin 
and his wife and his mother, Ann Dandridge, always gave of their ancestry, and they were 
persons of great precision in all matters of family history, as well as of the most marked scrupu- 
lousness in their statements. Their seven children, five daughters and two sons, went to 
school with the white children on Capitol Hill, to Mrs. Maria Haley and other teachers. 
The two younger daughters, Martha and Frances, finished their education at the Colored 
Convent in Baltimore. Louisa Parke and Ann had passed their school days before the con- 
vent was founded. Louisa Parke Costin opened her school at nineteen years of age, continuing 
it with much success till her sudden death in 1831, the year in which her mother also died. 
When Martha returned from the Convent Seminary, a year or so later, she reopened the 
school, continuing it till about 1839. This school, which was maintained some 15 years, 
was always very full. The three surviving sisters own and reside in the house which their 
father built about 1812. One of these sisters married Eichard Henry Fisk, a colored man of 
good education, who died in California, and she now has charge of the Senate ladies' recep- 
tion room. Ann Costin was for several years in the family of Major Lewis, (at Woodlawn, 
Mount Vernon,) the nephew of Washington. Mrs. Lewis (Eleanor Custis) was the grand- 
daughter of Martha Washington. This school was not molested by the mob of 1835, and 
it was always under the care of a well-bred and well-educated teacher. 

THE WESLEYAN SEMINARY. 

While Martha Costin was teaching, James Enoch Ambush, a colored man, had also a large 
school in the basement of the Israel Bethel church on Capitol Hill for a while, commencing 
there in April, 1833, and continuing in various places till 1843, when he built a school-house 
on E street south, near Tenth, island, and established what was known as "The Wesleyan 
Seminary," and which was successfully maintained for 32 years, till the close of August, 
1865. The school-house still stands, a comfortable one-story wooden structure, with the 
sign "Wesleyan Seminary" over the door, as it has been there for 25 years. This was the 
only colored school on the island of any account for many years, and in its humble way it 
accomplished a great amount of good. For some years Mr. Ambush had given much 
study to botanic medicine, and since closing his school he has become a botanic physician. 
He is a man of fine sense, and without school advantages has acquired a respectable educa- 
tion. 

FIRST SEMINARY FOR COLORED GIRLS. 

The first seminary in the District of Columbia for colored girls was established in George- 
town, in 1827, under the special auspices of Father Vanlomen, a benevolent and devout 
Catholic priest, then pastor of the Holy Trinity Church, who not only gave this interesting 
enterprise his hand and his heart, but for several years himself taught a school of colored 
boys three days in a week, near the Georgetown College gate, in a small frame house, which 
was afterwards famous as the residence of the broken-hearted widow of Commodore Decatur. 
This female seminary was under the care of Maria Becraft, who was the most remarkable 
colored young woman of her time in the District, and, perhaps, of any time. Her father, 
William Becraft, born while his mother, a free woman, was the housekeeper of Charles 
Carroll, of Carrollton, always had the kindest attentions of this great man, and there are 
now pictures, more than a century and a half old, and other valuable relics from the Carroll 
family now in the possession of the Becraft family, in Georgetown, which Charles Carroll 
of Carrollton, in his last days, presented to William Becraft as family keepsakes. William 
Becraft lived in Georgetown 64 years, coming there when eighteen years of age. He was for 
many years chief steward of Union hotel, and a remarkable man, respected and honored by 
everybody. When he died, the press of the District noticed, in a most prominent manner, 
his life and character. From one of the extended obituary notices, marked with heavy black 
lines, the following paragraph is copied : 

"He was among the last surviving representatives of the old school of well-bred, confi- 
dential, and intelligent domestics, and was widely known at home and abroad from his con- 
nection in the company of stewards for a long series of years, and probably from its origin, 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 205 

and until a recent date, with the Union hotel, Georgetown, with whose guests, for successive 
generations, his benevolent and venerable aspect, dignified and obliging manners, and moral 
excellence rendered him a general favorite." 

Maria Becraft was marked from her childhood for her uncommon intelligence and refine- 
ment, and for her extraordinary piety. She was born in 1805, and first went to school for a 
year to Henry Potter, in Washington, about 1812, afterwards attending Mrs. Billings's 
school constantly till J 820. She then, at the age of 15, opened a school for girls in Dun- 
barton street, in Georgetown, and gave herself to the work, which she loved, with the greatest 
assiduity and with uniform success. In 1827, when she was twenty-two years of age, her 
remarkable beauty and elevation of character so much impressed Father Vanlomen, the good 
priest, that he took it in hand to give her a higher style of school in which to work for her 
t^ex and race, to the education of which she had now fully consecrated herself. Her school 
was accordingly transferred to a larger building, which still stands on Fayette street, oppo- 
site the convent, and there she opened a boarding and day school for colored girls, which she 
continued with great success till August, 1831, when she surrendered her little seminary 
into the care of one of the girls that she had trained, and in October of that year joined the 
convent at Baltimore as a Sister of Providence, where she was the leading teacher till she 
died, in December, 1833, a great loss to that young institution, which was contemplating 
this noble young woman as its future Mother Superior. Her seminary in Georgetown aver- 
aged from 30 to 35 pupils, aud there are those living who remember the troop of girls, 
dressed uniformly, which was wont to follow in procession their pious and refined teacher to 
devotions on the sabbath at Holy Trinity Church. The school comprised girls from the best 
colored families of Georgetown, Washington, Alexandria, and surrounding country. The 
sisters of the Georgetown convent were the admirers of Miss Becraft, gave her instruction, 
and extended to her the most heai'tfelt aid and approbation in all her noble work, as they 
were in those days wont to do in behalf of the aspiring colored girls, who sought for edu- 
cation, withholding themselves from such work only when a depraved and degenerate public 
sentiment upon the subject of educating the colored people had compelled them to a more 
lio-id line of demarcation between the races. Ellen Simonds and others conducted the school 
a few years, but with the loss of its original teacher it began to fail, and finally became 
extinct. Maria Becraft is remembered, wherever she was known, as a woman of the rarest 
sweetness and exaltation of Christian life, graceful and attractive in person and manners, 
gifted, well educated, and wholly devoted to doing good. Her name as a Sister of Provi- 
dence was Sister Aloyons. From the origin of this convent at Baltimore there has been 
connected with it a female seminary, which last year was incorporated as 

ST. FRANCES ACADEMY FOR COLORED GIRLS. 

In this connection it is not inappropriate to give some account of this school, which has 
done so valuable a work for the education of the colored people of this District and the coun- 
try at large. For many years it was the only colored school within the reach of the colored 
people of this District, in which anything was attempted beyond the rough primary training 
of the promiscuous school, and there are women who still live in this District and elsewhere, 
whose well-bred families owe their refinements largely to the culture which the mothers a 
quarter of a century ago, or more, received in this female seminary. It was there that many 
of the first well-trained colored teachers were educated for the work in this capital. 

St. Frances Academy for colored girls was founded in connection with the Oblate Sisters 
of Providence Convent, in Baltimore, June 5, 1829, under the hearty approbation of the Most 
Rev. James Whitfield, D. D., the Archbishop of Baltimore at that time, aud receiving the 
sanction of the Holy See, October 2, 1831. The convent originated with the French Fathers, 
who came to Baltimore from San Domingo as refugees, in the time of the revolution in that 
island in the latter years of last century. There were many colored Catholic refugees who 
came to Baltimore during that period, and the French Fathers soon opened schools there for 
the benefit of the refugees and other colored people. The colored women who formed the origi- 
nal society which founded the convent and seminary, were from San Domingo, though they had 
some of them, certainly, been educated in France. The schools which preceded the orgauiza- 



206 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

tionof the convent were greatly favored by Most Rev. Ambrose Marechal, D.D,, who was a 
French Father, and Archbishop of Baltimore fiom 1817 to 1828, Archbishop Whitfield being 
his successor. The Sisters of Providence is the name of a religious society of colored women 
who renounce the world to consecrate themselves to the Christian education of colored girls. 
The following extract from the announcement which, under the caption of "Prospectus of a 
School for Colored Girls under the direction of the Sisters of Providence," appeared in the 
columns of the daily National Intelligencer, October 25, 1831, shows the spirit in which the 
school originated, and at the same time shadows forth the 'predominating ideas pertaining to 
the province of the race at that period. The prospectus says : 

"The object of this institute is one of great importance, greater, indeed, than might at first 
appear to those who would only glance at the advantages which it is calculated to directly 
impart to the leading portion of the human race and through it to society at large. In • 
fact, these girls will either become mothers of families or household servants. In the first 
case the solid virtues, the religious and moral principles which they may have acquired in 
this school, will be carefully transferred as a legacy to their children. Instances of the happy 
influence which the example of virtuous parents has on the remotest lineage in this humble 
and naturally dutiful class of society are numerous. As to such as are to be employed as 
servants, they will be intrusted with domestic concerns and the care of young children. 
How important then it will be that these girls shall have imbibed religious principles and 
have been trained up in habits of modesty, honesty, and integrity." 

It is impossible to conceive of language fuller of profound and mournful import than are 
these humble, timid words of this little band of colored women, who thus made known the 
exalted scheme to which they had given themselves. Why this tone of apology for embark- 
ing in as noble a service as ever entered into the plans of a company of women upon the face 
of the earth, the attempt to lift the veil of moral and intellectual darkness which they saw 
everywhere resting like death upon their sex and race ? 

The sisters purchased a three-story brick building on Richmond street, in which they 
started their work, but have since, in the admirable success of their enterprise, built large and 
ample structures, and their school was never in more efficient operation than at the ])resent 
time. From the first it has been through all its years, almost forty in number, a well-appointed 
female seminary, amply supplied with cultivated and capable teachers, who have given good 
training in all the branches of a refined and useful education, including all that is usually 
taught in well regulated female seminaries. The number of Sisters connected with the con- 
vent and seminary has for very niany years ranged from 30 to 35. The academy has always 
been well patronized, comprising girls from every part of the south as well before as since the 
war. The number the past year was some 170, of which about 45 were boarders, a large 
number being from Washington and Georgetown. Attached to the convent, also, is a free 
school for girls and an orphan asylum, and till last year they had for many years maintained 
also a school for boys. In 1862 some of these Sisters established a female seminary in Phila- 
delphia, which has been very successful. There is also a colored female school in Washington 
under the care and instruction of teachers formerly attached to this sisterhood. For nearly 
a quarter of a century this seminary at Baltimore was the school in which the most of the 
colored girls of this District, who were so fortunate as to receive any of the refinements of school 
culture, resorted for their training from the founding of the convent down to 1852, when 

MISS MYRTILLA MINER'S SEMINARY 

for colored girls was initiated in Washington. This philanthropic woman was born in 
Brookfield, Madison county, New York, iu 1815. Her parents were farmers, with small 
resources for the support of a large family. The children were obliged to "work, and the 
small advantages of a common school were all the educational privileges furnished to them. 
Hop-raising was a feature in their farming, and this daughter was accustomed to work in 
the autumn, picking the hops. She was of a delicate physical organization, and suffered 
exceedingly all her life with spinal troubles. Being a girl of extraordinary intellectual 
activity, her place at home chafed her spirit. She was restless, dissatisfied with her lot, 
looked higher than her father, dissented from his ideas of woman's education, and, in her 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 207 

desperation, when about 23 years old, wrote to Mr. Seward, then recently elected governor 
of her State, asking him if he could show her how it Avas possible for a woman in her cir- 
cumstances to become a scholar; receiving from him the reply that he could not, but hoped 
a better day was coming, wherein woman might have a chance to be and to do to the extent 
of her abilities. Hearing at this time of a school at Clinton, Oneida county, New York, 
for young women, on the manual-labor system, she decided to go there ; but her health 
being such as to make manual labor impossible at the time, she wrote to the principal of the 
Clover-street Seminary, Rochester, New York, who generously received her, taking her 
notes for the school bills, to be paid after completing her education. Grateful for this noble 
act, she afterwards sent her younger sister there to be educated, for her own associate as a 
teacher ; and the death of this talented sister, when about to graduate and come as her 
assistant in Washington, fell upon her with crushing force. In the Rochester school, with 
Myrtilla Miner, were two free colored girls, and this association was the first circumstance 
to turn her thoughts to the work to which she gave her life. From Rochester she went to 
Mississippi, as a teacljer of planters' daughters, and it was what she was compelled to see, 
in this situation, of the dreadful practices and conditions of slavery, that filled her soul with 
a pity for the colored race and a detestation of the system that bound them, which held pos- 
session of her to the last day ot her life. She remained there several years, till her indignant 
utterances, which she would not withhold, compelled her employer, fearful of the results, 
to part reluctantly with a teacher whom he valued. . She came home broken down with 
sickness, caused by the harassing sights and sounds that she had witnessed in plantation 
life, and while in this condition she made a solemn vow that whatever of life remained to 
her should be given to the work of ameliorating the condition of the colored people. Here 
her great work begins. She made up her mind to do something for the education of free 
colored girls, with the idea that through the influence of educated colored women .she could 
lay the solid foundations for the disenthralment of their race. She selected this District for 
the field of her efforts, because it was the common property of the nation, and because the 
laws of the District gave her the right to educate free colored children, and she attempted 
to teach none others. She opened her plan to many of the leading friends of freedom, in 
an extensive correspondence, but found especially, at this time, a wise a.nd warm encourager 
and counsellor in her scheme in William R. Smith, a Friend, of Farmington, near Rochester, 
New York, in whose family she was now a private teacher. Her correspondents generally 
gave her but little encouragement, but wished her God speed in what she should dare in the 
good cause. One Friend wrote her from Philadelphia, entering warmly into her scheme, 
but advised her to wait till funds could be collected. " I do not want the wealth of Croesus," 
was her reply; and the Friend sent her $100, and with this capital, in the autumn of 1851, 
she came to Washington to establish a Normal school for the education of colored girls, 
having associated with her Miss Anna Inman, an accomplished and benevolent lady of the 
Society of Friends, from Soulhfield, Rhode Island, who, however, after teaching a class of 
colored girls in French, in the house of Jonathan Jones, on the Island, through the winter, 
returned to New England. In the autumn of 1851 Miss Miner commenced her remarkable 
work here in a small room, about fourteen feet square, in the frame house then, as noAv, 
owned and occupied by Edward C. Younger, a colored man, as his dwelling, on Eleventh 
street, near New York avenue. With birt two or three girls to open the school, she soon 
had a room-full, and to secure larger accommodation moved, after a couple of months, to a 
house on F street north, between Eighteenth and Nineteenth streets west, near the houses 
then occupied by William T. Carroll and Charles H. Winder. This house furnished her a 
very comfortable room for her school, which was composed of well-behaved girls, from the 
best colored families of the District. The persecution of those neighbors, however, com- 
pelled her to leave, as the colored family, who occupied the house, was threatened with con- 
flagration, and after one month her little school found a more unmolested home in the dwel- 
ling-house of a German family on K street, near the Western market. After tarrying a few 
months here, she moved to L street, into a room in the building known as "The Two Sis- 
ters," then occupied by a white family. She now saw that the success of her school 
demanded a school-house, and in reconnoitering the ground she found a spot suiting her 



208 SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 

ideas as to size and locality, with a house on it, and in the market at a low price. She 
raised the money, secured the spot, and thither, in the summer of 1851, she moved her school, 
where for seven years she was destined to prosecute, with the most unparalleled energy and 
conspicuous success, her remarkable enterprise. This lot, comprising an entire square ot 
three acres, between Nineteenth and Twentieth streets west, N and streets north, and New 
Hampshire avenue, selected under the guidance of Miss Miner, the contract being perfected 
through the agency of Sayles J. Bowen, Thomas Williamson, and Allen M. Gangewer, was 
originally com^eyed in trust to Thomas Williamson and Samuel Rhoades, of the Society of 
Friends, in Philadelphia. It was purchased of the executors of the will of John Taylor, 
for $4,000, the deed being executed June 8, 1853, the estimated value of the property now 
being not less than $30,000. The money was mainly contributed by Friends, in Philadel- 
phia, New York, and New England. Catharine Morris, a Friend, of Philadelphia, was a 
liberal benefactor of the enterprise, advancing Miss Miner $2,000, with which to complete 
the purchase of the lot, the most, if not all which sum, it is believed, she ultimately gave to 
the institution ; and Harriet Beecher Stowe was another generous friend, who gave her 
money and her heart to the support of the brave woman who had been willing to go forth 
alone at the call of duty. Mr. Ehoades, some years editor of the Friends' Quarterly Review, 
died several years ago, near Philadelphia. Mr. Williamson, a conveyancer in that city, and 
father of Passmore Williamson, is still living, but some years ago declined the place of trustee. 
The board, at the date of the act of incorporation, consisted of Benjamin Tatham, a Friend, of 
New York city, Mrs. Nancy M. Johnson, of Washington, and Myrtilla Miner, and the transfer 
of the property to the incorporated body was made a few weeks prior to Miss Miner's death. 
This real estate, together with a fund of $4,000 in government stocks, is now in the hands of a 
corporate body, under act of Congress approved March 3, 1863, and is styled " The Institution 
for the Education of Colored Youth in the District of Columbia. " The officers of the corporation 
at this tinie are John C. Underwood, president; Francis G. Shaw, treasurer; George E. 
Baker, secretary ; who, with Nancy M. Johnson, S. J. Bowen, Henry Addison, and Rachel 
Howland, constitute the executive committee. The; purpose of the purchase of this property 
is declared, in a paper signed by Mr. Williamson and Mr. Rhoades, dated Philadelphia, 
June 8, 1858, to have been " especially for the, education of colored girls.'" 

This paper also declares that "the grounds were purchased at the special instance of 
Myrtilla Miner," and that "the contributions by which the original price of said lot, and 
also the cost of the subsequent improvements thereof, were procured chiefly by her instru- 
mentality and labors." The idea of Miss Miner in plantmg a school here was to train up a class 
of colored girls, in the midst of slave institutions, who should show forth, in their culture 
and capabilities, to the country and to mankind, that the race was fit for something higher 
than the degradation which rested upon them. The amazing energy with which this frail 
woman prosecuted her work is well known to those who took knowledge of her career. 
She visited the colored people of her district from house to house, and breathed a new life 
into them pertaining to the education of their daughters. Her correspondence with the 
philanthropic men and women of the north was immense. She importuned congressmen, 
and the men who shaped public sentiment through the columns of the press, to come into 
her school and see her girls, and was ceaseless in her activities day and night, in every 
direction, to build up in dignity and refinement her seminary, and to force its merits upon 
public attention. 

The biriklings upon the lot when purchased — a small frame dwelling of two stories, 
not more than twenty-five by thirty-five feet in dimensions, with three small cabins on 
the other side of the premises — served for the seminary and the home of the teacher and her 
assistant. The most aspiring and decently bred colored girls of the District were gathered 
into the school ; and the very best colored teachers in the schools of the District, at the pre- 
sent time, are among those who owe their edircation to this self-sacrificing teacher and her 
school. Mrs. Means, aunt of the wife of General Pierce, then President of the United States, 
attracted by the enthusiasm of this wonderful person, often visited her in the midst of her 
work with the kindest feelings, and the fact that the carriage from the Presidential mansion 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION". 209 

was in this way frequently seen at the door of this humble institutii»n did much to protect 
it from the hatred with which it was surrounded. 

Mr. Seward and his family were very often seen at the school, both Mrs. Seward and 
her daughter, Fanny, being constant visitors; the latter, a young girl at the time, often 
spending a whole day there. Many other congressmen of large and generous instincts, 
some of them of pro-slavery party relations, went out there — all confessing then' admiration 
of the resolute woman and her school, and this kept evil men in abeyance. 

The opposition to the school throughout the District was strong and very general among 
the old as well as the young. Even Walter Lenox, who as mayor, when the school was first 
started, gave the teacher assurances of favor in her work, came out in 1857, following the 
prevailing current of depraved public sentiment and feeding its tide, in an elaborate article 
in the National Intelligencer, under his own signature, assailed the school in open and 
direct language, urging against it that it was raising the standard of education among the 
colored population, and distinctly declaring that the white population of the District would 
not be just to themselves to permit the continuance of an institution which had the temerity 
to extend to the colorecl people "a degree of instruction so far beyond their social and 
political condition, which condition must continue," the article goes on to say, "in this 
and every other slave-holding community." This article, though fraught with extreme ideas 
and to the last degree prescriptive and inflammatory, neither stirred any open violence nor 
deterred the courageous woman in the slightest degree from her work. When madmen 
went to her school-room threatening her with personal violence, she laughed them to shami; ; 
and when they threatened to burn her house, she told them that they could not stop her in 
that way, as another house, better than the old, would immediately rise from its ashes. 

The house was set on fire in the spring of 1860, when Miss Miner was asleep in the second 
story alone, in the night time, but the smell of the smoke awakened her in time to save 
the building and herself from the flames, which were extinguished. The school girls, also, 
were constantly at the mercy of coarse and insulting boys along the streets, who would often 
gather in gangs before the gate to pursue and terrify these inoffensive children, who were 
striving to gather wisdom and understanding in their "little sanctuary. The police took no 
cognizance of such brutality in those days. But their dauntless teacher, uncompromising, 
conscientious, and self-possessed in her aggressive work, in no manner turned from her 
course by this persecution, was, on the other hand, stimulated thereby to higher vigilance 
and energy in her great undertaking. The course of instruction in the school was indeed of 
a higher order than had hitherto been opened to the colored people of the District, as was 
denounced against the school bj' Walter Lenox in his newspaper attack. Lectures upon 
scientific and literary subjects were given by professional and literary gentlemen, who were 
friends to the cause. The spacious grounds afforded to each pupil an ample space for a 
flower bed, which she was enjoined to cultivate with her own hands and to thoroughly study. 
And an excellent library, a collection of paintings and engravings, the leading magazines 
and choice newspapers, were gathered and secured for the humble home of learning, which 
was all the while filled with students, the most of whom were bright, ambitious girls, com- 
posing a female colored school, which, in dignity and usefulness, has had no equal in the 
District since that day. It was her custom to gather in her vacations and journeys not only 
money, but everything else that would be of use in her school, and in this way she not 
only collected books, but maps, globes, philosophical and chemical and mathematical 
apparatus, and a great variet^y of things to aid in her instruction in illustrating all branches 
of knowledge. This collection was stored in the school building during the war, and was 
damaged by neglect, plundered by soldiers, and what remains is not of much value. The 
elegant sofa-bedstead which she used during all her years in the seminary, and which would 
be an interesting possession for the seminary, was sold, with her other personal effects, to 
Dr. Carrie Brown, (Mrs. Winslow,) of Washington, one of her bosom friends, who stood 
at her pillow when she died. 

Her plan embraced the erection of spacious structures, upon the site which had been most 
admirably chosen, complete in all their appointments for the full accommodation of a school 
of one hundred and fifty boarding scholars. The seminary was to be a Female College, 
14 



210 SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 

endowed with all the powers and professorships belonging to a first-class college for the other 
sex. She did not contemplate its springing up into such proportions, like a mushroom, in a 
single night, but it was her ambition that the institution should one day attain that rank. 
In the midst of her anxious, incessant labors her physical system began so sensibly to 
fail, that in the summer of 1858, under the counsel of the friends of herself and her cause, 
she went north to seek health, and, as usual in all her journeys, to beg for her seminary, 
leaving her gir's in the care of Emily Howland, a noble youug woman, who came down here 
for the Jove of the cause, without money and without price, from the vicinity of Auburn, 
New York. In the autumn Miss Miner returned to her school; Miss Howland still con- 
tinuing with her through the winter, a companion in her trials, aiding her in her duties, 
and consenting to take charge of the school again in the summer of 1859, while Miss 
Miner was on another journey for funds and health. In the autumn of that year, after 
returning from her journey, which was not very successful, she determined to suspend the 
school, and to go forth to the country with a most persistent appeal for money to erect a 
seminary building, as she had found it impossible to get a house of any character started 
with the means already in her hands. She could get no woman, whom she deemed fit to 
take her work, willing to continue her school, and in the spring of 1860, leasing the premises, 
she went north on her errand. In the ensuing year she traversed many States, but the 
shadow of the rebellion was on her path, and she gathered neither much money nor much 
strength. The war came, and in October, J 862, hoping, not vainly, for health from a sea 
voyage and from the Pacific climate, she sailed from New York to California. When about 
to return, in 1866, with vivacity of body and spirit, she was thrown from a carriage in a fear- 
ful manner ; blighting all the high hopes of resuming her school under the glowing auspices 
she had anticipated, as she saw the rebellion and the hated system tumbling to pieces. She 
arrived in New York in August of that year in a most shattered condition of body, though 
with the fullest confidence that she should speedily be well and at her work in Wash- 
ington. In the first days of December she came here in a dying condition, still resolute 
to resume her work ; was carried to the residence of her tried friend, Mrs. Nancy M. John- 
son, and ou the tenth of that month, surrounded by the friends who had stood with her in 
other days, she put off her wasted and wearied body in the city which had witnessed her 
trials and her triumphs, and her remains slumber in Oak Hill cemetery. 

Her seminary engaged her thoughts to the last day of her life. She said in her last hours 
that she had come back here to resume her work, and could not leave it thus unfinished. 
No marble marks the resting place of this truly wonderful woman, but her memory is cer- 
tainly held precious in the hearts of her throngs of pupils, in the hearts of the colored 
people of this District, and of all who took knowledge of her life and who reverence the 
cause in which she offered herself a willing sacrifice. Her assistants in the school were 
Helen Moore of Washington, Margaret Clapp and Amanda Weaver of New York State, 
Anna H. Searing of New York State, and two of her pupils, Matilda Jones of Washington, 
and Emma Brown of Georgetown, both of whom, subsequently, through the influence of 
Miss Miner and Miss Howland, finished their education at Oberlin, and have since been 
most superior teachers in Washington. Most of the assistant teachers from the north were 
from families connected with the Society of Friends, and it has been seen that the bulk of the 
money came from that society. This sketch would be incomplete without a special tribute 
to Lydia B. Mann, sister of Horace Maun, who came here in the fall of 1856, from the Col- 
ored Female Orphan Asylum of Providence, E. I., of which she was then, as she continues 
to be, the admirable superintendent, and, as a pure labor of love, took care of the school 
in the most superior manner through the autumn and winter, while Miss Miner was north 
recruiting her strength and pleading for contributions. It was no holiday duty to go into that 
school, live in that building, and work alone with head and hands, as was done by all these 
refined and educated women, who stood from time to time in that humble persecuted semi- 
nary. Miss Mann is gratefully remembered by her pupils here and their friends. 

Mention should also be made of Emily Howland, who stood by Miss Miner in her 
darkest days, and whose whole heart was with her in all her work. She is a woman of the 
largest and most self-sacrificing purposes, who has been and still is giving her best years, all 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 2il 

her powers, talents, learning, refinement, wealth, and personal toil, to the education and 
elevation of the colored race. While here she adopted, and subsequently educated in the 
best manner, one of Miss Miner's pupils, and assisted several others of her smart girls in 
completing their education at Oberlin. During the war she was teaching contrabands in 
the hospital and the camp, and is now engaged in planting a colony of colored people in 
Virginia with homes and a school-house of their own. 

A seminary, such as was embraced in the plan of Miss Miner, is exceedingly demanded by 
the interests of colored female education in this District and the country at large, and any 
scheme by which the foundations that she laid so well may become the seat of such a school, 
would be heartily approved by all enlightened friends of the colored race. The trus- 
tees of the Miner property, not insensible of their responsibilities, have been carefully watch- 
ing for the moment when action on their part would seem to be justified. They have repeatedly 
met in regard to the matter, but, in their counsels, hitherto, have deemed it wise to wait further 
developments. They are now about to hold another meeting, it is understood, and it is to bo 
devoutly hoped that some plan will be adopted by which a school of a high order may be, 
in due time, opened for colored girls in this District, who exceedingly need the refining, 
womanly ti-aining of such a school.* 

The original corporators of Miss Miner's Institution were Henry Addison, John C. Under- 
wood, George C. Abbott, William H. Chauning, Nancy M. Johnson, and Myrtilla Miner. 
The objects as expressed in the charter "are to educate and improve the moral and intel- 
lectual condition of such of the colored youth of the nation as may be placed under its care 
and influence." 

ARABELLA JONES'S SCHOOL. * 

About the time that Miss Miner commenced in the northern section of Washington, Miss 
Arabella Jones, a colored girl, who had just returned from the St. Frances' Academy at Balti- 
more, opened a female school on the island, called St. Agnes' Academy. She had been 
educated with the greatest care at home by her father, and had, besides, the benefit 
of her mother's instruction, a woman of extraordinary native sense, who was for a brief 
time a pupil of Mrs. Billing in her early girlhood, and from her youth through many years a 
favorite servant in the family of John Quincy Adams, commencing when ho was Secretary 
of State. Miss Jones had a good English education, wrote and spoke with ease and pro- 
priety the French tongue, was proficient in music and in all the useful and ornamental needle- 
work branches. Her father, though a poor man, had on her return from school purchased 
her a piano and a well-selected library, including a full set of the British poets in handsome 
binding, bought in London expressly to his order, among which was a specially handsome 
edition of Shakspeare, the favorite author of the daughter, who not only relished such 
works, but showed taste and talent in her own poetic eifusions, which occasionally found their 
way into the public press. She taught with great delight and success, for several years, till 
better compensation was offered to her for her skill with the needle. She was a girl of decided 
talents, and had her high aims and education found a more fortunate field for display, she 
would have done more for her sex than fell to her lot to do. In 1857 she was married, and 
her subsequent life was clouded. She died in 1868 in the 34th year of her age, and was borne 
to the tomb with distinguished marks of respect without distinction of class or color. At the 
time of her death she had been appointed to a government clerkship, 

MARY WORMLEY'S SCHOOL. 

In 1830 William Wormley built a school-house for his sister Mary near the corner of Ver- 
mont avenue and I street, where the restaurant establishment owned and occupied by his 
brother, James Wormley, now stands. He had educated his sister expressly for a teacher, 
at great expense, at the Colored Female Seminary in Philadelphia, then in charge of Miss 
Sarah Douglass, an accomplished colored lady, who is still a teacher of note in the Philadel- 

* Since the above was written, iDformation has been received that Major General O. O. Howard has ten- 
dered to the trustees a donation of $30,000 from the building fund of the Preedraen's Bureau, and that they 
will immediately proceed to erect a first-class building for a female college. 



212 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

phia Colored High School. William Wormley was at that time a man of wealth. His livery 
stable, which occupied the place where the Owen House now stands, was one of the largest 
and best in the city. Miss Wormley had but just brought her school into full and successful 
operation when her health broke down, and she lived scarcely two years. Mr. Calvert, an 
English gentleman, still living in the first ward, taught a class of colored scholars in this 
house for a time, and James Wormley was one of the class. In the autumn of 1834 William 
Thomas Lee opened a school in the same place, and it was in a flourishing condition in the 
fall of J835, when the Snow mob dispersed it, sacking the school-hjuse, and partially 
destroying it by fire. William Wormley was at that time one of the most enterprising and 
influential colored men of Washington, and was the original agent of the Liberator news- 
paper for this District. The mob being determined to lay hold of him and Lee, they fled from 
the city to save their lives, returning when General Jackson, coming back from Virginia a 
few days after the outbreak, gave notice that the fugitives should be protected. The perse- 
cution of William Wormley was so violent and persistent that his health and spirits sank 
under its effects, his business was broken up, and he died a poor man, scarcely owning a 
shelter for his dying couch. The school-house was repaired after the riot and occupied for a 
time by Margaret Thompson's school, and still stands in the rear of James Wormley's res- 
taurant. During this period, and for some years previous, 

MRS. MARY wall's SCHOOL 

was doing a great service to the colored people. Mrs. Wall, whose husband, Nicholas Wall, 
died some years before she came to this District, was a member of the Society of Friends, and 
a most benelVolent, gentle, and refined woman. They were Vii'ginians, and were reared in 
affluence, but reverses at last limited her means, which she had used in her prosperous 
days with open hand in works of benevolence and charity. In her widowhood she 
left her native State, and gave much of her subsequent life to the education of the colored 
children of this District. As early as 1824 she had a school in a house which then stood on 
Fifteenth street, between the residences now owned by Senator Morgan and Representative 
Hooper. This school-room was always crowded, and applications, by reason of limited room, 
were often refused. The school-room accommodated about 40 pupils. She continued her 
school here quite a number of years, and some of the most intelligent and enterprising colored 
men of Washington owe the best part of their education to this good woman, James Worm- 
ley and John Thomas Johnson being of the number. Her high breeding and culture exerted 
the most marked influence upon the children of poverty and ignorance whom she thus took 
by the hand. Many colored people of this District remember her school and her loving kind- 
ness, and bless her memory. She belonged to the class of southern people, not small in her 
time, who believed in the education and improvement of the colored race. William Wall, 
the distinguished merchant on Pennsylvania avenue, of the firm of Wall, Eobinson & Co., 
is a son of this truly Christian lady. 

BENJAMIN McCoy's, AND OTHER SCHOOLS. 

About this time another school was opened in Georgetown, by Nancy Grant, a sister 
of Mrs. William Becraft, a well-educated colored woman. She was teaching as early as 
1828, and had a useful school for several years. Mr. Nuthall, an Englishman, was teach- 
ing in Georgetown during this period and as late as 1833 he went to Alexandria and 
opened a school in that city. William Syphax among others, now resident in Washington, 
attended his school in Alexandria about 1833. He was a man of ability, well edircated, and 
one of the best teachers of his time in the District. His school in Georgetown was at first 
in Duubarton street, and afterward on Montgomery. 

The old maxim that " the blood of the martyrs is the seed of the Church," seems to find 
its illustration in this history. There is no period in the annals of the country in which the 
fires of persecution against the education of the colored race burned more fiercely in this 
District and the country at large than in the five years from 1831 to 1836, and it was during 
this period that a larger number of respectable colored schools were established than in any 
other five years prior to the war. In 1833, the same year in which Ambush's school was 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 213 

started, Benjaiuiu M. McCoy, a colored man, opened a school in the northern part of the 
city, on L street, between Third and Fourth streets west. In 1834 he moved to Massachu- 
setts avenue, continuing his school there till he went to Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, 
in the autumn of 1835, to finish the engagement of Rev. John F. Cook, who came back to 
Washington at that time and re-opened his school. The school at Lancaster was a free 
public colored school, and Mr. McCoy was solicited to continue another year, but declining. 
came back, and in 1837 opened a school in the basement of Asbury church, which, in that 
room and in the house adjoining, he maintained with great success for the ensuing 12 years. 
Mr. McCoy was a pupil of Mrs. Billing and Henry Smothers, is a man of good sense, and 
his school gave a respectable rudimental education to multitudes, who remember him as a 
teacher with great respect. He is now a messenger in the Treasury Department. In 1833 
a school was established by Fanny Hampton, in the western part of the city, on the north- 
west corner of K and Nineteenth streets. It was a large school, and was continued till 
about 1842, the teacher dying soon afterwards. She was half-sister of Lindsay Muse. 
Margaret Thompson succeeded her, and had a flourishing school of some 40 scholars on 
Twenty-sixth street, near the avenue, for several years, about 1846. She subsequently 
became the wife of Charles H. Middleton, and assisted in his school for a brief time. About 
1830 Robert Brown commenced a small school, and continued it at intervals for many years 
till his death. As early as 1833, there was a school opened in a private house in the rear of 
Franklin row, near the location of the new Franklin school building. It was taught by a 
white man, Mr Talbot, and continued a year or two. Mrs. George Ford, a white teacher, a 
native of Virginia, kept a colored school in a brick house still standing on New Jersey 
Avenue between K and L streets. She taught there many years, and as early perhaps as 
half a century ago. 

THOMAS TABBS"S SCHOOL 

was an institution peculiar to itself. Mr, Tabbs belonged to a prominent Maryland family, 
and was bred in affluence and received a thorough and polished education. He came to 
Washington before the war of 1812, and resided here till his deatli, which occurred 10 
years ago. He at once commenced teaching the colored people, and persistently con- 
tinued to do so as long as he lived. He was called insane by some, but there was certainly 
a method in his madness. When he could find a school-room he would gather a school, but 
when less fortunate he would go from house to house, stopping where he could find a group 
of poor colored children to instruct. At one period he had the shadow of a large tree near the 
Masonic Lodge at the Navy Yard for his school, and it was there that Alexander Hays, after- 
wards a teacher in Washington, but then a slave, learned his alphabet. Mr. Tabbs must 
have spent nearly fifty years in this mode of life, and there are many colored people, well 
advanced in years, who owe their tolerable education to the instruction of this kind-hearted, 
singular man. At one time he had a school on A street south, between Seventh and Eighth 
streets east, and at another had a large school, with an assistant, in the Israel Bethel church. 
He was an upright man, and the colored people of the older class in the eastern section of 
Washington remember him with respect and gratitude. 

DR. JOHN H. FLEET'S SCHOOL 

was opened in 1836, on New York avenue, in a school-house which stood nearly on the spot 
now occupied by the Richards buildings at the corner of New York avenue and Fourteenth 
street. It had been previously used for a white school, taught by Mrs. McDaniel, and v.as sub- 
sequently again so used. Dr. Fleet was a native of Georgetown, and was greatly assisted in 
his education by the late Judge James Morsell, of that city, who was not only kind to this 
family, but was always rega»ded by the colored people of the District as their firm friend 
and protector John H. Fleet, with his brothers and sisters, went to the Georgetown Lan- 
casterian school, with the white children, for a long period, in their earlier school days, and sub- 
sequently to other white schools. He was also for a time a pupil of Smothers and Prout. He 
was possessed of a brilliant and strong intellect, inherited from his father, who was a white man 
of distinguished abilities. He studied medicine in Washington, in the office of Dr. Thomas 



214 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

Henderson, who had resigned as assistant surgeon in the army, and was a practising physician 
of eminence in Washington. He also attended medical lectures at the old Medical College, cor- 
ner of Tenth and E streets. It was his intention at that time to go to Liberia, and his professional 
education was conducted under the auspices of the Colonization Society. This, with the 
influence of Judge Morsell, gave him privileges never extended here to any other colored 
man. He decided, however, not to go to Liberia, and in 1836 opened his school. He was 
a refined and polished gentleman, and conceded to be the foremost colored man in culture, 
in intellectual force, and general influ.ence in this District at that time. His school-house, 
on New York avenue, was burned by an incendiary about 1843, and his flourishing and 
excellent school was thus ended. For a time he subsequently taught music, in which he 
was very proficient; but about 1846 he opened a school on School-house hill, in the Hob- 
brook Military School building, near the corner of N street north and Twenty-third street 
west, and had a large school there till about 1851, when he relinquished the business, giving 
his attention henceforth exclusively to music, and with eminent success. He died in 1861. 
His school was very large and of a superior character. One of his daughters is now a 
teacher in one of the public schools. While Dr. Fleet was teaching on School-house hill, 

JOHN THOMAS JOHNSON'S SCHOOL, 

on Twenty-third street west, near L north, in the same neighborhood, was also in very 
flourishing operation. Mr. Johnson is a well-known employe at the Capitol at the present time. 
He was born and educated in this District, and is a man of intelligence and force of character. 
He was a pupil of Mrs. Wall, of whose character, as an accomplished teacher and woman, 
he speaks with the deepest respect. He was also a scholar in Smothers's school and in 
Prout's. Ii?1838, when the persecution of the colored people of the District was still raging, 
he left the city, and on his route west, in search of a more tolerant latitude, stopped at 
Pittsburg, Pa., where, at the suggestion of Eev. John Peck and J. B. Vashon, esq., he 
offered himself as a candidate for teacher of the First District school of that city. He had 
two white competitors. The examination before the board of school managers resulted in 
the declaration that he was the best qualified for the place, and he accordingly took the 
position, and taught with eminent success for several years, to the astonishment and admira- 
tion of all interested in the school. He finally resigned his place for a more lucrative posi- 
tion as a steward on a Mississippi steamer. In 1843 he came back to his native city, and 
started a school, as stated in the commencement of this notice, with a zeal and boldness 
equalled by few of the most courageous of the colored men at that time, when their school- 
houses were at the mercy of the mob. Shielded by no law, he built a school-house and 
gathered a school, which, commencing with half a dozen, soon became very large — 
oncenumbering as high as 200 and more, and averaging from 150 to 170 well-dressed and well- 
behaved children, many of whom, now men and women grown, are among the best colored 
people of this District. He continued his school down to 1849, when he relinquished a work 
in which he had uniformly achieved decided success. As he was about to retire from the 
field, 

CHARLES H. MIDDLETON'S SCHOOL 

was started, in the same section of the city, in a school-house which then stood near the 
corner of Twenty-second street west and I north, and which had been used by Henry Hardy 
for a white school. Though both Fleet's and Johnson's schools were in full tide of success in 
that vicinity he gathered a good school, and when his two competitors retired — as they both 
did about this time— his school absorbed a large portion of their patronage and was thronged. 
In 1852 he went temporarily with his school to Sixteenth street, and thence to the basement of 
Union Bethel church on M street, near Sixteenth, in which, during the administration of 
President Pierce, he had an exceedingly large and excellent school, at the same period when 
Miss Miner was prosecuting her signal work. Mr. Middleton, now a messenger in the 
Navy Department, a native of Savannah, Ga. . is free-born, and received his very good 
education in schools in that city, sometimes with white and sometimes with colored children. 
When he commenced his school he had just returned from the Mexican war, and his enter- 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 215 

prise is especially worthy of being made prominent, not only because of his high style as a 
teacher, but also because it is associated with 

THE FIRST MOVEMENT FOK A FREE COLORED PUBLIC SCHOOL. 

This movement originated with a city officer, Jesse E. Dow, who, in 1848 and 1849, was 
a leading and influential member of the common council. He encouraged Mr. Middleton 
to start his school, by assuring him that he would give all his influence to the establishment 
of free schools for colored as well as for white children, and that he had great confidence 
that the councils would be brought to give at least some encouragement to the enterprise. 
In 1850 Mr. Dow was named among the candidates for the mayoralty, and when his views 
in this regard were assailed by his opponents, he did not hesitate to boldly avow his opinions, 
and to declare that he wished no support for any office which demanded of him any modifi- 
cation of these convictions. The workmen fail, but the work succeeds. The name of Jesse 
E. Dow merits conspicuous record in this history for this bold and magnanimous action. 
Mvr. Middleton received great assistance in building up his school from Rev. Mr. Wayman, 
then pastor of the Bethel church, and afterwards promoted to the bishopric. The school 
was surrendered finally to Rev. J. V. B. Morgan, the succeeding pastor of the church, who 
conducted the school as a part of the means of his livelihood. 

ALEXANDER CORNISH AND OTHERS. 

In the eastern section of the city, about 1840, Alexander Cornish had a school several 
years in his own house on D street south, between Third and Fourth east, with an average of 
40 scholars. He was succeeded, about 1846, by Richard Stokes, who was a nati% of Chester 
County, Pa. His school, averaging 150 scholars, was kept in the Israel Bethel church, 
near the Capitol, and was continued for about six years. In 1840 there was a school opened 
by Margaret Hill in Georgetown, near Miss English's seminary. She taught a very o-ood 
_ school for several years. 

ALEXANDER HAYS'S SCHOOL, 

was started on Ninth street west, near New York avenue. Mr. Hays was born in 1802, and 
belonged originally to the Fowler family in Maryland. When a boy he served for a time at 
the Washington Navy Yard, in the family of Captain Dove, of the navy, the father of Dr. 
Dove, of Washington, and it was in that family that he learned to read. Michael Tabbs 
had a school at that time at the Navy Yard, which he taught in the afternoons under a larae 
tree, which stood near the old Masonic Hall. The colored children used to meet him there 
in large numbers daily, and while attending this singular school. Hays was at the same time 
taught by Mrs. Dove, with her children. This was half a century ago. In 1826 Hays went 
to live in the family of R. S. Coxe, the eminent Washington lawyer, who soon purchased 
him, paying Fowler $300 for him. Mr. Coxe did this at the express solicitation of Hays, 
and 17 years after he gave him his freedom — in 1843. While living with Mr. Coxe he had 
married Matilda Davis, the daughter of John Davis, who served as steward many years in 
the family of Mr. Seaton, of the National Intelligencer. The wedding was at Mr. Seaton's 
residence, and Mr. Coxe and family were present on the occasioij. In 1836 he bought the 
house and lot which they still own and occupy, and in 1842, the year before he was free, 
Hays made his last payment and the place was conveyed to his wife. She was a free woman, 
and had opened a school in the house in 1841. Hays had many privileges while with Mr. 
Coxe, and with the proceeds of his wife's school they paid the purchase money (lISuO) and 
interest in seven years. Mr. Hays was taught reading, writing, and arithmetic by Mr. Coxe, 
his wife, and daughters, while a slave in their family. When the colored people were driven 
from the churches, in the years of the mobs, Mrs. Coxe organized a large colored Sabbath 
school ill h^r own parlor, and maintained it for a long period, with the co-operation of Mr. 
Coxe and the daughters. Mr. Hays was a member of this school. He also attended day 
schools, when his work would allow of it. This was the education with which, in 
1845, he ventured to take his wife's school in charge. He is a man of good sense, and his 



216 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

school flourished. He put up an addition to his house, in order to make room for his 
increasing school, which was continued down to 1857 — 16 years from its opening. He bad 
also a night school and taught music, and these two features of his school he has revived 
since the war. This school contained from 35 to 45 pupils. Eev. Dr. Samson, Mr. Seaton, 
and Mr. Coxe often visited his school and encouraged him in his excellent work. Thomas 
Tabhs used also to come into his school and give him aid and advice, as also did John 
McLeod. 

JOSEPH T. MASON'S SCHOOL, IN GEORGETOWN, 

was established in 1840, in the rear of Mount Zion church, in a house near where the large free 
.school building for colored children now stands. Mr. Mason was a scholar in Prout's school, 
and in that of the elder Cook. He was an admirable disciplinarian, and his school, which 
rarely fell below a hundred members, was conducted with more than common system and 
thoroughness fer more than a quarter of a century, until he became insane, a year or two 
before the war. 

THOMAS H. MASON'S SCHOOL 

was commenced in 1859, in his father's house, on L near Twenty -first street west, and has 
continued without interruption to the present time. This school, prior to the war, averaged 
about 100, but during and since the war it has been about 50. He is well educated and a 
very excellent teacher, was a scholar under both Johnson end Fleet, and finished his educa- 
tion at Oberlin. His father was a cousin to Joseph T. Mason. 

j^ MR. AND MRS. FLETCHER'S SCHOOL 

was opened about 1854, in the building in which Middleton first taught, on I near Twenty- 
second street. Mr. Fletcher was an Englishman, a well-educated gentleman, and a thor- 
ough teacher. He was induced to open the school by the importunities of some aspiring 
colored young men in that part of the city, who desired first-rate instruction. He soon 
became the object of persecution, though he was a man of courtesy and excellent character. 
His school-house was finally set on fire and consumed, with all its books and furniture ; but 
the school took, as its asylum, the basement of the John Wesley Church. The churches 
which they had been forceul to build in the days of the mobs, when they were driven from 
the white churches which they had aided in building, proved of immense service to them 
in their subsequent struggles. Mrs. Fletcher kept a variety store, which was destroyed 
about the time the school was opened. She then became an assistant in her husband's 
school, which numbered over 150 pupils. In 1858 they were driven from the city, as perse- 
cution at that time was particularly violent against all white persons who instructed the 
colored people. This school was conducted with great thoroughness, and had two depart- 
ments, Mrs. Fletcher, who was an accomplished person, having charge of the girls in a 
separate room. 

ELIZA ANNE COOK, 

a niece of Rev. John F. Cook, and one of his pupils, who has been teaching for about 1 5 years, 
should be mentioned. She attended Miss Miner's school for a time, and was afterwards 
at the Baltimore convent two years. She opened a school in her mother's house, and sub- 
sequently built a small school-house on the same lot, Sixteenth street, between K and L 
streets. With the exception of three years, during which she was teaching in the free Catholic 
school opened in the Smothers' school- house in J 859, and one year in the female school in 
charge of the colored sisters, she has maintained her own private school from 1854 down to the 
present time, her number at some periods being above 60, but usually not more than 25 or 30. 

MISS WASHINGTON'S SCHOOL. 

In 1857 Annio E. Washington opened a select primary school in her mother's house, on K 
street, between Seventeenth and Eighteenth streets west. The mother, a widow woman, is 
a laundress, and by her own labor has given her children good advantages, though she had 
no such advantages herself. This daughter was educated chiefly under Rev. John F. Cook 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLOKED POPULATION. 217 

and Miss Miner, with whom she was a favorite scholar. Her older sister was educated 
at the Baltimore convent. Annie E. Washington is a woman of native refinement, and has 
an excellent aptitude for teaching, as well as a good education. Her schools have always 
been conducted with system and superior judgment, giving universal satisfaction, the num 
her of her pupils being limited only by the size of her room. In 1858 she moved to the base- 
ment of the Baptist church, corner of Nineteenth and I streets, to secure larger accommoda- 
tions, and there she had a school of more than 60 scholars for several years. 

A FREE CATHOLIC COLORED SCHOOL. 

A free school was established in 1858 and maintained by the St. Vincent de Paul Society, 
an association of colored Catholics, in connection with the St. Matthew's church. It was 
organized under the direction of Father Walter and kept in the Smothers' school-house for 
two years, and was subsequently for one season maintained on a smaller scale in a house on 
L street, between Twelfth and Thirteenth streets west, till the association failed to give it the 
requisite pecuniary support after the war broke out. This school has already been mentioned. 

OTHER SCHOOLS. 

In 1843, Elizabeth Smith commenced a school for small children on the Island in Wash- 
ington, and subsequently taught on Capitol hill. In 1860 she was the assistant of Rev. 
Wm. H. Hunter, who had a large school in Zion Wesley church, Georgetown, of which he 
was the pastor. She afterwards took the school into her own charge for a period and taught 
among the contrabands in various places during the war. 

About 1850 Isabella Briscoe ojiened a school on Montgomery street near»Mount Zion 
church, Georgetown. She was well educated and one of the best colored teachers in the 
District before the rebellion. Her school was always well patronized, and she continued 
teaching in the District up to 1868. 

Charlotte Beams had a large school for a number of years, as early as 1850, in a building 
next to Galbraith chapel, I street north, between Fourth and Fifth west. It was exclusively 
a girl's school in its latter years. The teacher was a pupil of Enoch Ambush, who assisted 
her in establishing her school. 

A year or two later Rev. James Shorter had a large school in the Israel Bethel church, 
and Miss Jackson taught another good school on Capitol Hill about the same time. The 
above mentioned were all colored teachers. 

Among the excellent schools broken up at the opening of the war was that of Mrs. Char- 
lotte Gordon, colored, on Eighth street, in the northern section of the city. It was in suc- 
cessful operation several years, and the number in attendance sometimes reached J 50. Mrs. 
Gordon was assisted by her daughter. 

In 1841 David Brown commenced teaching on D street south, between First and Second 
streets, island, and continued in the business till 1858, at which period he was placed in 
charge of the large Catholic free school, in the Smothers house, as has been stated. 

CHURCHES, PAROCHIAL AND SUNDAY SCHOOLS. 

No religious sect has, from the earliest history of this District, exhibited so true a Christian 
spirit towards the colored people as the Catholic. In Georgetown, Rev. Leonard Neale, 
D. D., the archbishop, who resided there at an early period, and his brother, Rev. Francis 
Neale, the founder and first pastor of Holy Trinity church, and Father Van Lommel, jiastor 
of the same church in 1827, were all friends of the poor, showing no distinction on account 
of color. They established schools and gathered to them the ignorant and poor, both white 
and colored. Father Van Lommel himself taught a school in which the white and colored 
children were instructed together and gratuitously, in the house that Mrs. Commodore Decatur 
for many years afterwards occupied near the Georgetown college gate. That the Catholic 
church was true to the Christian doctrine of the unity of the human race and the equality of 
all mankind before the altar of worship, was shown in the labors of these representatives 
of its priesthood. In 1837, when the pro-slavery spirit was enjoying its greatest triumph in 
this country. Pope Gregory XVI issued his famous anti-slavery bull. He first quotes the 



218 SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 

bull of 1537, by Paul III, addressed to the Cardinal Archbishop of Toledo, and another, still 
more comprehensive, by Urban VIII, of 1636, to the collector Jurius, of the Apostolic 
Chamber of Portugal, "most severely castigating, byname, those who presumed to subject 
either East or West Indians to slavery; to sell, buy, exchange, or give them away, to separate 
them from their wives and children, despoil them of their goods and property, to bring or 
transmit them to other places, or by any means deprive them of liberty, or retain them in 
slavery," and then proceeds to reprobate, by " apostolical authority, all the above-described 
offences as utterly unworthy of the Christian name," and, " under the same authority, to 
rigidly prohibit and interdict all and every individual, whether ecclesiastical or laical, from 
presuming to defend that commerce in negro slaves,'' and to declare that, after mature delib- 
eration in council of their Eminences, the Cardinals of the Holy Catholic Church, he was 
admonished "to invoke in the Lord all Christians, of whatever condition, that none hence- 
forth dare to subject to slavery, unjustly persecute, or despoil of their goods, Indians, negroes, 
or other classes of men, or be accessories to others, or furnish them aid or assistance in so 
doing." 

Father McElroy, now a resident of Boston, eighty-seven years old, whose life has been as 
full of pious and benevolent deeds as it is of years, was the assistant pastor of Holy Trinity 
church of Georgetown, D. C, with Father De Theux, who in 1817 succeeded Father Francis 
Neale. In 1818 Father McElroy established a Sunday school for colored children, and labored 
with the utmost devotion to gather the poor and despised children under his instruction. 
The school was held Sunday afternoon, and was a large and interesting institution. It con- 
tinued two hours each day, and the children were taught spelling, reading, writing and 
christian doctrine. Young men and women of the first standing in Georgetown were the 
teachers, under the superintendence of Father McElroy, and the school was maintained with 
great efficiency for many years, especially dirring the service of Father McElroy, who was 
there five years, till he went to Frederick, Md., in 1822. There are many colored men and 
women still living in this District, now furrowed and gray with age, who learned to read and 
write in that school, including some who were slaves at the time. 

The Catholic church was as free in all its privileges to the black worshipper as to the 
white, and in the sanctuary there was no black gallery. It was so in St. Patrick's church, 
in Washington, under its founder. Father Matthew of blessed memory, who had the 
friendship of Jefferson and other distinguished public men of his time, and who recognized 
the poorest and most benighted negro of his parish as inferior to none in all the privileges 
and duties of the church. The colored people in those days, in all the Catholic churches, 
not only knelt side by side with the highest personages, but the pews were also free to all. 
Father John Donelau, the founder of St. Matthew's church, was equally Christian in his 
impartiality, and this has been the general treatment which the colored people have 
received from the Catholic church, the cases in which a priest has attempted to make a 
distinction having been very few and exceptional. The older and more intelligent colored 
people of the District will fully sustain this statement. The Sisters of the convent in George- 
town have also trained many colored girls in the refined and solid attainments of a good 
education. The parochial instruction of the churches has always embraced all the children, 
and it is believed that St. Aloysius church, the last that was built before the war, has not 
been in the least behind the earlier churches in this respect. Colored people have always 
held pews there on the same floor with the whites, and there is a large free female colored 
school in the parochial school building connected with this church, in which there is also a 
white female school numbering some 250 pupils. The St. Mary's Catholic church at Alex- 
andria in the earlier years manifested a similar Christian spirit, and has continued to do so. 
The colored people occupied the same floor with the white, and the free pews were occupied 
without discrimination of color. 

When the colored people were excluded from all the Protestant churches of the District in 
the years of the mobs, the Catholic people stood firm, allowing no molestation of their col- 
ored worshippers. When the Sabbath schools for colored children were broken up in every 
Protestant church in the District, every Catholic church steadily retained its colored child- 
ren under the usual Sunday instruction, and these schools embraced all ages, from the mere 



SCHOpLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 219 

child to the hoary head. The above brief statements will explain why the colored Catholics 
here organized but one Catholic church, St. Martin's, though forming a considerable part of 
the colored population of the District. 

The Protestant churches in the District, like the Catholic, seem at first to have had no 
separate galleries; and children in the Sabbath school, white and colored, sat in the same 
room on the same seats. This was the case in the First Baptist church iu Washington, 
which was established in 1802, but at a later day this was changed, the galleries being 
assigned to the colored people. But most of the Protestant churches went so far as gradually 
to limit them to the back seats in the galleries, which so mortified their self-respect as to 
drive them, in spite of their poverty, to build humble religious homes of their own. When 
the new Baptist church was built on Tenth street, which was afterwards sold and converted 
into a theatre, afterwards known as Ford's Theatre, the gallery was given to the colored 
people. This was satisfactory to the majority, but some of the more spirited chafed under 
the new arrangement. The church, and its pastor, Rev. O. B. Brown, however, treated 
their colored members and worshippers with Christian charity. The pastor was a large- 
hearted Christian minister, who knew no distinction as to the color of a person's skin at the 
altar of worship. When they built on Tenth street, in 1833, the colored members bought 
the old church, corner of Nineteenth and I streets, for a chapel, in which to hold their social 
meetings. Soon afterwards they employed Rev. Mr. Nickens to preach for them temporarily, 
which resulted in about thirty of the colored members seceding, and organizing a church by 
themselves. These seceding members were expelled, and, as the church property was deeded 
to the members of the church, a controversy arose as to the title to the house, which is still 
litigated in chancery, between the mother church and her colored oifspring. 

Among the Methodists an alienation of feeling grew up at an earlier date than in the other 
churches. As eaily as 1820 the colored members of the Ebenezer church, on Fourth street 
east, near Virginia avenue, erected a log building in that vicinity, not far from the present 
Odd Fellows' lodge, for their social religious meetings and Sabbath school. About the same 
time some of the leading members, among them George Bell and George Hicks, already 
mentioned, becoming dissatisfied with their treatment, withdrew and organized a church in 
connection with the African Methodist Episcopal church. At first they worshipped in Basil 
Sim's rope-walk, First street east, near Pennsylvania avenue, but subsequently in Rev. Mr. 
Wheat's school-house on Capitol Hill, near Virginia avenue. They finally purchased the old 
First Presbyterian church, at foot of Capitol Hill, now known as the "Israel Bethel African 
Methodist Episcopal church." Some years later other members of the old Ebenezer church 
not liking their confined quarters in the gallery, and otherwise discontented, purchased a lot 
corner of C street south and Fifth street east, built a house of worship, and were organized 
as the "Little Ebenezer Methodist Episcopal church." About the year 18?-5 a third coloniza- 
tion from the original Ebenezer church took place. Among other grievances, the colored 
members were dissatisfied with their white pastors because they declined to take the colored 
children in their arms when administering the rite of bapiisra. In 1839 this alieniition grew 
into an open rupture, when thirteen class leaders and one exhorter left the mother church, 
and, after purchasing a lot on the Island, erected a house and formed a colored church, inde- 
pendent of the Methodist Episcopal body, under the name of the Wesley Zion church, and 
employed a colored preacher. Among the prominent men in this separation, still living, were 
Enoch Ambush, the well-known schoolmaster, and Anthony Bovven, who for many years 
has been an estimable employ^ in the Department of the Interior. Mr. Bovven has been 
a local preacher for forty years, and under his guidance the St. Paul's colored church on the 
Island was organized, at first worshipping in E street chapel. 

In a volume, by Rev. Benjamin T. Tanner, entitled "An Apology for African Methodism," 
published in Baltimore in 1867, the statement is made that while the Presbyterians, Lutherans, 
Congregation alists, and others have opened their Theological schools and colleges to colored 
men, the Methodist Episcopal denomination has refused them admission even in cases where 
the colored people have aided in establishing and supporting these schools. 

In this connection it may not be inappropriate to refer to the formation of the "African 
Methodist Episcopal church." "In November, 1787, the colored people belonging to the 



220 SCHOOLS OF THE COLOKED POPULATION. 

Meiliodist Society of Philadelphia convened together in order to take into consideration the 
evils under which they labored, arising from the unkind treatment of their white brethren, 
■who considered them a nuisance in the house of worship, and even pulled them off their 
knees while in the act of prayer and ordered them to the back seats. For these and various 
other acts of unchristian conduct they considered it their duty to devise a plan in order to 
build a house of their own, toworship God ' under their own vine and fig tree.' " The above 
extract is taken from the historical chapter of the ' ' Book of Church Discipline " of the ' 'African 
Methodist Episcojial church," and the chapter is signed by Bishop Wm. P. Quiun, Bishop 
Daniel A. Payne, Bishop Alex. W. Wayman, and Bishop Jabez P. Campbell. Among 
other prominent men of Philadelphia, Dt. Benjamin Rush was the friend of the colored 
people, and Bishop White also, who ordained one of their own number, after the order of 
the Protestant Episcopal church, as their pastor. In 1793 those of Methodist proclivities 
having concluded to build a church, Eev. Eichard Allen gave them the land for the purpose, 
and with a few others aided them in the work. Francis Asbury, always their friend, and 
then bishop of the Methodist Episcopal church, ofl&ciated at the consecration, and the house 
was named " Bethel." Thus matters stood until 1816. During this period the colored people 
of Baltimore, Washington, and other places were oppressed as in Philadelphia, and in April, 
1816, they called a general convention in that city, which organized the " African Methodist 
Episcopal Church." At the same time the first bishop was ordained, Rev. William Allen, 
who in the year 1799 had been ordained as preacher by Bishop Asbury of the "Methodist 
Episcopal church." • 

One of the local preachers of this cliurch, Rev. Thos. E. Green, now connected with the 
"Pisgah chapel," Washington, when a child was bound out by the orphans' court to Jacob 
Gideon, a well-known citizen of Washington, and he expresses himself greatly indebted to 
Mr. and Mrs. Gideon for their kind treatment and the excellent instruction given him. 

The number of colored people connected with Protestant Episcopal churches of the Dis- 
trict has always been quite small. Christ church. Navy Yard, the oldest church of this 
denomination in the District, was as impartial and kind in the treatment of its colored 
worshippers as were the other Protestant churches in their early history. When the Sabbath 
school was organized the colored children were gathered into it, occupying seats upon the 
same floor with the white children, and this has been the usual custom of these church'es. 
In their worship the gallery, or a portion of it, has been assigned to the colored worshippers, 
who, at the administration of the sacrament, are wont to descend and approach the altar when 
the white communicants have retired. The banishment of the colored members to the back 
seats at the sacramental table is not, however, peculiar to this church. The Methodist Epis- 
copal people, even in New England, have done likewise. Not long before the war one of the 
most gifted colored men in the country entered the Elm street Methodist Church in New 
Bedford, intending to unite with the church, but what occurred while he was present made 
him depart without doing as he had intended. The following is his statement, [Rev. Mr. 
Bonney was at that time the pastor :] " After the congregation was dismissed the half dozen 
colored members descended from the gallery and took a seat against the wall most distant 
from the altar. Brother Bonney was very animated, and sung very sweetly 'Salvation, 'tis 
a joyful sound ; ' and after serving the emblems to all the ' white sheep,' raising his voice to 
an unnatural pitch and walking to the corner where his black sheep seemed to have been 
penned, he beckoned with his hand, exclaiming, 'Come forward, colored friends! Come 
forward ! You, too, have an interest in the blood of Christ. God is no respecter of persons. 
Come forward and take this holy sacrament to your comfort.' " 

In Georgetown there seems to have been less of Christian brotherhood in the Episcopal 
churches towards the colored people than in Washington. In 1821 Eev. Stephen H. Tyng, 
D. D., and Bishop Charles P. Mac Ilvaine, both then just entered into holy orders, were in 
Georgetown ; the former being pastor of St. John's and the latter of Christ church. These 
giftlBd and devout young men knew no distinction in their holy office founded upon the color 
of the skin, and did not fail to indicate their sentiments on the subject. When Mr. Tyng 
was invited to the pastorate of St. John's, the vestry made some repairs upon their church. 
The colored people, who had hitherto entered the same front door with their white brethren 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 221 

and sisters in order to pass up into their jjallery, were now furnished a new ingress and 
egress. A stairway on tlie outside of the church was run up to a gallery window, which 
was converted into a door. It is the tradition that Mr. Tyng declined to accept the arrange- 
ment on the ground that the faith, which he preached, acknowledged no bacli stairs to heaven 
for the humble poor. "The niggers' baclc stairs to heaven," as the stairway was called, was 
not used, and it is believed that the colored people eu^i«»*y.^%^i|jiged the church because of 
the project. There was a deep feeling at this pel^d in GeocJ^owri^^g^wing out of this 
matter of the staircase and the well known views of these two pastors, '^^a 

The first attempt to found a colored Episcopaj\^urCTa"fli)(tiSSWstrict wasl|Mide in 1867, 
and the little " St. Mary's chapel " on Twenty-tllli^'«toet west aSa a^Qt^^huTfch and con- 
gregation are the results. They are not, however/ll^jmfejied a pastor oi their own race — it 
may be that they have none such in their ministry. TfeJsTfittks ^and of colored people are 
doing well. They have a large and flourishing Sabbath school, and are using much self- 
denial and energy in the maintenance of the interests of education in connection with their 
organization. The pastor is Rev. John M. E. McKee. 

The Unitarian church, founded in 1820, and also the Friends' meeting and the Universalist 
church, have always been opposed to slavery, and never tolerated unchristian treatment of 
the colored people. The first named was a New England church in its spirit and member- 
ship, as it continues to be. The Orthodox Congregational church, resuscitated after the war 
or near its close, was always of like spirit. 

The Sahhath school among the colored people in those times differed from the insti- 
tution as organized among the whites, as it embraced young and old, and most of the 
time was given not to the studying of the Bible, but to learning to read. It was the 
only school which, for a time, they were allowed to enter, and was consequently of vital 
importance in the history of tlieir education in the District. As the distinction of color 
in the church grew more prominent the colored Sabbath schools seem to have gradually 
lost favor, till in 1835 they were swept away as by a storm. The First Presbyterian 
church of Washington, which then worshipped in the edifice now occupied by the col- 
ored Israel Bethel church, at the foot of Capitol Hill, opened a Sunday school for colored 
people in 1826, which was held regularly every Sunday evening for many years, and in it 
many men and women, as well as children, learned their alphabet and to read the Bible. 
Michael Shiner, one of the most remarkable colored men of the District, who remembers 
almost everything that has occurred at the Navy Yard during his service of some GO years 
there, is of this number. Rev. Reuben Post, then the pastor of the church, now Dr. Sun- 
derland's, was the leader in this Sabbath school work, and his church and society fully sup-* 
ported him. There was a colored Sabbath school in the City Hall for a number of years 
prior to 1831. The Trinity church people were worshipping there in that period, and the 
school is believed to have been maintained mainly through the efforts of that society. Mr. 
C. H. Wiltberger and his wife, themselves slave-holders, were the teachers of the school from 
its organization till its dispersion at the time of the Snow riot. 

Christ Church, at the Navy Yard, established a Sabbath school for colored persons some 
years before the war of 1812. Among those most active in its organization were Rev. Andrew 
Hunter, the chaplain; Rev. John Chalmers, pastor of the Methodist Ebeuezer church; and 
Mr. John Coyle, an elder in the First Presbyterian church, and a man foremost in every 
humane and christian work. The school was first held in Christ church, but afterwards 
moved to a school-house on New Jersey Avenue, used by Rev. Mr. Hunter for a day school, 
opened by him about the year 1810. Here it was maintained for several years. Mr. Hun- 
ter, Mrs. Clialmers, Mrs. William Dougherty, and Mrs. Henry Ingle, the mother of Mrs. 
Wm. H. Campbell and Mrs. Harvey Lindsley, both of Washington, were the good women 
who entered heart and hand into these benevolent labors. There are still living in the Dis- 
trict colored persons who learned to read and write under their instruction. 

OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS. 

It has been seen that when the rebellion approached, John F, Cook, George F. T. Cook, 
Enoch Ambush, Miss Miner, Thomas H. Mason, Mrs. Charlotte Gordon, and the St. Vincent 



222 SCHOOLS OF THE COLOKED POPULATION. 

de Paul Society had each a very large school in operation in Washington ; Annie E. Wash- 
ington had a fine select school for the younger class of pupils ; Eliza J. Brooks and Elizabeth 
Smith had each a respectable school for primary scholars; 10 schools, with quite 1,100 
scholars, in Washington. Isabella Briscoe, moreover, had quite a large school in George- 
town. In addition to these there were several small daily gatherings of children in private 
houses ; also night schools, which were largely attended by colored men, women, and 
children. 

In passing from the schools whose history embraces more than half a century under the 
old order of things, it is well to remark that the general character of both the schools and 
the teachers was of an inferior grade as compared with what followed, when the great band 
of accomplished teachers from the north came and took up the work in the District in the 
closing years of the war. Some of those earlier schools, however, have not been surpassed, 
it is believed, by any that have arisen under the new regi«me, and others were not much 
inferior to the old-fashioned district schools of the New England rural towns.* 

It is worthy of observation, also, that in no case has a colored school ever failed for the 
want of scholars. The parents were always glad to send their children, and the children 
were always ready to go, even when too poor to be decently fed or clothed. When a school 
failed it was for want of money, and not for want of appreciation of the benefits of education. 
The same remarkable avidity for learning was then apparent as is now so manifest among 
the whole body of the colored population of this District. 

The facts detailed in this narrative fully substantiate the following propositions : 

First. The impression which prevails very generally that the colored people of this District 
before the war had no schools is unfounded and exceedingly unjust to them. 

Second. Public sentiment in the earlier years of the District was not only tolerant of edu- 
cation among the colored people, but positively in favor of it, and it was a common thing 
for colored and white children to associate together in the same school. 

Third. The attendance of colored children at school was as large before the war as it is 
now in proportion to the free colored population of the District at the respective periods. 

Fourth. The colored people of the District have shown themselves capable, to a wonderful 
degree, of supporting and educating themselves, while at the same time contributing by 
taxation to the support of white schools, from which they were debarred, and that, too, when 
in numerous cases they had previously bought themselves and families from slavery at very 
great expense ; their history furnishing an example of courage and success in the midst of 
trial and oppression scarcely equalled in the annals of mankind. 

* NOTE. — Since the sketches of the early schools were -written,, the first prospectus of Miss Jones' school 
(see page 19) has come to hand, and it is given below as indicating tlie praiseworthy and honorable ambition 
of many of the colored people. 

Prospectus of St. Agnes' Academy, for colored girls, under the direction of Miss Arabella C. Jones, Washington 

city, March 10, 1852. 

The object of this academy is of great importance, particular!}' to those who are devoid of schools in their 
vicinity, and also to society at large. Here the poor are educated gratuitously, the orphans clothed, educated, 
and a good trade given them. Females in this age are naturally destined to Ijecorae either mothers of fami- 
lies or household servants. As mothers, is it not necessary that they should be skilled in habits of industry 
and modesty, in order to transmit it to posterity ? As domestics, should they not be tutored to the virtues of 
honesty, integrity, and sobriety? Last, though not least, many of our citizens of color are emigrating to 
Liberia, and it is necessary, as well-wishers of our race, that our children be well educated, in order to impart 
their knowledge to the illiterate. Shall we, my friends, go there to teach, or be taught? As emigrants from 
a land of intelligence, I answer, to teach. 

TERMS : 

Boarding and tuition, quarterly $18 in advance. 

French 5 " 

Music 10 " 

Bedding 2 " 

Use of piano 1 " 

Parents who are not able to educate their children can address a letter to the proprietor. Scholars are to 
bo provided with one-half dozen towels, all toilet articles, a napkin ring, and desert spoon. 

The school is situated in a locality known as the Island. A large house in the city will be procured if duly 
pati'onized. 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 223 

PERIOD II.— 1861-18G8. 
1. CITIES OF WASHINGTON AND GEORGETOWN. 

RELIEF SOCrETIES AND FIRST CONTRABAND SCHOOLS. 

The first attempt to gather contrabands into schools in Washington, though not the first 
in the District,, some schools having been opened in the county still earlier by colored 
teachers, was made by the American Tract Society of New York. Several of its agents 
were here early in March, 1862. Mr. N. Du Bois, a clerk in the Interior Department, 
who was an active man in the work, kept a careful diary of those times, from which it 
appears that on Sunday afternoon, March 16, 1862, a meeting of contrabands was called in 
Duff Green's Row, Capitol Hill, then crowded with this class of people, held as captured 
material of war Rev. H. W. Pierson, for some time President of Cumberland College, Ky., as 
an agent of this Tract Society, called the meeting, and there were present some sixty men, 
women, and children, fresh from Virginia plantations, all eager to learn. Mr. Pierson taught 
them with printed cards, having on them verses of scripture in large letters ; and, using " the 
word method," was very successful, they being able, to their great delight, to read a whole 
verse in half an hour. These meetings were followed up daily. Two or three weeks later 
another school was started in the basement of the colored Union Bethel church, on M street, 
near Fifteenth street west, by Rev. George Shearer, who had come with Mr. Pierson from 
the Princeton Seminary as an associate. Elizabeth Smith, who had many years maintained 
a colored school near this church, went to the first meeting, and attracting the notice of Mr. 
Shearer by her great interest in his "word method" of teaching, was at once drafted into 
the work as the leading teacher. The school was held in the late afternoon and in the evening, 
two sessions daily, and she was always there, maintaining her own day school at the same 
time. Dr. Lorenzo D. Johnson, then clerk in a government department, was also present 
before the close of the first meeting, and making known his great interest in the enterprise, 
was selected to superintend the work, which he did with the utmost devotion till he was 
appointed assistant surgeon and assigned to duty at Lincoln hospital in August, 1862, after 
the second battle of Bull Run. There were many in those days whose philanthropy found 
expression in ardent words and eloqirent resolutions ; but Dr. Johnson was peculiarly a 
man of action. This school speedily overflowed, and they went into the hall of the Bethel 
Society, in the rear of their church, continuing the excellent work till November, when it 
was found advisable to convert it into a day school with a regular teacher. This was done 
by transferring the scholars to the house of Elizabeth Smith, who, opening an additional 
room, incorporated them with her own school. Dr. Johnson paid her for the house and 
services fifteen dollars a quarter, while he continued to exercise authority over the school, 
down to June, 1863. Subsequently she received nothing, though the school was continued 
through the war. aided to some extent by the African Civilization Society. 

The Tract Society had its seat of operations at Duff Green's Row till July 5, 1862, 
when it took up its quarters at what were then known as McLellan barracks, a group of 
horse-stables, with some small oflicers' quarters, which were roughly transformed into the 
homes of the contrabands with their managers and teachers. General James Wadsworth, 
then in command of the District, took the profoundest interest in the schools at that place, 
and was a very frequent visitor and their generous supporter. The camp was at a later day 
called Camp Barker, and is now the seat of the fine schools and industrial operations of the New 
England Friends' Mission, at the junction of Twelfth street west, R north, and Vermont 
avenue. The work here was prosecuted with great vigor and discretion, and on Thanks- 
giving day, 1862, they held the first public entertainment ever given by a contraband school 
in the District. Senator Pomeroy; of Kansas, Avas present, and addressed them in favor of 
the scheme of a colored colony in Central America, which had then recently been recom- 
mended by President Lincoln. Another remarkable occasion was when the Proclamation 
of Emancipation took effect, the whole congregated multitude of contrabands, young and 
old, awaiting upon their knees at midnight the signal of the moment between December 



224 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

31. 1862, and January 1, 1863, which was to usher in their freedom ! Scenes like this 
occurred in many other places in the District on that occasion. In June, 1863, the Tract 
Society divided its force, Mr. A. M. Sperry remaining in charge of the Camp Barker school; 
and one portion, under the charge of Eev. D. B. Nichols, going to Arlington Heights, where 
Freedmen's Village was then building. There they dwelt in tents, hovels, and out doors 
till the autumn, when they got into more comfortable quarters. It was at this village that 
the first thoroughly systematic and' genuine contraband school was established within the 
sight of the national Capitol. The schools in Washington were always of a mixed character, 
comprising many scholars, young and old, who had long lived in the District, and who had 
gathered some scraps of knowledge. At Freedmen's Village a spacious school-house was erec- 
ted, and in the late autumn of 1863, there was a school numbering some 250 children, all fresh 
from the plantations. Mr. H. E. Simmons, assisted by his wife, was the teacher, and he was 
a master of his business in the best sense of the term. The school attracted the attention of 
all really careful observers of the times in this District. Secretary Seward, Avith his wife 
and his daughter Fannie, were constant visitors there, as they had been in other years at 
Miss Miner's school. Mr. Seward went there with the foreign ministers and great public 
characters who visited the capital in those times, taking them into the school to show them 
a practical exemplification of the native powers of the negro in his most untutored condition. 
Senators and representatives also went there to see the marvellous spectacle, and those who 
watched the school most carefully were the most surprised, so signal were the, results. 
This school at one time comprised some 400 contraband children, and was continued through 
the war, the work being turned into the hands of the American Missionary Society, 1865, 
and the village entirely broken up in 1868. Miss Sallie L. DaHin, a native of Philadelphia 
and a graduate of the "Institute for Colored Youth " of that city, a woman of superior talent, 
was one of the most useful teachers at the Freedmen's Village. 

Tlic National Freedmen^s Relief Association, organized in Washington April 9, 1862, had 
two evening-schools, one at the Bethel church already noticed, and another at the 
Ebenezer church, under its general management and support that year. In November, 1863, 
they opened another day-school, in addition to that of Miss Smith's, with two teachers, and 
in December still another with two teachers, of whom one was colored. Mr. George T. 
Needham was one of the foremost in organizing and conducting both the evening and day 
schools at this time. This association was composed mostly of those persons resident in the 
District, who, realizing the great necessities developed by the war, united temporarily for 
the emergency, until more systematic and permanent aid could come from the north. The 
work they initiated was of the greatest service, and not the least portion of it was that ot 
enlisting the sympathies of their friends in other parts of the country. 

In June, 1863, Dr. Johnson organized a school at Lincoln hospital, seconded by Dr. 
Magee, the surgeon in charge. It was opened in the chapel, and Miss Laura Gates, of 
Pennsylvania, whose brother commanded the company of Veteran Eeserves on duty there, 
was employed as teacher. She was allowed one ration from the hospital and $20 a month, 
which monthly allowance was paid by Dr. Johnson for two months. He also procured 
books and clothing from northern friends and contributions to pay the teacher. Another 
teacher was subsequently employed. The school was for the contraband people about the 
hospital, and comprised all ages, numbering about 50. 

The American Tract Society of Boston was represented in the year 1862 and 1863 by their 
agent. Rev. J. W. Alvord, who rendered an important service in furnishing the excellent 
school and religious books, which the society had very wisely compiled and published for 
schools of that class then organizing in the District. Mr. Alvord was afterwards appointed 
to and still holds the responsible position of general superintendent of the educational work 
of the Fi'eedmen's Bureau throughout all the southern States. 

THE APPEAL TO THE COUNTRY. 

In the vain hope that Congress would give substantial aid to the cause, the friends of 
colored schools had struggled through more than two years, doing something to meet the 
stupendous emergency. In the first months of 1864 the extraordinary condition of things 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED TOPULATIOX. 225 

was bronfjht to the notice of the country through the public press. It was estimated that there 
were in tlic District and vicinity 30,000 or 40,000 colored people from the plantations, all anx- 
ious for instruction, Mhilebut 2,000 or 3,000, at most, were provided with the slif^-htcst privil- 
eges of an educational kind. A very large number of government clerks and other friends of 
the cause in Washington, who had been sustaining night schools through the previous year, 
at this time organized an " Association of Volunteer Teachers," and sent forth an appeal 
under its sanction, setting forth in clear and forcible language the facts in the case. This 
appeal, dated April IG, 1864, was written by A. E. Newton, who had been in the work as a 
teticlier and who was destined to be an eminently wise and conspicuous leader in the great 
work which was then opening in the District. 

RELIEF SOCIETIES CONTINUED. 

The American Missionary Association sent its agents in the summer of 1862, but finding the 
Tract Society of New York on the ground in full force they retired ivithout further demon- 
strations that year. In February, 1884, they sent Mr. William J. Wilson, a well known colored 
teacher of Brooklyn, N. Y., to enter upon the work. He immediately started a school in the 
hall of Asbury church. Mr. A. M. Sperry, who, assisted by Miss Georgiana Willcts, had 
been in charge of the Tract Society's work at Camp Barker after Mr. Nichols took charge 
at Freedmen's Village, being, with his assistant, ordered south by the society in June, J 864, 
surrendered his school to Mr. Wilson, who immediately assumed charge, with his wife as 
assistant, continuing energetically in that work till the camp broke up in the autumn of 
1866. The school was held in the chapel which the Tract Society built, and which the 
Missionary Association purchased at this time. It had one spacious hall and two recitation 
rooms, and here a school avenging at least 230 scholars was kept up for more than two years, 
the number sometimes, reaching 400 men, women, and children. It was probably the 
largest school ever seen in a single room in the District, and, considering its magnitude and 
miscellaneous nature, was eminently successful under the vigorous and intelligent manage- 
ment of those teachers, but it was not possible to attain-such results as were developed under 
the system of graded schools organized in 1865 by the Pennsylvania and New York Eelief 
Societies under Mr. A. E. Newton. Mr. Wilson went from Camp Barker to the Third street 
Baptist church in the autumn of 1866, opening there a large school, which was continued 
for one year by his wife and daughter under the auspices of the Missionary Association, and 
with excellent success. In November, 1864, this society had in operation the school at Camp 
Barker, a large school in Georgetown, another on the Island in Washington, and a fourth in 
Soldiers' Free Library, embracing II teachers, with two evening schools, in all embracing 
quite 1,000 scholars. This association was organized September 2, 1849, and originated in 
a dissatisfaction with the neutral policy of other missionary societies en the slavery question. 
The Pennsylvania Freedmen's Relief Association, in response to the "teachers'" appeal, 
widely disseminated through the northern States, came resolutely upon the ground, and com- 
menced operations in May, 1864, in the Union Wesley church, Twenty-third street west, and 
in June opened another school in the Zion Wesley church. Island, with two teachers in 
each, under the superintendence of Mr. Rogers, an excellent young man from Massachusetts, 
who died that season of typhoid fever. In the autumn they established a school in Galbraith 
chapel, L street between Fourth and Fifth, and still another in Georgetown in the Mount 
Zion church, the Miss Chamberlains taking in charge these two last-named schools. In the 
Mount Zion church school a second and third teacher were soon added. In December, 1864, 
the society bought a house and stable on L street near Nineteenth street west, and having 
fitted up the latter, with an industrial establishment attached, at a cost of about $3,000, 
opened two schools, using the bouse for the teachers' home. January 1, 1865, Mr. A. E. 
Newton became the superintendent, also opening their schools in Alexandria, and at this time 
and the following winter the society did the largest work of any organization, and did not 
withdraw from the field until 1863. Some of the first merchants and men of wealth of 
Philadelphia were at the bottom of these operations, among whom may be mentioned J. 
Miller McKim, an old anti-slavery man ; the brothers Marmaduke Cope and Francis R. Cope, 
Friends, well known for their works of benevolence. The president of the society was 
15 



226 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

Stephen Caldwell, at that period acting: as president of the United States reTenuo commission. 
The secretary was James Rhoads, also conspicuous in many of the best efforts to improve 
the African race. 

The Philadelphia Friends' Frcedmcn's Relief Association was here with like spirit in the 
same month, starting their first school in Union Wesley church, Twenty-third street west. 
They soon bought a lot on Nineteenth street near the boundary, and built a large school- 
house, costing )ji;6,000, which before winter was filled with scholars under an admirable corps 
of teachers. The location, however, did not prove to be a favorable one, and in 1866 the 
lot and house were sold and the school given up. 

The African Civilization Society was also at work in the early summer, opening a scliool 
in the hall of the Union Bethel church, on M street near Fifteenth street. In 1865 and 1866 
Rev. Benjamin W. Arnett, colored and a native of Pennsylvania, conducted a large school 
supported by this society. 

The Reformed Presbyterian Mission, in the course of the same summer, purchased a tract 
of land on First street west between N and O, (Island,) and erected sixteen dwellings, with 
a chapel for religious and educational purposes. This location was in the extr'eme southern 
section of the city, where the colored population was large and mostly made up of contra- 
bands, as it still continues to be. A large school was soon organized under the direction of 
Rev. J. Bayliss, Avho was succeeded by Rev. J. M. Armour. In the early part of 1867 
Rev. J. M. Johnston was made superintendent, and in the autumn of that year the school 
was removed to a barrack building on Sixth street west near M street south. It is divided 
into four departments, with nearly 200 scholars, under the care of excellent teachers — Miss 
Sarah E. Moore, of East Craftsbury, Vermont; Miss Helen M. Johnston, Miss Kate E. 
Trumbull, and Miss Eunice A. Jameson, of Logan county, Ohio. Miss Moore entered upon 
the work in 1865, the others in 1867. Religious services and a large Sabbath school, under 
eight teachers, are held on Sundays. Nearly all the families represented in the school 
belonged to the slave population of Virginia, and the improvement that has been wrought in 
both children and parents by the persevering labors of this mission forms one of the most 
interesting and encouraging chapters in the educational work in the District. 

The Old School Presbyterian Mission in 1864 opened a school in Georgetown, in the base- 
ment of the Presbyterian church on Bridge street, and another in Lincoln Hospital chape), 
east of the Capitol. These were flourishing and useful schools, and were contii^ued until 
Februarj^ 1867. The first superintendent was Rev. Mr. Aiken, who was succeeded by Dr. 
John A. E. Walk. Among the teachers in the Georgetown school was Miss Emma L. Crane, 
now in charge of the grammar school in the Brick school-house. Island. 

In May, 1864, there were in operation J 2 day schools, with 25 teachers and about 1,300 
scholars; also, 36 night schools, with 36 teachers and about 1,350 scholars. The night 
schools were generally continued with interest through the year, though some of those 
depending on volunteer teachers expired from neglect. The Volunteer Association of Teachers 
did good service, but was disbanded in the ispring of 1865. (This association was made up 
mostly of department .clerks, and was quite distinct from that organized afterwards among 
the regular teachers of Washington, Georgetown, and Alexandria. ) The night teachers were 
paid $10 a month through private contributions. In the autumn of 1864, and through the 
winter, aid came with great generosity from the north. 

The New York Frecdmen's Relief Association was actively engaged in the work in 1864 
with a vigor not inferior to that of any other organization in the field. For three years their 
schools were widely known forthe large and generous scale on which they were operated, and 
for their excellent character. Their M street school, as it was called, comprising from eight 
to ten departments, with an average attendance of over six hundred scholars, and directed 
by Mr. A. E. Newton, excited the deepest interest among all who were observant friends ot 
the cause in those years. One of the first teachers sent by this association was Rev. B. W. 
Pond, of Maine, who opened a school early in the summer of 1864 in the basement of Asbury 
church, Eleventh and K streets. This was a p'ly school, a small charge for tuition being 
made, but many who were unable to meet this expense were admitted. In the following 
winter two portable houses were sent from Boston by the association, into which the school 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 227 

\v<as moved after their erection on M street near Massachusetts avenue. In 1865 Mr. Pond 
war, sent by the association to North Carolina as superintendent of their operations there, 
and he was succeeded by Miss Julia A. Lord, who was at that time teaching in the Lincoln 
Institute, on the Island. When the hospital barracks, near by, at the corner of M and Four- 
teenth streets, were taken by the association, Miss Lord was placed in charge of the grammar 
school, and the portable buildings were used for the large infant department. The grammar 
school furnished to the Howard University, when its preparatory department was opened in 
^lay, 1867, a larger number of scholars than any other school in the city. Of that depart- 
ment Miss Lord is now one of the principals. 

The New England Frccdmin's Aid Commission, supported by the Baptists of Boston, 
established the "Boston School,'' so called, corner of Nineteenth and I streets, in September, 
i8()4. In November, 1864, this school was graded. Miss R. S. Capron, of Massachusetts, 
being its principal till the ensuing January, when Miss Lucy A. Flagg, a young lady of 
much talent and remarkable capability in her work, succeeded to the place, continuing there 
till lier health ffiiled in 1866. In the spring of that year the school was transferred to the 
American Baptist Home Missionary Society of Boston, and by them organized as a Normal 
school, and still later converted into "The Wayland Theological Seminary." The above 
Commission was a different organization from the New England Freedmen's Aid Society. 

The New England Frecdmcn^s Aid Society did an excellent ^vork in taking charge of the 
first colored public school ever opened in the District, and at that time the only one. It was 
opened March 1, 1804, in the colored Ebenezer church, Capitol Hill, but in May, 1865, was 
removed to the school building erected for them on C street. They added two teachers and 
two schools, supporting the four teachers and filling the house with scholars, the average 
attendance being over oOO. The first teachers were Miss Emma V. Brown, colored, one of 
Miss Miner's favorite scholars and also her assistant, and Miss Frances W. Perkins, of New 
Haven, Connecticut. Miss Browm was afterwards placed by the trustees in charge of the O 
street grammar school, which she conducted in a most praiseworthy manner, until failing 
health, last year, compelled her to resign. As is hereafter mentioned in connection with the 
history of the public schools, Miss Perkins was instrumental in obtaining funds for erecting 
this building, the first public school house in the District. 

The New England Friends^ 3Iission also came in 1864, and still continues its Very excel- 
lent work. In the autumn of that year they purchased a large tract of land on Thirteenth 
street between R and S north, built a store, and furnished goods at cost to the colored people. 
In the following winter they opened schools.in the government buildings, which were turned 
over to them, teaching a large school of women to sew and the children to braid straw. 
A day school was organized in the autumn of 1865, and in the winter a second was opened, 
the two comprising some 150 children, with two teachers. In 1866 and 1867 there were five 
teachers, with two handled scholars. At the present time this school is arranged in four 
departments, irnder the care of Miss H. S. Macomber, of New Bedford, Massachusetts, a 
lady of cultivation, and an admirable principal, with four excellent assistants, all ladies of 
refinement — Miss Mary C. Lawtou and Miss Susan H. Pierce, of New Bedford ; Miss Mary 
E. Oliver and Miss Mary E. Gove, of Lynn, Massachusetts. The important work of visiting 
the colored families and children at their homes is committed to Miss Sarah E. Wall, of 
Worcester, Massachusetts, who has labored here assiduously for five years for the good of 
the colored people. She is also in charge of the sewing department, an important branch of 
the industrial work. The school now numbers more than 250, and is full to overflowing, 
rendering it necessary to refuse many applications almost daily. A flourishing Sabbath 
school has also been maintained from the beginning, averaging about 150 scliolars, with ten 
or twelve teachers. In 1865 more land was purchased and several houses erected, which 
v.'ere sold on easy terms, as intended, to industrious colored families, the monthly rent being 
credited as purchase money. The school is supported b}' the New England Friends' yearly 
meeting, and in an unobtrusive and judicious manner is accomplishing great and permanent 
good. Among its generous and active supporters from the first has been Hon. Joseph Grin- 
nell, of New Bedford, who often comes to visit it, giving his personal attention to its support 
and management. The Trustees of the public schools have aided this school so far as to 



228 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

Airoisb fuel the past year. From the organization of the school in October, ISfio, to June, 
1867, Richard Battey, from Blackstone, Mass., Avas the superintendent; since whicli time 
Mr. and Mrs. John C. Gove, from Lynn, Mass., have had the general management. About 
two-thirds of the scholars are boys. 

" Tlic Washington Christian Union," an organization of this city, now actively engaged' 
in educational work among the colored people, originated in or grew out of the "Young 
Men's Unitarian Association, which was formed February 3, 1866, its object being general 
missionary and christian work among the needy of all classes. Early in 1867, as members 
of other denominations had for some time been their co-workers and given substantial aid, 
and also for the purpose of extending their work and making it more effective, it was judged 
advisable to adopt a new name for the Association, and invite the co-operation of all Christian 
and benevolent people. At the same time the pressing necessities existing among the frced- 
men in the District claimed all the resources and enlisted the sympathies of the "Union." 
Accordingly, on the 2d of May of that year, (1867,) a night school especially for adult colored 
persons, at first consisting of 15 scholars, but the number soon ranging from 100 to 150, wa 
opened at the Lincoln Institute, or E street chapel, on the Island, and was conducted by 
volunteer teachers. In the aiitumn the Trustees of colored public schools gave them the use 
of two rooms in the new brick school-house corner of Ninth and E streets, into Avhich they 
moved about November 1 , the rent of the Lincoln Institute having been paid by the ' ' Frced- 
men's Bureau." The school is still continued at the same place with gratifying success, 
though the number of scholars has somewhat decreased. Mr. W. H. Treadway, of the 
Treasury Department, has had the immediate charge of the school, aided by other members 
of the " Union." 

The first superintendent appointed by the "Christian Union" was Mr. W. A. White<-but 
he was soon succeeded by Mr. J. R. Fletcher, of the Treasury Department, who was then 
conducting an independent night school and a Sabbath school, in the Free Library build- 
ing, Judiciaiy Square. In the autumn Mr. Fletcher was made and still continues General 
Superintendent of all the educational work of the society, and in January, 1868, his night 
school was formally included in its operations. 

Another night school has just been opened (January, 1869,) in the O street colored school- 
house, virhich numbers over 200 scholars of all ages, children, parents, and grandparents 
seated together learning to read and write. The pi'csident of the LTnion, Mr. James M. 
Blanchard, late of the Patent Office, has charge of this school, assisted by nine or ten excel- 
lent teachers. 

These night schools have done and are doing a very important work, most of those attend- 
ing thera being intelligent and ambitious adult scholars, who are unable to attend the day 
schools. All the labor of instruction and of general management has been done from the 
first by A'olunteer, unpaid teachers. The officers of the society are, James M. Blanchard, 
President ; John E. Mason and J. M. Jayne, Vice-Presidents ; F. S. Nichols, Secretary ; 
W. H. Treadway, Corresponding Secretary. 

The Vniversalists of Maine. — One of the best day schools in the District, though continued 
for less than two years, was that in the Lincoln Institute in 1867 and 1868, taught by Miss 
Julia C. Chase, of South Livermore, Maine, and supported by the Universalists of that State, 
The school numbered about 50, and perhaps in no school in the District have the scholars 
been more attached to their teacher or made more rapid progress. Miss Chase camo in March, 
1866, teaching through the remainder of that school year in the school of the New York 
Freedmen's Association, in the Capitol Hill barracks. In the following winter she opened, 
her own school on the Island, and taught until June, 188S. Her success, hke that of Miss 
EIwcll in the Fourteenth street school, shows how much good can be accomplished by one 
faithful teacher. The Lincoln Institute building, or E street chapel, was built in 1858 by 
what is now knovv-n as the St. Paul's African Methodist Episcopal church, which in 1862 
moved into their new edifice on E street between Ninth and Tenth streets. 

Miss ElweWs school.. — Among the teachers of the New Yorh Freedmen's Relief Association 
school on M street, corner of Fourteenth street, in 1865 and 1866, was Miss Rebecca R. 
Elwell, of Hartford, Connecticut. In the autumn of 1867 she was engaged by the Hartford 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 



229 



Relief Society, and opened a school in Carroll Hall, on Fourteenth street near Pennsylvania 
avenue. The next year she moved down Fourteenth street nearer the canal, in the section 
known as "Murder Bay," where she still remains. Her school room is in a small Baptist 
church, and, without an assistant, she has charge of about 70 cclored children, most of them 
belonging- to the poorest classes, and gathered from the hovels and by-ways of the city. 
Among the benevolent operations of the District, there is no one demanding more self-denying 
labor than this ; but in the remarkable love of the scholars for their teacher, as well as in 
their improvement, she finds a rich reward. Her records shov/ many rare cases of faithful 
attendance and good conduct, and the desire for knowledge among these more unfortunate 
colored children is fully equal to that shown among the more favored. Several of the boys, 
from ten to twelve years of age, have been marked only once or twice for either absence or 
tardiness during a whole year, and even those resulting sometimes from sickness. This 
school was last year organized as one of the public schools, the Tritstees providing furniture, 
books, fuel, &c., but the salary is still paid by the Hartford Relief Society. Miss Elwell 
commenced her benevolent work early in 1865, in connection with the Pennsylvania Freed- 
men's Relief Association, on the Island. 

The Associations maintained through the school year lSo4-T)5, in the two cities, 27 day 
schools, comprising 3,583 scholars under the charge of G4 teachers, and 13 night schools 
with 1,020 scholars and 46 teachers. Nearly all the Societies continued their labors during 
the two following years, and two additional Societies joined in the work. 

The following tables give the names of most if not all of the Associations, and the extent 
of their operations. The numbers given are in some cases only general estimates or averages, 
but are based on trustworthy information, and even where the fullest records are presented 
there were necessarily great fluctuations from month to month : 



Schuols of the Relief Societies, May, 1864. 




U2 



National Freedmen's Relief Association, District of Columbia 

American Tract Society, N. Y 

African Civilization Society ,-.- 

Reformed Presbyterian Mission, (one night school) 

Pennsylvania Freedmen's Relief Association , 

Philadelphia Friends' Freedmen's Relief Association 

Dr. L. D. Johnson, (one night school) 

Trustees of Colored Public schools , 

Volunteer Teachers' Association, (night schools) 



5 
1 

] 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
13 



Total 26 



11 

2 



2 
2 
2 
2 
34 

61 



500 
100 
100 
200 
150 
150 
100 
100 
1,250 

2,650 



230 SCHOOLS OP THE COLORED POPULATION. 

Day Schools, 1864-65. 



Pennsylvania Freeclmen's Eelief Association 

New York Freedmen's Eelief Association 

American Missionary Association, New York 

Philadelphia Friends' Freedmen's Relief Association 

African Civilization Society, New York 

Old School Presbyterian Mission 

Reformed Presbyterian Mission, Pittsburg 

New England Freedmen's Aid Commission, Boston 

New England Freedmen's Aid Society, Boston, [took charge of public 

school] ,, =... 

American Free Baptist Mission Society, New York 

Private school. Miss Goodenow, Maine ■ 



Total 



29 



14 

9 
11 
6 
3 
5 
4 
4 

4 
1 



62 



CO 



816 

450 • 

732 

360 

180 

350 

200 

160 

200 
80 
60 



3,588 



Nicrht Schools, 1864-'65. 



Volunteer Teachers' Association . 

Old School Presbyterian 

American Missionary Association 

Soldiers' Free Library 

Reformed Presbyterian Mission. . 

Total 



18 



22 



46 



During the above school year of 1864-'65, there were also in operation six private colored 
schools taught by colored teachers, with an average attendance of 340 scholars. It has been 
stated that the Amevican Tract Society, N. Y., partially in the autumn of 1863 and finally in 
1864, withdrew from their extended field of operations in Washington that they might con- 
centrate their force at the Freedmen's Village, Arlington, where the need of humane and 
christian work was so great. 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED EOPULATION. 



231 



Day Schools, May, 13C5. {Netir JVashiiigton.) 



American Tract Society at Freedmen's Village 

Miss Emily Howland, near Arlington 

Miss Atkinson, at Camp Wadsworth , 

Pennsylvania Freedmen's Eelief Association iit Alexaudrio 

New England Fieedmen's Aid Society 

New York Freedmen's Relief Society 

Government Superintendent of Freedmen 

Reformed Presbyterian Mission, Xenia, Ohio 

Private Colored Schools , , 

Total 



19 



3 
1 
] 
3 
3 
4 

10 
5 

12 



w 



242 
100 

r>o 

180 
170 
210 
2G0 
240 
000 



42 2, 091 



Day Schools, ]865-'66. 





oj 


w 


OJ 


o 


^ 




o 


^ 


a 


o 




W 


H 


9 


17 


8 


12 


8 


11 


3 


7 


2 


G 


4 


4 


2 


3 


2 


5 


1 


3 


2 


2 


1 


] 


42 


71 



?/: 



Pennsylvania Freedmen's Relief Association, Philadelphia 

New York Freedmen's Relief Association, New York 

American Missionary Association, New York 

American Baptist Home Missionary Society, New York . .. 

Pliiladclphia Friends' Freedmen's Relief Association 

New England Freedmen's Aid Society 

New England Fiiends' Mission 

Old School Presbjterian Mission, Pittsburg 

Reformed Presbyterian Mission 

African Civilization Society, New York 

Bangor Freedmen's Relief Associaton 

Total 



858 
604 
594 
2^4 
37 G 
315 
ISO 
373 
186 
108 
r>9i 



5, 93U 



In May, 1865, the Volunteer Tt achers' Association was disbanded, and their ten Ni:rlu 
Schools, wifh 625 scholars, were continued by the teachers of the day schools. 



o >•> 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 



Day Schools, 18G0-18G7. 

In the autumn of ISGG there was a consolidation of the tliree Relief and Aid Societies of 
New York, Pennsylvania, and New England, for the purpose of more systematic operations. 
They had their headquarters at New York city, with branch oiFices at Boston, New York, 
and Philadelphia. In 1806-07 the records show as follows : 



New York Branch Freedmen's Union Commission 

Pennsylvania Branch Freedmen's Union Commission . . 
New England Branch Freedmen's Union Commission-. 

American Missionary Association 

American Baptist Home Missionary Society 

New England Friends' Mission 

Reformed Presbyterian Mission 

Bangor Freedmen's Aid Society 

Theological Institute and University, Rev. Dr. Turney. 

St. Martin's Church, colored, Catholic 

Trustees of Colored Schools .^ 

Total 



15 
15 
4 
8 
3 
2 



62 



17 

17 

4 

9 
6 



80 



CO 



1,041 

849 
217 
507 
101 
267 
297 
74 
75 
350 
450 



4,228 



In the autumn of 1867, these aid organizations nearly all concluded to withdraw from the 
field, upon the supposition that the Trustees of colored schools were able to fully assume 
their work. Mr. A. E. Newton, who had been for three years in the work, persistently 
urged otherwise, and the New York and Pennsylvania " branches," of which ho had been 
the superintendent, consented to return each 8 teachers ; the New England Friends, 5 ; 
the Reformed Presbyterian Mission, 2 ; the Hartford, the Bangor, and the Holliston, Mass. 
Associations each, 1 ; the Universalists of Maine, 1 ; the New England F. A. Commission 
and the Rochester Anti- Slavery Society, each a teacher of sewing. Total, 29. In February, 
1867, there was 24 night schools in successful operation. 

The following is a general estimate of the expenditures of the leading benevolent agencies: 

Pennsylvania F. R. Association, (Pa. branch committee) $32, 500 

New York F. R. Association, (N. Y. branch committee) 24, 000 

New England F. A. Society, (N. E, branch committee) 6, 000 

American Missionary Association 14,500 

Philadelphia Friends 13,500 

New England Friends 7,000 

Reformed Presbyterian Mission 11,500 

O. S. Presbyterian Mission 6, 500 

American Baptist Home Missionary Society, (including N. E. F. A. Commission) 8, 000 

African Civilization Society 3, 000 

American Free Baptist Mission 1 , 000 

National F. R. Association, D. C. (contributed from the north) 1 , 500 

American Tract Society 1, 000 

Miscellaneous contributions 5,000 

Total Northern aid in the four years.. . . , 135, 000 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 233 

Tliis estimate, made by superintendent Newton, a man of great precision, does not embrace 
the very extensive donations of books, scliGol furniture, and clothing. The expenditure was 
divided in the several years about as follows: 1863-4, $8,500; 1864-5, $39,000; 18G5-G, 
$35,500; 1866-7, $35, 000 ; 1867-8, $17,000. Total, $135, 000. Add to this amount $25,000 
contributed in books, school furniture, and clothing, which is undoubtedly an under esti- 
mate, and there is the sum of $160, 000 which was, with open bands and hearts, poured into 
the noble and triumphant work of these years hy the patriotic North, and that too while tlie 
same agencies were extending their beneficence in almost all parts of the south. 

The character of the teachers sent into this work by these benevolent agencies was of the 
highest order, a large proportion of them young' women of solid and refined culture, apt to 
teach, experienced in the vocation, and all deeply interested in the self-denying labor. Mr. 
Newton was the leading spirit, and was admirably fitted for the position. While a clerk in 
the Quartermaster's office he commenced his work as the teacher of a night-school. In 
January, 1866, he was appointed superintendent by the Pennsylvania Freedmen's Relief 
Association, subsequently receiving the same appointment from the New York Freedmen's 
Relief Association. Having resigned his clerkship, he gave himself wholly to the schools of 
these and other societies till, in the autumn of 1867. he was also made superintendent of the 
colored public schools by the trustees, fulfilling all these arduous and complicated trusts with 
extraordinary efSciency — giving place to a new superintendent, appointed b}" the trustees last 
year. The teachers in November, 18G5, were organized into an association for the purpose of 
securing more system and harmonious action. This association met monthly, and the whole 
body of teachers — nearly all females — were invariablj' present, and their meetings were con- 
tinued for two years, accomplishing a vast amount of good. The first teacher who had great 
success in bringing order out of chaos was Miss Lucy A. Flagg, of Massachusetts, who made 
the Boston scliool, corner of 19th and I street, in 1365, a model of order and thoroughness. 
The New York school, at the junction of 14th and M sti'eets, was however the first of these 
schools in establishing something like a graded system in the true sense of the term. This 
school not only had better buildings than the Boston school, but it also had Mr. Newton 
from the first to the last as its special superintendent. In Miss Jul'a A. Lord, the principal 
of its highest department, it had also a teacher eminently fitted for her place, as in fact were 
all the other nine teachers during those years. Nor should the name of Eliza A. Chamber- 
lain, of Massachusetts, be omitted, who canie here in 1866 and entered into the work in 
Georgetown with the greatest zeal. Her superior qualifications find an ample witness in 
the school in which she still continues to act as principal in that city. 

THE COLORED ORPHANS' HOME. 

This is one of the most interesting and useful institutions of an educational nature con- 
nected with the colored people that has been established in this District. Its origin was 
singular. Late in the autumn of 1862, the contraband families, which had gathered in 
great numbers in the contraband camps of Washington, were transferred to Arlington 
Heights by order of the War Office. The order, which Avas to transfer all the families, was 
executed, leaving some 40 or .50 orphan children, belonging to no family, in the abandoned 
camps in utter desolation. This contraband camp was subsequently called Camp Barker, and 
was on the north side of the city, between Twelfth and Thirteenth streets. The ground is now 
occupied by the New England Friends' school. The benevolent women of the cit}' immedi- 
ately made these poor outcasts temporarily comfortable in the old camp, and went resolutely 
to work to provide for them a Christian home. They formed an association, and fed, clothed, 
sheltered, taught them, and ultimately built an asylum for them and other colored orphans. 
The original meeting was at the rooms of Mrs. James W. Grimes, January 31, 1863. Mrs. 
B. F. Wade, Mrs. James Harlan, Mrs. S. C. Pomeroy, Mrs. Henry Wilson, Mrs. A. H. 
Gibbons, Mrs. Daniel Breed, and Mrs. J. F. Potter, were present. Mrs. Poincroy was selected 
to preside, and they proceeded directly to the work of establishing " an Asylum for aged and 
destitute Colored Refugees and Colored Orphans," of which classes there were multitudes then 
" collected in the contraband camps in and around Washington." The next meeting was at 
the residence of Sayles J. Bowen, February 5, when articles of association, presented by 



234 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

Mrs. Gibbons, of New York, were adopted, and an organization effected, with tlie foUowincj 
ofScers: Mrs. Pomeroy, president; Mrs. Grimes, vice-president ^ Mrs. Mary E. Webster, of 
Connecticut, treasurer ; Mrs. Daniel Breed, secretary. The association was incorporated 
by Act of Congress approved February 16, 1863 ; and on the same day an organization, 
under tlie charter, was effected at the residence of Daniel Breed ; the officers above named 
as chosen under the temporary organization being all re-elected, together Avith the following 
board of managers : Mrs. Henry Wilson and Miss A. M. Hooper, Massachusetts ; Mrs. 
Harriet Underhil], Mrs. Louisa llowells, Mrs. W. R. Johnson, Miss Mary A. Donaldson, and 
Mrs. Rufus Leighton, of Washington; and Miss Emily Howland, of New York. Since then 
the successive boards of officers have been as follows : 

1884. — Mrs. T. D. Eliot, president; Mrs. A. M. Gangewer, vice-president; Mrs. W. R. 
Johnson, treasurer ; Miss Emily Howlaud, secretary. Executive committee: Mrs. Henry 
Wilson, Mrs. A. H. Gibbons. Miss M. A. Donaldson, Mrs. L. Howells, Mrs. G. E. Baker, 
Mrs. Samuel Wilkinson, Miss Anna M. Hooper, Mrs. C. C. Leighton, Mrs. F. T. Brown 
Trustees : Sayles J. Bowcn, A. M. Gangewer, George E. Baker. 

1865. — Miss Margaret Robinson, president; Mrs.^M. C.Hart, vice-president; Mrs. Ger- 
mond Crandell, treasurer : Mrs. W. L.Nicholson, secretary. Executive committee: Mrs. 
Jas. M. Blancbard, Mrs. H. Underbill, Mrs. Geo. W. McLellan, Mrs. S. P. Bliss, Miss S. 
P. Searle, Miss Eliza Heacock, Mrs Geo. B. Whiting, Mrs. Chas. Faxon, Mrs. Stephen D. 
Charles. Trustees : Geo. E. Baker, A. M. Gangewer, John Joliffe. 

1860. — Mrs. B. F. Wade, president; Mrs. Geo. W. McLellan, vice-president; Mrs. Ger- 
mond Crandell, treasurer; Miss Eliza Heacock, secretary. Executive committee: Mr.s. S. 
C. Pomeroy, Mrs. Lyman Trumbull, Mrs. Susan Wilson, Mrs. Gen. O. O. Howard, Mrs. 
H. Underbill, Mrs. D. N. Coolcy, Miss Louise S. Swan, Miss D. P. Baker, Mrs. Dr. Parker. 
Trustees: A. M. Gangewer, S. J. Bowen, Charles King. 

1857. — Mrs. B. F. Wade, president; Mrs. Geo. W. McLellan, vice-president; Mrs. Gcr- 
mond Crandell, treasurer; Miss Eliza Heacock. secretary. Executive committee: Mrs. S. 
C. Pomeroy, Mrs. Lyman Trumbull, Mrs. W. F. Nelson, Mrs. Gen. O. O. Howard, Mrs. 
H. Underbill ; Miss S. G. Searle, Miss L. S. Swan, Mrs. J. M. Blanchard, Mrs. R. M. 
Bigelow. 

J868. — Mrs. S. C. Ponreroy, president; Mrs. Geo. W. McLellan, vice-president ; Mrs. 
Germond Crandell, treasurer ; Miss Eliza Heacock, secretary. Executive committee : Mrs. 
Gen. O. O. Howard, Mrs. Oakes Ames, Mrs. R. M. Bigelow, Mrs. H. Underbill, Mrs. W. 
F. Nelson, Mr.s. H. E. Paice, Miss Louise S. Swan, Miss Sarah P. Searle, Mrs. J. M. Blan- 
chard. Trustees : Sayles .J. Bowen, Charles King, Geo. W. McLellan. 

1869. — Mrs. S. C. Pomeioy, president; Mrs. George W.McLellun, vice-president; Mrs. 
Germond Crandell, treasurer; ATrs. Hiram Pitts, secretary. Executive connnittee: Mrs. 
Gen. O. O. Howard, Mrs. Rev. Sella Martin, Mrs. R. M. Bigelow, Mrs. Harriet Underbill, 
Mrs. W. F. Nelson, Miss Susan Walker, Miss Louise S. Swan, Mrs. W. F. Bascom, Mrs. 
J. Blanchard. Trustees : Sayles J. Bowen, Charles King, George W. McLellan. 

The first donations to the association v.-ere received in April, 1863— $100 frour James 
Arnold, of New Bedford, and $50 from Emily Howland, whose generosity had been for 
many years well-nigh omnipresent where money and work were demanded in behalf of the 
neglected race. The National Freedmen's .Relief Association soon after gave the association 
$1,000. At a meeting of the executive committee or board of managers, May 8th, action was 
t.iken to secure a building, a committee being raised for that duty, and Daniel Breed was 
solicited to examine the title to a certain residence on Georgetown Heights : and on June 2 
lie reported to a meeting of the executive board that it stood in the name of Richard S. Cox, 
who had at the opening of the rebellion abandoned his property in Georgetown, gone to Vir- 
ginia, and as a major in the confederate service taken up arms against the Union under cir- 
cumstances peculiarly disgraceful and aggravating, being without the excuse of State alle- 
giance urged by so many. This action was suggested by the Secretary of War, who, when 
the association called on him for a house in which to take care of these children, directed 
them to look up some place abandoned by those who had gone into the rebellion. Through 
the efforts of the society an order was at once issued by the Secretary of War, which on tlio 
1st day of June placed the association in possession of a spacious residence of some dozen 
rooms, well furnished, with about 80 acres of laud, including an excellent orchard. Mrs. 
Pomeroy, who was authorized to take possession of the premises by the Secretary of War, 
being sick upon what proved her death-bed, Mrs. Daniel Breed, the secretary, was deputed 
to act in her place in assuming the possession. Accordingly, she and her husband. Dr. Breed, 
e:Uorcd the premises and made them theii temporary quarters duriug the gathering in of the 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 235 

children and the organization of the institution. Tlie house was occupied by a brotbcr-in- 
hiw cf E. S. Cox when seized by the military authorities. Ou the arrival of Cr. and Mrs. 
Breed the guard withdrew, and without human protection they safely passed the first uight, 
though in imminent danger not only of violence but of their lives. 

Soon after moving into their Home, a frame building was put up for a kitchen and cook- 
room, at a cost of $ir)0, the work being done by "contraband carpenters;" and ia the 
autumn of 18G3 a laundry was built, and the carriage house fixed up for a dormitory. In 
the spring of 18G6 v.-ater was introduced into the premises from the reservoir, which con- 
tributed much to the health of the inmates, who had previously suffered severely from dis- 
eases produced by want of cleanliness and proper sleeping apartments. The new build- 
dings, which had been erected by the Freedmeu's Bureau, were at this time ready for 
occupation, and had been furnished with a good supply of bedsteads from the Office of 
Medical Stores of the War Department. New clothing was also furnished, and a thorough 
system instituted in everything, the excellent results of which were soon manifest in the 
condition of the children. Rations and a surgeon had been furnished, by the order of the 
Secretary of War, from February, 18(34, down to the summer of 1865, and was continued 
through the month of May by the influence of Senator Pomeroy. In June, the attention 
of General O. O. Howard was called to the Home, who sent an inspector to examine the 
institution. The report was of the most commendatory nature, and the rations were con- 
tinued through his orders, the association offering to receive any children the Bureau might 
intrust to them. 

It was at this period that the association began to anticipate disturbance from R. S. Cox, 
who, having returned from the confederate army, was appealing to the President for pardon 
and the consequent restoration of the property then held by the Home. In July, lfcG'3, 
Cox addressed a letter to the association, offering them §1,000 to vacate the premises, which 
proposition was declined. At this time the Attorney General assured the association that no 
pardon would be granted to Cox until an arrangement satisfactory to them should be effected. 
It was deemed advisable at that time to present a concise and exact statement showing the 
aggravated nature of Cox's disloyalty, and to present the same to the President, which wa'j 
accordingly done. The paper v/as prepared in the form of a protest against the restoration 
of the proprrty, and the main facts presented were these: That in 1831 Cox v/as a clerk in 
the Paymaster General's office, and, refusing to take the oath of allegiance, without resign- 
ing went south and serv^.d in the rebel army, with the rank of major, till the surrender of 
Lee. Cox held the commission of colonel of the Stli regiment of the District militia when 
he went south, having been placed at the head of that regiment by Floyd, just before the 
inauguration of Pi'csident Lincoln, in place of Colonel Cruikshank, a man of undoubted 
loyalty and capability. In September, 1863, the Attorney General, Mr. Speed, i.ssued an 
order for the process of confiscation, in the case of Cox, to proceed ; and the association 
emi^loyed counsel to assist in the prosecution. It became evident, however, in the course 
of the winter of 1805, tha: Cox was receiving encouragement from the administration, and 
tlie earnest women interested in this Asylum resolved to go in person to the President, and 
present a statement of the strong claims of their Institution for protection in the possession 
of the property abandoned by its disloyal owner under circumstances which seemed to them 
to place him beyond the reach of all wise executive clemency. On the day fixed for the 
interview an assemblage of nearly a hundred ladies of the first social and intellectual standing 
in the National Capital gathered at the Executive mansion. The Secretary of War, Mr. Stan- 
ton, who believed in the righteousness of their purpose and who was an efficient friend of the 
Asylum in many emergencies, was present to give the ladies an introduction to the President. 
Mrs. Senator Trumbull was .selected to make the appeal, and she performed the duty with 
remarkable clearness and force of statement and striking dignity of manner. She began by 
afiirming that "treason is the greatest crime known to the law, and should be made odious," 
adroitly weaving her argument from the language in which the President had put himself on 
record so abundantly both in his own State and after becoming the Chief Magistrate of the 
country. After receiving a courteous but indefinite reply, the ladies withdrew, fully satisfied 
that an unconditional pardon would be granted to Cox. In the object sought and in the 



236 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

circumstances of the occasion, the delegation was one of the most remarkable that ever pre- 
sented a petition at the Presidential mansion, and loyal men and women will long believe 
that it was deference to traitors which withheld a compliance with the request of the peti- 
tioners. In the summer the Attorney General signified to the association that he was in 
favor of pardoning Cox. It is due to Mr. Speed to say that, in taking this ground, he 
assigned as his reason that the class of rebels to which Cox belonged had been embraced in 
the President's scheme, and that he could see no just reason for making this an exceptional 
case. In June the pardon was granted, and on August 17 General Howard informed tho 
association that the President had requested him to procure a place for the orphans, in order 
to restore the estate to Cox. 

The association went immediately to the preparation of a new Home. They bought a 
valuable tract, consisting of five lots on the extension of Eighth street, in Washington, 
just beyond the boundary, paying $2,500 for the property; and the Freedmen's Bureau, 
under the guidance of General O. O. Howard, proceeded without delay to build a spacious, 
well planned, two-story frame structure for the Home. Congress, October 2, 1866, appro- 
priated $5,000 for the use of the association, and from this sum they paid for the land. On 
the 6th of November, when the time given to move by the President had expired, the Sec- 
retary of War, seeing that the new Home was yet untenantable, assumed tho authoriry to 
say that they should not be disturbed for another month. On the 7th of December Cox 
went to the Home, with officers, took off the doors and hinges, and removed all the furniture, 
renderiug it unsafe and impossible for the occupants to remain. General Howard in this 
emergency offered to furnish them such quarters as could be found till the new Home Avas 
completed, but the association decided to move at once to the unfinished house. Cox laid 
claim to the frame building which had been built by the association, but the question was 
promptly settled by General Howard, who sent a sufficient force to remove it rapidly from 
the premises. Cox subsequently brought an action against the association for damages, in 
the sum of $10,000, although the association had expended $3,000 in improving the property, 
these improvements including the introduction of water into the buildings. The suit, how- 
ever, was dropped. In the summer of 1887 the Bureau finished the house, which makes a 
very excellent Home. The grounds were, during the same period, terraced, and a fine lot for 
a garden separately enclosed, in which are raised sufficient vegetables for tho family during 
the summer. The parlor was handsomely furnished last j^ear by the exertions of Mrs. Madi- 
son, an efficient and bcnevoleut colored woman of Washington, who gathered the money for 
the purpose among her friends. The haste with which the association was compciied to take 
its children to the new unfinished home in December, 1865, caused some unusual sickness, 
and, it was believed, hastened death in several cases. With this exception heaUh has pre- 
vailed in the Asylum to an uncommon degree. ^ 

The Home is governed by a matron, who is subject to the direction of an executive 
committee, from whom she holds her office. The first matron was Mrs. PIull, chosen Jane 
2. 1863, the day after the Home was moved to Georgetown, her service continuing only to 
the 25th of July following, when Miss Page, of Washington, took the place in the emer- 
gency. Miss Wilbur, of Rochester, was immediately elected ; but declining, the otfice was 
filled by Miss Jeannette Jackson, who, assuming charge September 18, 1863, was excced- 
ino-ly successful. The association, when, by reason of ill health, she resigned, January 27, 
1834, expressed their deep sense of her superior work in a formal resolution of the execu- 
tive board. It being at that time deemed desirable to have a man and wife in charge, Mr. 
J. B. Walt and wife were elected to the duties. They served acceptably for several months, 
resigning tho charge to Mrs. LucyL. Coleman, in the summer of 1864. In September, 1864, 
Mrs. Coleman resigned, and was succeeded by Miss Read, who also resigued January 16, 
1865, Mrs. C. J. B. Nichols, of Connecticut, being elected as matron on the same day. 
Mrs. Nichols continued in charge with much capacity and success till, called to other duties, 
she resigned February 6, 1838. Her successor was Miss Eunice L. Strong, of Ohio, who 
filled the arduous place from Februray, 1866, to October, 1838, with the greatest fidelity and 
good jadgmeat, her resignation causing universal regret among the friends of the asylum. 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 237 

She was succeeded by Mrs. Olive Freeman, who is managing the affairs of the institution 
■with much wisdom and success at the present time. 

No assistant matron was employed in the Home till the Educational Commission of Bos- 
ton, in May, 1864, kindly volunteered to send Mrs. Carr to the institution for that duty. 
Mrs. Carr remained in the Home in various duties till February, 1866. In this period Miss 
Seymour served for a time as assistant matron, resigning in June, 1866, by reason of ill 
health. Subsequently Mrs. Songers, of New York, was filling that position, and in 1867 
she was in charge of the industrial school. In June, 1866, the Young Ladies' Christian 
Union, of Worcester, Massachusetts, sent Miss Hattie Stickney, of New Hampshire, to the 
Home as assistant matron, and still continue to support her in that position, which she 
fills with the highest success and approbation. 

The Providence Colored Orphan Asylum iu April, 1863, offered to adopt into their asylum 
in Rhode Island 12 colored children — orphans desired — which proposition was accepted, 
the children being sent as soon as suitable selections could be made. 

The school was organized early in June, 1863, as soon as the children were gathered into 
their home on Georgetown Heights, and it has been continued till now with the utmost 
efiSciency and success. Miss Emma Brown, a very capable colored young lady of George- 
town, took charge of the school when it was first organized, and continued there with admi- 
rable success during all her summer vacation, she being at that time a teacher iu one of the 
Washington free schools. Miss Maria R. Mann succeeded her in September, 1863, remain- 
ing .till January 11, 1865. During her service miich exertion was used to secure a good 
school-house, the school at first being held in the parlor, and subsequently in a very incon- 
venient temporary structure. In the autumn of 1863 Miss Mann visited Boston under the 
sanction of the asylum, and in its service received from Boston friends $600 in money, besides 
many school-books, maps, cards, and some school charts. She also purchased about 30 
second-hand school desks at $2 50 each. The school-room at Georgetown, as already stated, 
was always inconvenient, small, and esposed to interruptions by persons passing through 
the house. 

In December, 1863, the school numbered 2:2 children, and in the beginning of January, 
1864, there were 37 scholars, at which time the asylum, which had now been at Georgetown 
six months, contained two aged women and Cri children. In May succeeding there were but 
40 children, ranging from one year or less to twelve years of age, quite one-third being at 
that time, as previously, below the school age. The temporary bi*ildings in the form of bar- 
racks — dining room, laundry, school-room, and dormitory — had been completed when the 
new year, 1834, opened. It is proper to state that when Miss Maria R. Mann's connection 
with the school was dissolved, in January, 1835, she deemed it just to withhold from the 
Home the funds and property which she had collected in Boston and elsewhere for school pur- 
poses, including a portable school-house sent from Boston, which had been for some months 
stored in Washington. In this action she was sustained by her friends who had contributed 
largely to the funds. 

Miss Mann was succeeded temporarily by Miss Harding and Mrs. Carr, but in February 
the Freedmeu's Aid Society of Woicester, Massachusetts, through the kind offices of Mrs. 
A. P. Earle of that city, sent Miss Sarah Robinson as a teacher, paying her salary. 
Under her care the school was maintained in its excellent condition and numbered at that 
period 46 .-scholars. 

At the close of the summer term, June, 1865, Miss Robinson was compelled to relinquish 
her Vi'ork by reason of ill health, much to the regret of the asylum. At the opening of the 
autumn term, huwevei', the institution had the excellent fortune to secure the services of Miss 
Susan Tovvle, of Bangor, Maine. The Bangor Freedmeu's Aid Association, learning that 
Miss Towlo was giving her services, and thinking it unjust for her to do so, offered to pay 
her a salary, which the} still continue to do. 

The number of boys iu the Home at the close of 186G was 42, the number of girls 34; 
the number of children received during the year 1867 was 168, and the number remaining 
(It the close of the year was 87. At the close of the year 1868 there were 89 inmates, (boys 
£>3, girls 27, aged women [),) some 25 being below school age. This is, v.ithout any excep- 



238 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

tion, one of the best conducted and most tidmirable colored schools within the District. 
The school-room is spacious, handsomely supplied with furniture, convenient, cheerful iu 
its appearance, in a healthy location, and the scholars, some 50 or 60 in number, progressing 
with uncommon rapidity. There is an iudustrial department connected with the school, in 
which the children are taught sewing, knitting, and straw-braiding, the large children being 
also each day employed in the labors of the household. 

The institution is not limited to receiving orphan children, but also offers a home to desti- 
tute children at the request of the parents, on their making a written surrender of their claim: 
also on the request of one parent, in case of gross neglect orhabitual drunkenness on the part 
of the other. The trustees are also authorized to bind out such children as may be deemed 
capable of learning trades, or of becoming useful in other occupations. The school is so 
divided that each child who is old enough attends the school daily. During the last year 
the school, in all its branches, has been managed by Miss Towle. 

This institution has struggled hard to maintain its work and build a Home for a class whose 
claims upon the benevolent are very great. The women who have engaged in this noble 
work cannot all be mentioned in this condensed history. Many of them are seen in the lists 
of the ofiicers, nearly all of whom were active, though some of the most efficient of the band 
do not appear in those lists. It will be deemed only a meed of justice, however, to mention 
Miss Eliza Hcacock, of Philadelphia, whose unremitting work for several years as secretary 
is recognized by all who are familiar Vvfith the history of the association. Her fidelity in the 
preservation of the records, which in the struggles through which the Asylum has passed 
has been neither a small nor unimportant duty,-extended to many other labors, contributing 
to the Avelfare, pecuniarily and otherwise, of the institution. 

The Society of Friends in various States deserve to be mentioned for their large contri- 
butions in money and in laborers. Of those who started the institution none were more 
laborious and effective than Mrs. S. C Pomeroy, Mrs. John F. Potter, Mrs. Daniel Breed, 
and Mrs. Lyman Trumbull, all of whom have passed to their reward, their mantles falling, 
it can be truly said, upon those who are still carrying onward wisely and well this elevated 
Christian enterprise. 

The Freedmen's Bureau has been the arm of strength to the association in every emer- 
gency, and what these children of desolation are to do when the rations of the Bureau cease 
does not yet appear, though it is not to be doubted that they and their Home will be main- 
tained by the government and by the fostering hands of humane men and women. 

It was feared that the aid from the Freedmen's Bureau would be withdrawn January 1, 
liSGO, under the limitations fixed by act of Congress to take effect at that date in the powers 
and work of the Bureau ; but this misfortune has been for a time deferred by the action of the 
Commissioner in annexing the Home to the freedmen's hospital of the District, ''so far as 
may be necessary for providing medical attendance, medicine, and rations for the inmates." 
At no distant day, however, the association Avill have to depend entirely on private benefac. 
ticns. 

Though attention has been almost exclusively directed to this Asylum as a home for the 
orphan, there have been aged and infirm women in its care from the first month of its exist- 
ence, a very few in the first years, not usually in any period numbering above a dozen at 
a time. 

Both Mrs. Potter and Mrs. Pomeroy died iu 1863, the first year of the association. The 
annual report says : 

"There were with us in the beginning two leading minds, especially distinguished by 
unselfish devotion to this holy cause ; Mrs. Potter, of Wisconsin, and Mrs. Pomeroy. of 
Kansas, two of the originators of this enterprise, have passed from works to reward. Mrs. 
Potter left us early, but not until the good work had felt the impetus of her earnest spirit. 
The loss of our president, Mrs. Pomeroy, we have great reason to deplore. The Home has 
been justly called her monument. Declining the rest and change she needed, she remained 
with us duritig the summer's heat to aid in our work, still laboring with us even when life 
was waning, and her parting spirit sent us back a blessing with the prophet words, ' the 
Home willsu?.ceed.' We remember her words : ' 'Tis for a lace, for millions we are working; 
let us forget ourselves.'" 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED rOPULATION", 239 

In 13GG the asso;:iation " sustained the loss of another of its ovif^inal projectors anil most 
earnest friends," Mrs. Gulielma Breed, of Washington. The annual report further adds: 

" After a life of active usefulness in various departments, and many years of heroic and 
unflagfjirc: devotion to the cause of the oppressed and downtrodden, she uas called to her 
reward. In the day when the record of those who have ministered uuto Christ in tlio person 
of his needy ones shall be made up, many a sable son and daughter of Ethiopia will rise np 
and call her blessed." 

Last year(1868) the association was again called to mourn over the death of a distinguished 
member, Mrs. Trumbull. The report continues: 

"During the past year one of the earliest and warmest friends of the association, Mrs. 
Lyman Trumbull, of Illinois, has been called to her heavenly home. Although some months 
previous to her decease she had withdrawn from our membership, we knew that it was not 
from want of sympathy with our cause, but that her position as president of another and 
equally important charity claimed all the attention that Iier delicate Iiealth permitted her to 
bestow. As a beloved and valued officer of the association, and a liberal contributor to its 
funds, a friend wise in counsel, gentle and lovely in spirit, her name will ever be held in 
prateful remembrance by those who had the ])leasure of being connected with her in this 
worl? of labor and love. ' The sacred memory of the just shall flourish though they sleep in 
dust.'" 

MISS WA.SHINGTON AND MISS JONES. 

Miss Washington's excellent school has already been referred to under Period I. Subse- 
quemly she moved teahouse on L street near her mother's, remaining there till ISGI, when she 
opened a school in the hall over the feed store of Alfred Jones, in company with Matilda 
.Jones, a daughter of the owner of the building. Miss Jones was one of the most talented of 
Miss Miner's scholars, and was her assistant in 1839. She went to Oberlin through Miss 
Miner's influence. They continued the school with eminent success three years, averaging 
more than a hundred scholars through that period. In the spring of ]8f)4 Miss Jones went 
l^ack to Oberlin to finish her studies, and Miss Washington went in September to the Baptist 
church corner of Nineteenth and I streets, -to take chai'ge of the Boston School when it was 
first opened. When, afterwards, this school was under the charge of Miss Capron and Miss 
Flagg, Miss Washington became an assistant under these white teachers, and Miss Jones, 
returning in 1865 from Oberlin, joined the school as associate with Miss Washington, the three 
ladies making a corps of teachers not surpassed by any other in the District. Miss Jones 
became subsequently the wife of Rev. S. W. Madden, pastor of the First Baptist church in 
Alexandria. When the Boston School was disbanded in 1857, ]S%s Washington became 
connected with the public schools, in which she is still doing admirable service as a teacher. 

ST. ALOVSUJ.S' SCHOOL FOR GIRLS. 

There are ia the District but five colored schools exclusively for girls. Mrs Ellen B. 
Wood came here from Philadelphia, where she had been teaching many j'ears, and started 
a school in 1SG3 on Fifteenth street, opposite Scott square, in the western part of the cit}' ; 
moving to E street north, between First and Second streets west, in 1864, and thenco to the 
corner of Tiiird street west and G street north in 1837. The school has now taken up its 
home in two very good rooms, recently finished for the purpose, in the Parochial School build- 
ing connected with St. Aloysius church, under the auspices of which the school is now con- 
ducted. Mrs. Wood was boru in Ilayti, but coming early to Philadelphia was educated 
with white children in that city, excepting in French, which she learned in a colored school 
under a Haytien teacher. She taught a mixed colored and white school in Camden, New 
Jersey, for a period, and afterwards built up a large colored school in Philadelphia, which 
numbered a hundred pupils, when it was sm-rendered into the h.ands of the Sisters of Provi- 
dence in 1862. Her Avork in Washington has grown from a few pupils into a large school 
with two departments, the average number being about 80 girls. The assistant, Elizabetb 
Brown, a native of Philadelphia, was educated at the convent in Baltimore, where she spent 
five years at St. Frances Academy. She is well-educated, and competent to teach Latin, 
French, and music, as well as the primary branches. This school is free to all who are 
unable to pay. 



240 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

SAINT martin's SCHOOLS. 

St. Martin's school for girls is under the charge of two teachers from Baltimore. The princi- 
pal, Mary S. Nccl, was a member of the sisterhood of the Baltimore convent, but has been 
detached to engage in teaching. The assistant. Miss Julia Smith, was educated at the St. 
Frances Academy. St. Martin's school was established in the summer of 1866 through the 
exertions of Eev. Charles T. White, D. D., pastor of St. Matthew's church, and is not yet fully 
systematised. The female academy, which is designed to be a seminary of the higher grade, 
has hitherto, for want of accommodations, been conducted in connection with the parochial 
female school of St. Martin's (colored) church. It is now in contemplation to have them 
separated. These schools at present occupy a large building at the junction of L street north 
r.nd Vermont avenue ; the academy comprising at the present time more than 40 and 
the parochial school 45 pupils. There is also an academy ibr boys and a parochial school for 
boys, each numbering about 30 scholars. The principal is Mr. John McCosker, who was 
educated at the Georgetown College. A small night school for adults is also kept up. 

MISS MANN'S SCHOOL. 

After Miss Mann gave up the charge of the Orphan Asylum school in Georgetown, in 
January, 1865, she established a private school, near the corner of 17 th and M streets, for older 
colored children of both sexes, intending to give it the, character of a Normal school, as far 
as the material of the school would allow. In the summer of 1867, however, the Trustees 
arranged with Miss Mann to connect the school with the public schools of the District, giv- 
ing it the rank of a high school. It now lurmbers about fifty scholars, those more advanced 
being sent to it both from Georgetown and Washington. It has been conducted with sys- 
tem, thoroughness, and energy, and there are several girls of tho school, who v/ill soon be 
fitted to act as teachers. At the opening of the year 1869, its connection with the public 
schools was dissolved by the action of the Trustees, and it is therefore at present a private 
and independent school. 

J. R. FLETCHER'S SCHOOLS. 

In the spring of 1864 Mr. J. M. Perkins started an evening school and a Sabbath school 
in the Soldiers' Free Library building in Judiciary Square ; both which passed into the hands 
of Mr. J. R. Fletcher, of tho Treasury Department, in the following autumn. Mr. Fletcher 
is an enthusiastic andJ^orough teacher, and familiar with the best methods of the Massa- 
chusetts schools. Under his excellent management the schools rapidly increased, and soon 
reached their present numbers, about 75 in the evening school and 110 in the Sabbath school ; 
three-fourths of whom were slaves before the war. The free contributions from the schohu's 
have paid for a part of the expenses, and he has been aided in part by one or two Aid Societies 
and by his personal friends, in addition to what he himself has expended. For example, the 
American Tract Society of Boston famished the fuel daring the first winter and the American 
Missionary Association the second winter, and the Unitarian Church has made some contri- 
butions. Teachers of different denominations have ailed him, as he desired to make it a 
luiion and unsectarian work. In January, 186S, Mr. Fletcher having previously been made 
general Superintendent of the schools under the direction of the "Washington Christian 
Union," his night school was included in their work, they assuming the responsibility of 
making up any deficit that might arise in the support of the school. It has been his aim to 
draw to the school older and more advanced pupils, and he has recently organized an adult 
class of 25 scholars in the hope, eventually, of establishing a thorough Normal course, and 
fitting such a class, era portion of them, to be useful and well informed teachers — at present 
one of the most important objects in the education of the colored people. The Sabbath 
school is one of the most flourishing and best organized in the District, and is quite inde- 
pendent of any aid or church society. It is called the ' ' Puritan Free Mission Sabbath School." 

JOSEPH ambush's and OTHER SCHOOLS. 

Joseph Ambush, a colored man, free born, opened a school in 1862, July 1, on New York 
avenue between Fourth and Fifth streets, which soon averaged, during a part of the year, 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 241 

75 scholars, and now averages nearly that number. Mr. Ambush's father was a slave. He 
himself attended John F. Cook's school, aad for many years was a servant hi the family of 
Commissary General George Gibson, in whose family he received a good deal of instruction. 
In 1SC7 he moved his school to the school room connected with Asbury church, corner of 
Eleventh and K streets. More than half the scholars belong to contraband families, most of 
them quite jjoor, but they all appear very well, and the school is well conducted. Mr. Am- 
bush is a nephew of Enoch Ambush, already mentioned. He speaks of General Gibson and 
his family as being very kind to him, and always ready to aid him in his efforts to get an 
education. 

Mrs. C: W. Grove, in 18G3, came from New York city and opened a private school on I 
street between Nineteenth and Twentieth streets. In the following summer she was employed 
by the Pennsylvania Freedmen's Aid Society in their school in Galbraith chapel, where she 
remained until June, 1867, when she was engaged by the Trustees of the colored public 
schools, at first teaching in the school on Twenty-fourth and F streets, and afterwards in the 
M street school. About the last of December, 18G8, her connection with the public school 
ceased by order of the Trustees, and she soon opened a private sAool on Twenty-third street 
fiear the Circle. 

Mrs. Louisa Ricks, who came to Washington from Texas, opened a school for girls about 
two j-ears ago in the barrack building on I street near Seveuteeth street west. She is assisted 
by Miss Eva Dickinson from Connecticut, who teaches music on the piano, the school being 
provided with a good instrument. The scholars number about 50, and IG are taking music 
lessons. 

January 4, 18G9, Eev. Chauncey Leonard, pastor of the Second Baptist church, (colored,) 
opened a day school at thecorner of Third and G streets, and has an average attendance of 
fifty-five scholars of both sexes, with one assistant teacher. Most of the scholars pay a 
small tuition fee, but the receipts do not cover the expenses of the school, and the balance is 
paid by Eev. Mr. Leonard, in addition to his services as teacher. 

COLFAX INDUSTRIAL MISSION. 

This institution owes its origin to an unpretending association of the teachers of the Sab- 
bath school at ^Visevvell barracks, which held its first meeting November 7, 1867, at tliose 
barracks, on the corner 7th and O streets. The Sabbath school vj^s organized by these 
teachers in the autumn of 1866, the American Tract Society liaviug discontinued its work 
at that place in the previous spring. The Sabbath school was under the superintendence 
of John A. Cole, and still remains under his supervision. The leading purpose of the 
teachers was to maintain an Industrial school, Avhich had been supported by the Tract 
Society. On the '20th of May, 1868, with the plan of securing a more permanent place 
for their school, they adopted a constitution and entered into a full organization, with the 
following cfficcrs : John A. Cole, President ; Charles II. Bliss, Vice President ; S. C. 
Hotchkiss, treasurer; Miss J. M. Alvord, secretary; John A. Cole, Eev. G. A. Hall, Sam- 
uel Barron, John H. Cook, Charles H. Bliss, trustees. The committee who prepared the 
constitution consisted of E. Whittlesey, Charles H. Bliss, Eev. J. W. Alvord. At the same 
meeting a committee, consisting of Mr. Alvord, Eev. John Kimball, and Mr. Wolcott, was 
appointed to make inquiries and report as to a lot upon wliich to build a house. They 
reported, at a meeting, May 9th, 1838, that a suitable lot had been found, and that the 
American Missionary association would furnish the requisite funds for its purchase. The 
lot, about one hundred feet square, on the corner of E and Eleventh streets, was purchased for 
$i,5U0, and the Missionary Association furnished §1,600 in part payment. Messrs. Cole, 
Bliss, and BaiTon were added to the committee, and they vvcre now recognized as the build- 
ing committee. 

The edifice, which was opened Avith the new year, is about 45 by 95 feet, two stories, 
and is composed of the same material as the Howard University. It was erected by the 
Freedmen's bureau and when completed will have cost about $20,000. The lower story con- 
bists of ous school room capable of seating eight or nine hundred persons, with two recitation 

16 



242 SCHOOLS OF THE COLOSED POPUL^'JION. 

room", ihc upper story comprising a large industrial room, and some eight or ten smaller 
rooms for various kinds of industrial employment. 

The Sunday school of this Association has an average attendance of more than six 
hundred scholars of all ages, and the industrial school, held every Saturday, averages about 
200 girls, who are taught various kinds of work upon cloth, as well as uselul occupations 
connected with house-keeping. These schools a.re in the care of an as>ociation of ladies 
with the following officers: Mrs. C. P. Bliss, President ; Mrs. E. W. Kobinson, Vice Presi- 
dent ; Miss Ella Cole, treasurer, Miss J. M. Alvord, secretary. These schools were moved 
to the new building on new year's day, 1S69, and the American Missionary Association look 
it in charge, furcishing a missionary. Rev. G. N. Mardeu, of Orland, Maine, who conducts 
the oenevolent work. The Colored Mechanic's Association is to have its headquarters hero, 
and besides the schools and Suuday worship, there are to be lectures upon useful subjects. 
Jliss Ella Cole, formerly of the Christian Commission, is at present in the service of the 
Missionary association. A night school has been organized, and is attended by over 200 
.scholars, who pay a small tuition fee, 25 cents a month. The Trustees propose to establish 
an Industrial school for<boys, with shops and utensils for teaching useful trades ; also a 
school for adult women. Mr. John A. Cole is the present Superintendent of the Institution. 
The Executive Committee consists of the Trustees, with eight others, E. Whittlesey, Rev. 
J. W. Alvord, Rev. John Kimball, Rev. G. N. Marden, S. C. Ilotchkiss, A. S. Pratt, A. P. 
Eastman, Warren Brown. Steps have been taken to secure a charter for the inslitation. 

MISS WAr.KEU'S INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. 

Among the Industrial schools for the freedmen, that of Miss Susan Walker is a prominent 
and very useful one. Though strictly outside the city limits, it may very properly be 
included among the schools of Washington. Miss Walker is a cousin of Rev. James Walker, 
D. D., for many years president of Harvard College, and a sister of Judge Walker, the late 
eminent lawyer and jurist of Cincinnati, and at one time a partner of Chief Justice Chase. 
On the breaking out of the war she devoted herself to the welfare of the soldiers in hospitals 
and to the freedmen, being one of the first vv'ho in 1862 went to Port Royal for the relief of 
the freedmen, who had gathered there in great numbers and were in a suffering condition. 
In 1865 she was urged, and iu September was formally appointed, to organize an industrial 
school among the freedmen at Campbell barracks, near the terminus of the Seventh street 
railroad. December If-the school was opened in one of the barrack buildings, and soon Miss 
Walker had under training, six hours a day, about ?0 scholars, mostly women, who were 
taught various kinds of plain sewing, she preparing the work for them, cutting the garments, 
&c., in the evening. As these women could not afford to take the tiuie even forinstriiction, 
unless receiving some remuneration, Miss Walker adopted the plan of paying them propor- 
tionately from the articles of clothing made. In September of the next year, 1(SG6, a regi- 
ment of cavalry took up its quarters near her school, causing her great annoyauce and much 
anxiety, as well as disturbing the school Avork. The officer in command gave her assurance 
of the fullest protection, but the soldiers finally broke iuto the school-house, and destroyed 
or took away private property and private papers, a summary way of declaring their creed 
on the subject of educating contrabands. In November the school was removed to Wisevvell 
barratks, and speedily reorganized with an increase of scholars. The general plan and pur- 
pose of Miss Walker in this most unpretentious but most useful work are best seen in the 
following extract from her report of 1866 and 1867: "During the session of three momhs 
instruction and employment were given to 315 women and 12 men and boys ; 819 garments, 
consisting of every variety of clothing for men, women, and children, were made in the school. 
The Bureau furnished material for 70 pairs of pants, 60 pairs Of drawers, and 57 shirts, for 
the making of which 060 were received. The surgcon-in-chieF of the Bureau paid from eight 
to ten rations per month for work done for the hospital. Thise rations were divided as part 
payment among the women, who during the winter desired food rather than clothing; 600 
garments were also given as additional payment. Service places in and around Washington 
were found for 100 women, and 30 others were provided with employment out of the District. 
The Bureau provides school room and fuel. The teacher gives her time and service, and 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED TOPULATION 243 

provides mr.tevial from such sources as she can command. The results of the two years are 
most gratifying. With I^oay exceptions the women had but recently exchanged the shovel 
and the hoe for the needle and thimble. They had not ventured to use the scissors. In a 
few weeks, however, they have learned to cut and make a variety of garments. During the 
first school year ten freedwomen, 'field hands ' in slaver}', cut and niaie, economically and 
neatly, 300 pairs of men's pants. Others have learned to do fine sewing, and have made 
fine linen shirts in the best manner. To-day a woman came to thank me for teaching her, 
as she now earns $3 a week Avith her needle. She prefers it to the shovel. The school was 
commenced with the desire that, if possible, no money should be expended for teaching. 
With the exception of one month, during which a refugee from ^'ew Orleans was placed in 
the school as an assistant, the teaching and charge of the school has been a free gift, gladly 
offered. As fast as women learn to be useful they are required to teach others. The purpose 
of the school is to help the fretdwomen to help themselves. It is not so much to furnish employ- 
ment and do a large quantity of work, as to teach them how to do well ^vhatcvcr they under- 
take. The object is to aid them to become self-supporting and independent ; to encourage 
in them liabin of industry, economy, and cleanliness; to elevate tkem in character and con- 
dition; and to inspire an ambition for self-improvement." In August, 18G7, Miss Walker, 
to secure a permanent locatioti for her school, bought a lot near Ihe spot where she first 
opened it, and on this lot the Bureau erected a commodious building, to which the school was 
moved in April, 1868. It is situated near the base of the ridge of land on which the Howard 
University is built. lu the first four months of that year, while still at Wisewoll barracks, 
], 745 garments were made specially for the Bureau, which supplied the material. During 
the last year Miss Walker has given one hour a day to instructing a portion of the scholars 
in reading and writing. The importance of this and every well-managed industrial school, 
in advancing the best interests of the freedmen, can hardly be over-estimated. Mrs. Doolittle, 
wife of Prof. M. H. Doolittle, of the Naval Obs3rvatory, established and carried on in George- 
town in lS65-'66 a large and very successful industrial school for freedwomen, giving 
instruction to 120, mostly adults, and there are others who have doue and arc doing much 
good in this important department of benevolent work. 

THE TV/O NATIONAL THEOLOGICAL INSTITUTES AND UNIVERSITIES. 

The first attempt to organize an institution to train colored men for the ministiy was com- 
menced in January, 18S.5, by Rev. Edmund Turney, D.D., a Calvini^Baptist clergyman of 
some eminence in the denomination. Dr. Turney came here in that month, and throun-h 
his activity a meeting wai held in the First Baptist Church, on the first day of February, 
to discuss the subject, and at an adjourned meeting on the 13th of the same month the plan 
of a seminary, under the name of the "National Theological Institute for Colored Minis- 
ters," was completed, and Dr. Turney v/as elected president It was chartered by Congress, 
under that name, May 10, 1866 ; and by an amendatory act, March 2, 1867, the institution 
was expanded into a University, embracing in its designs of culture "others than those 
connected with the Christian ministry." This enlargement produced a rupture in the asso- 
ciation. The Boston Baptist people, mostly clergymen, vv-ished the institution to be confined 
exclusively to the education of ministers and teachers, and a portion of the executive com- 
mittee of the corporation, claiming to be the executive board, and acting in harmony with 
the Boston friends, met at Nev^ark, New Jersey, in May, J 867, and by formal rote resolved 
to hold the new powers "in abeyance," to transfer the " institute " and the seat of its opera- 
tions from Washington to Boston, which transfer in a circular they subsequently announced 
had been done. The portion of the executive committee in favor of the "university " plan 
resisted the Newark movement, and carrying the question to the Court of this District were 
fully sustained by its decisions in their resistance, the Court deciding that the corporation 
by the terms of its charter, must reside here, and ordering the funds of the corporation, 
v,'hich had been trauferred to Boston, to be returned. The decision of the Court is as fullows : 
"The corporate functions of said corporation were, by said act, intended to bo exercised 
in said District, and that thi books, funds, and assets of said corporation should be within 
the jurisdiction of this Court," and it ordered that "the defendants, or such of them as hold 



244 SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 

or have control of said books, funds, and assets beyond said jurisdiction, return the same to 
the said jurisdiction, to the end that the same may be subject to the further order of this 
Court," May 20, 1868. The Court has no knowledge at this time, January, 1869, that the 
order has been obeyed. 

In March, 1867, the Freedmen's Bureau turned over to the institution ten thousand dollars 
from the refugees and freedmen's fund, under the act of Congress authorizing the Bureau to 
assist in the establishment of institutions of learning for the benefit of the colored people. 
It is understood, however, that the Bureau took the ground that it was authorized so to do 
under the amendment, which transformed the institution from a Theological Seminary into a 
school of general culture. This donation is the bone of contention between these two rival 
parties, who are aiming at the same beneficent object. 

Meanwhile the Boston section of the double-headed University, which, like Dr. Turney's, 
claims tc be ''The National Theological Institute and University," completed their organiza- 
tion. This new school was put into operation last autumn, under the instruction of Rev. 
G. M. P. King, a young man of excellent qualities, from the State of Maine, and, with a female 
assistant, he has now in his school upwards of 40 men, ranging from IB years of age up to 4r>, 
and a sm.all class of girls who are preparing to become teachers. The Soldiers' Free Library 
Building, on Judiciary Square, is their school house, and a large barrack building on I 
street, near Seventeenth, is the home of the young men — serving for dormitories and study 
rooms, with cooking quarters and dining hall attached— all fitted up in a comfortable manner, 
capable of accommodating 35 students. Sixteen are studying for the ministry. 

The first two years of Dr. Turney's work in this District attracted much attention, and the 
success with vi'hich he trained his theological class received the marked commendation of all 
friends of the cause here and elsewhere. His operations, down to March 1, 1867, gave 
the Boston friends special satisfaction, as appears from the very high encomiums which were 
at that period accorded to him by nearly all the leading Baptist clergymen of Boston and 
vicinity, in a circular issued by the managers of the enterprise. Dr. Turney's University 
scheme embraces the plan of a central school in the District of Columbia, with subordinate 
institutions ot a normal, preparatory, and industrial character, established at desirable 
points throughout the south. During his first year his work here included a series of night- 
schools for men and women, who were intending to teach or preach, and this work he 
prosecuted with great assiduity, showing faith in bis cause and in the mode chosen to pro- 
mote it. In March, 1S68, his second year, he opened a day school in a large building on 
Louisiana avenue, near Seventh street, and continued it till September, 1867, when it was 
removed to a spacious government structure, corner of Twenty-second street west and I 
north, where it has been to the present time. This school was large, some 45 in num- 
ber, at its opening, and has so continued. About thirty-five young men are pursuing Theo- 
logical studies-. The system of subordinate schools in the region bordering upon the city and 
District has been maintained from the beginning with persistency, and his friends here and 
abroad are firm in his support. This University is the first one, designed specifically for 
freedmen, over incorporated in the country. In August, 1867, he published a plan of a 
" Female Collegiate Institute," with a full board of instruction. Dr. Turney has an evening 
school in his school building of about 30 scholars, not including theological students, and 
in February, 1869, he opened another evening school in the Fifth Colored Baptist church on 
Vermont avenue, commencing with 30 men, many of whom had been his pupils. This 
sobool is under his personal instruction. In the same building a school for colored women, 
now numbering 25 scholars, is held two afternoons a week, under the management of Dr. 
Turney, but taught by Miss Lavinia Warner, colored. On Capitol Hill he has established 
an afternoon school, numbering about 25 scholars, including some of his theological students, 
one of whom, Washington Waller, has the personal charge of the school, which is taught 
five afternoons in the week. This same teacher has an evening school of about 15 scholars 
in the small colored Baptist church on Fourteenth street, at " Murder Bay." John Johnson, 
another of Dr. Turney's scholars, has a small evening school in the Pennsylvania Friend's 
building, on Nineteenth street west, near the boundary. Dr. Turney has also a school five 
evenings in the week at Freedmen's Village, Arlington, under his direction. Robert S. Laws, 
a scholar in the Wayland Theological Seminary and who preaches at Arlington, has the 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. '245 

supervision of this school, v.'hich averages about 100 scholars. Mrs. Ellen Reeves, sister of 
Mr. W. Syphax, is the teacher. This is the only school now at Arlington, but a day school 
is about to be started under tlie direction of Dr. Turucy, with Jliss Julia Howard, a white 
teacher from Boston, as the instructor. In organizing and encouraging these night and 
afternoon schools, Dr. Turney has been doing a very useful work. 

WAYLAXD TIlEOLOCaCAL SEMINARY. 

This institution had its origin in the " Boston School," which was established in the base- 
ment of the First Colored Baptist Church, corner of Nineteenth and I streets, in September, 
]S()4, by the New England Freedmen's Aid Commmission, an association of prominent 
benevolent persons of the Baptist denomination in Boston, and is not to be confounded with 
the New England Freedmen's Aid Society. The seminary was eminently successful, being 
very fortunate in its teacher, Lucy A, Flagg, and her assistanfs. Early in 18B6 the above 
named Aid Commission arranged with the American Baptist Home Missionary Society to 
take the school, and in May the Commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau offered that 
societr a large government building for its use. The offer was accepted ; a fine lot adjoining 
the church was purchased by the society ; the barrack structure was transferred to the let 
by the Bureau, and the school opened in the autumn as a Normal School. In July, 1867, it 
was converted into a Theological Seminary proper, under the remarkably judicious cliarge 
of Reverend S. B. Gregory, President, assisted by Mrs. 8. B. Gregory and Miss Sarah 
Utley, all from New York State, and it lias been doing a work, for the past two years, of great 
value to the cause, securing the respect of all who have enjoyed or observed its mode of 
instruction. The present number of students is about 38. 

When the American Baptist Home Missionary Society was putting the Wayland School 
into operation in the spring of 1866, the managers of the " National Institute and Univer- 
sity" solicited the society to assume the charge of the University, and make Dr. Turney 
president. The proposition was accepted by the society, but Dr. Turney declined to co-op- 
erate with the Home Missionary Society. This is believed to be a correct statement of the 
very unfortunate course of events which have resulted in the establishment in Washington 
of three separate Theological schools, under the auspices of one religious denomination. It 
should be stated however, that " The Wayland Seminary" is not identified with the very 
unfortunate alienation. 

THE HOWARD UNIVERSITY. 

The originators of this institution were a small band of men earnestly enlisted in the work 
of elevating the colored race. They were all northern men, and nearly all of them connected 
with the New Congregational Clmrch and Society of Washington. The credit of originating 
the scheme belongs to Reverend B. F. Morris, of Cincinnati, Ohio, who was at that time in 
government employment in the District, and who subsequently, in a fit of melancholy, 
committed suicide at Springfield, Ohio. Mr. Morris was the son of Thomas Morris, one of 
the early anti-slavery men, a native of Virginia, who, while a senator in Congress from 
Ohio, from 1833 to 1830, was one of the bold, able, and foremost champions of freedom. 
Isaac N. Morris, a member of the House of Representatives from Illinois, during the thirty- 
fifth and the thirty-sixth Congress, and Jonathan D. Morris, who was a member of the thirty- 
first Congress from Ohio, are sons of Thomas Morris. Reverend B. F. Jlorris possessed a 
mind of remarkable originality, and was a man of generous and philanthropic sentiments. 
His original idea was to found an institution to train colored men for teachers and preach- 
ers. He presented his plan to his pastor. Reverend Charles B. Boynton, 1). D., who entered 
cordially into the scheme, and subsequently to other friends. At this time Mr. H. A. Brewster 
also was considering a plan for a missionary association, Avith tlie same object in view, and 
how the project of the latter was turned to the purposes of the former, appears in the pro- 
ceedings of the preliminary meetings, of which tlie following is a condensed history : 

On the 20th of November, 1866, the first meeting was held, which initiated this great edu- 
cational enterprise, and was suggested at a prayer meeting of the Congregational church 
held in the Columbia College Law Building, at which time Mr. Brewster made remarks on 



216 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED rOPULATIOX. 

tbc importance of doirg scmefhing for the educatian of the colored race. .Some twenty 
jiersons were present, uearly all members of the newly organized Congregational church, and 
in sjnipalhy with Mr. Morris, who had come to the meeting to assist in turning the work in 
that direction. The record of this meeting says : "By invitation of H. A. Brewster a meeting 
was held at his house for the purpose of considering missionary interests as related to the pre- 
rogatives and responsibilities of the First Congregational church, and, if found expedient, to 
devise ways and means for the promotion of the same." Reverend Charles B. Boyntcn. D. D., 
a'ter opening the meeting with prayer, called upon Reverend Benjamin F. Morris, who 
sot forth his plan of a theological seminary, having in view the training of colored men for 
the ministry, Mr. Brewster having previously explained the purpose of the meeting. The 
views of Mr. Morris, which he stated to be " the result of reflection and consultation with 
other brethren," were imaniniously accepted, the name of " Howard Theological Seminary" 
being adopted for the institution, and the following officers elected : Chairman of meeting, 
H. A. Brewster; Secretary, E. M. Cushman; Trustees of seminnry, O. 0. Howard, C. B. 
Boynton, D. B. Kichols, B. F. Morris, H. A. Brewster, H. Barber, J. B. Hirtchinson, R. H. 
Stevens, Henry Wilson, Samuel C. Pomeroy, B. C. Cook; com.m.ittee on organization, C. B. 
Boynton, B. F. Monis, D. B. Nichols. In the course of the meeting, General Hov.'ard 
olTered to build a seminary structure from the educational funds of the Freedmeu's Bureau 
if the association would I'urniwh a lot ; and Mr. Brewster thereupon gave his verbal guaran- 
tee that the lot should be secured. At the second meeting, December G, the report of the 
committee on organization was submitted by Mr. Kichols, and on his motion the name of 
the seminary was changed to that of " The Howard Norm.al and Theologicallnstitutoforthe 
education of Teachers and Preachers." This change of name originated with Senator S C. 
Pomeroy, who urged the establishment of a Normal Department, which appears to have 
especially contributed to the change of plan from a school of Theology to that of a school 
of general learning. Senator Pomeroy urged, among other arguments in favor of the 
normal feature, that it would place the seminaiy in a position to share in the bounty which 
Congress was destined, as he believed, to bestow for the encouragement of this class of pro- 
fessional s';hools. This was apparently the controlling idea in his mind in suggesting the 
expansion of the plan. Mr. Nichols seems to have been the foremost to favor Mr. Pomeroy's 
views ; and it should be added that the mot>ions in the meeting pertaining to the name of the 
institution in all its modifications, including its final and permanent form, ave to be mainly 
accredited to him. It should still further be stated that in his report on organization, pre- 
sented at this meeting, Mr. Nichols used the term "collegiate" in the name which he proposed 
for the institution, though nothing appears indicating the idea of any distinct enlargement 
of the range of culture beyond what had been previously contemplated. The suggestions of 
Senator Pomeroy seem to have so modified the views of all the others that the report of Mr. 
Nichols did not assume any formal importance in the organization of the institution, though 
it embodied some excellent features, which were adopted. Prof. Silas L. Loomis, M. D., 
now connected with the Medical department of the University, who was present at the 
yecond meeting, urged the establishment of a department to train the students in letter 
writing, and suggested a professorship of Belles Lettres to that end. He also suggested, 
in connection with a plan of medical instiuction, the name of Howard to be applied to the 
institution. The fact seems to be that both the name and the plan were gradually developed 
in the general discussion at the meetings and elsewhere, and that neither the one nor the 
other originated with any one individual. The original purpose was to build a school 
essentially Congregational in its character, and exclusively under the control and guidance 
of the Washington Congregational church, and much- resistance was encountered, as the 
plan developed, by those who became the advocates of an expanded scheme. Senators S. C. 
Pomeroy and Henry Wilson seem to htive been among the most judicious and influential 
actors and counsellors in the whole task. 

The following committees were then elected : Finance, J. B. Johnson, H. A. Brewster, 
W. G. Finney: building and grounds, 0. 0. Howard, S. C. Pomeroy, II. Barber— S. L. 
Loomis being added at the next m.eeting; library, D. B. Nichols, B. F. Morris, E. Ketchum. 
At the third meeting, December 18, the various committees reported ; that upon building and 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATIOX. 247 

grounds bidng authorized to purchase the property near the terniinus of the Seventh street 
raih-oad, as proposed. A committee, consistin:^ of Senator Wilson, Senator Pomeroy, and 
Hon. B. C. Cooke, Avas chosen to obtain a charter. The Board of Trustees was increased 
to 15 by the addition of W. F. Basconi, C. H. Howard, E. IL Robinson, and E. M. Cush- 
man, a still further increase being made at the next meeting by the addition of S L, 
Loomis. J. B. Johnson, and W. G. Finney. At the fourth meeting, January 8, 18(i7, the 
following officers were elected : C. B. Boynton, President Board of Trustpcs ; H. A. Brew- 
ster, Vice President; E. M. Cushman, Secretary; J. B. Hutchinson, Treasurer; D. B. 
Nifliols, Supeiidtendent of institution and Librarian. At this meeting, after remarks by C. 
H. Howard, C. B. Boynton, and PL A. Brewster, on the subject of the name of the institu- 
tion, on motion of D. B. Nichols, seconded by Dr. Boynton, who urged wirh much earnest- 
ness the propriety of sending down the name of Howard to the coming centuries in connec- 
tion with the institution, the name Avas again changed to that of "The Howard University," 
under v;hich it was chartered. Measures were also adopted looking to the organization of a 
Medical and Law department. 

At the second meeting of the Board of Trustee^ the establishment of an Agricultural depart- 
ment was a topic of discussion. General O. O. Howard introduced the matter of the " Miner 
Institution," which incorporated and holding property in the city of Washington, has in view 
])Urposes cognate to those of the Howard University, and suggested the leasing of the prop- 
erty of that institution at six per cent, per annum upon the purchase price. At this meeting, 
in connection with the report of S. L. Loomis, embracing a plan of a Medical department, 
and on motion of D. B. Nichols it was made a condition of eligibility to a place in the board 
of instruction in the University that the candidate " furnish satisfactory evidence of Christian 
character." This provision was subsequently struck out and the following substituted : 
" Resolved, That every person elected to any position in the Howard University shall be a 
member of some Evangelical church," a change which, it is understood, the Trustees have 
determined to modify. 

At the sixth meeting, being the third of the Botird of Trustees, Dr. Boynton presented the 
outlines of the charter of the Michigan University as a basis for that of the Howard Univer- 
.sity. General 0. O. Howard then presented the bill which Senator Wilson had introduced 
into the United States Senate to incorporate the Howard University ; General O. O. How- 
ard and Senator Wilson being appointed a committee to revise and present it in its revised 
form to Congress. The question whether provision by the charter whould be made for the 
admission of females, was freely and with lively interest discussed at this time, the prevail- 
ing sentiment being that no distinciion should be made. General O. O. Howard was among 
those not favoring the admission of females. It was also voted to lease the property pur- 
chased by the bounty funds at $1,200 per annum, lease to date from January 2(5, 1807 ; and 
that a Normal and Preparatory school be forthwith opened. 

The original piu'pose in founding this Institution was to educate the colored lace exclusively ; 
lo train men for preachers, teachers and missionaries, both in this country and in Africa. 
This was distinctly set forth in the plan of organization, as reported by Reverend D. B. Nich- 
ols at an early preliminary meeting. Senator Pomeroy and Dr. Boynton took ground iu . 
favor of the expanded scheme as embodied in the charter, which was drafted by Dr. Boyn- ■ 
ton, and which extends the privileges of the institution to both sexes and all colors. It has 
already been stated that General Howard was averse to this feature, which contemplated the 
union of the sexes and colors in the school, and so expressed himself at the time the provis- 
ions of the charter were discussed. It is an interesting fact to observe that while Oberlin 
College embarked on its work as a, school for white scholars, and was changed to embrace 
colored, the Howard University started as exclusively a colored school, and Avas soon 
enlarged, and opened its door to all. It is perhaps hardly necessary to add that General O. 
O. HoAvard has been from the beginning, through all its stages, the great sustaining pillar ot 
the enterprise. 

Subjoined is the charter as it was passed by Congress and sanctioned by the President, 
March 2, 1867: 



248 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

"ACT to incorporate the Howard University. 

^^ Beit enacted by the Senate and House nf Representatives of the United States of America in 
Congiess Assembled, That there be established, and is hereby established, in the District of 
Columbia, a University for the education of youth in the liberal arts and sciences, under the 
name, style, and title of ' The Howard University.' 

" Sec. 2. And be it further enacted, That Samuel C. Pomeroy, Charles B. Boynton, Oliver 
O. Howard, Burton C. Cook, Charles H. Howard, James B. Hutchinson, Henry A. Brews- 
ter, Benjamin F. Morris, Danforth B. Nichols, William G. Finney, Roswell H. Stevens, E. 
M. Cushman, Hiram Barber, E. W. Robinson, W. F. Bascom, J. B. Johnson, and Silas L. 
Loomis be, and tbey are hereby declared to be a body politic and corporate, with perpetual 
succession in deed or in law, to all intents and purposes whatsoever, by the name, style, and 
title of "The Howard University," by which name and title they and their successors shall 
be competent at law and in equity to take to themselves and their successors, for the use of 
said University, any estate whatsoever in any messuage, lauds, tenements, hereditaments, 
goods, chattels, moneys, and other effects, by gift, devise, grant, donation, bargain, sale, 
conveyance, assurance, or will ; and the same to grant, bargain, sell, transfer, assign, con- 
vey, assure, demise, declare to use and farm let, and to place out on interest, for the use of 
said University, in such manner as to them or a majority of them shall be deemed most 
beneficial to said institution ; and to receive the same, their rents, issues and profits, income 
and interest, and to apply the same for the proper i:se and benefit of said University ; and 
by the same name to sue and be sued, to implead and be impleaded in any court of law and 
equity, in all manner of suits, actions, and proceedings ?vhatsoever, and generally, by and 
in the same name, to do and transact all and every the business touching or concerning the 
premises : Provided, That the same do not exceed the value of fifty thousand dollars annual 
net income over and above and exclusive of the receipts for the education and support of the 
students of said University. 

" Sec. 3. And be it further enacted. That the first meeting of said corporators shall be holden 
at the time and place at which a majority of the persons herein above named shall assemble 
for that purpose; and six day's notice shall be given each of said corporators, at which 
meeting said corporators may enact by-laws, not inconsistent with the laws of the United 
States, regulating the government of the corporation. 

" Sec. 4. And be it further enacted. That the government of the University shall be vested in 
a Board of Trustees of not less than thirteen m ambers, who shall be elected by the corpo- 
rators at their first meeting. Said Board of 'Trustees shall have perpetual succession in deed 
or in law, and in them shall be vested the power hereinbefore granted to the corporation. 
They shall adopt a common seal, which they may alter at pleasure, under and by which all 
deeds, diplomas, and acts of the University shall pass and be authenticated. They shall 
elect a President, Secretary, and a Treasurer. The treasurer shall give such bonds as the 
Board of Trustees may direct.. The said Board shall also appoint the professors and tutors, 
prescribing the number, and determining the amount of their respective salaries. They shall 
also appoint such other oflicers, agents, or employes as the wants of the University may from 
time to time demand, in all cases fixing their compensation. All meetings of said Board 
may be called in such manner as the Trustees shall prescribe, and nine of them so assembled 
shall constitute a quorum to do business, and a less number may adjourn from time to time. 

"Sec. .5. And be it further enacted. That the University shall consist of the following depart- 
ments, and such others as the Board of Trustees may establish : First, Normal ; second. Col- 
legiate; third, Theological; fourth. Law; fifth. Medicine; sixth. Agricultural. 

" Sec. (i. yhid be it further enacted. That the immediate government of the several depart- 
ments, subject to the control of the Trustees, shall be intrusted to their respective faculties; 
but the Trustees shall regulate the course of instruction, prescribe, with the advice of the pro- 
fessors, the necessary text-books, confer such degrees and grant such diplomas as are usually 
conferred and granted in other universities. 

" Sec. 7. And be it further enacted, That the Board of Trustees shall have the power to 
remove any professor or tutor, or other officer connected with the institution, when in their 
judgment the interests of the University shall require it. 

" Sec. 8. Aiid be it further enacted. That the Board of Trustees shall make an annual report, 
making an exhibit of the affairs of the University. 

" Sec 9. And be it further enacted. That no misnomer of the said corporation shall defeat 
or annul any donation, gift, grant, devise, or bequest to or from the said corporation. 

"Sec. 10. And be it further enacted. That the said corporation shall not employ its funds 
or income, or any part thereof, in banking operations, or for any purpose or object other 
than those expressed in the first section of this act; and that nothing in this act contained 
shall be so construed as to prevent Congress from altering, amending, or repealing the same. 

"Approved March 2, 18tj7." 

The corporators held a meeting March 19, 18G8, and organized in the choice of a Board of 
Trustees, President, Secretary, and Treasurer, and a committee to prepare a code of by-laws — 
the executive committee, under the by-laws, being chosen at a subsequent meeting. May 6, 
18G7. This committee originally consisted of Charles B. Boynton, D. D., President of the 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 249 

University and ex officio chairman; O. O. Howard. William F. Bascom, and E. W. Robin- 
son ; and to them were confided the supervision of the building operations and financial 
aflairs of the corporation. 

The following- is a list of the trustees and other officers of the institution, together with 
dates of their election : 

Trustees. — Hon. Samuel C. Pomeroy, United States senator from Kansas, March 19, 1867; 
Eev. Charles B Boyntou, D. D., Chaplain of the House of Representatives, and pastor of 
First Cong^regational church, Washington, D. C, March 19, 1867; Major General Oliver 
O. Howard, United States army, March 19, 1867; Hon. Burton C. Cook, member, from 
Illinois, of the United States House of Representatives, March 19, 1867 ; Brigadier General 
Charles H. Hovvard, United States volunteers, March 19, 1867; J. B. Hutchinson, esq., 
March 19, 1867; Henry A. Brewster, esq, March 19, 1867; Rev. Benjamin F. Morris, 
March 19, 1867; Rev. Danforth B. Nichols, March 19, 1837; William G. Finney, esq., 
March 19, 1867; Roswell H. Stevens, esq., March 19, 1867; E. M. Cushman, esq., March 
19, 1867; Dr. Hiram Barber, March 19, 1867; Rev. E. W. Robinson, March 19, 1867; 
William F. Bascom, esq., March 19, 1867; James B. Johnson, esq., March 19, 1867; Dr. 
Silas L. Loomis, March J 9, 1867 ; General George W. Balloch, March 19, 1867 ; Rev. Henry 
Highland Garnett, late pastor of the Fifteenth Street Presbyterian church, of colored people, 
Washington, D. C., April 8, 1867; Rev. Byron Sunderland, D. D., pastor of the First 
Presbyterian church, Washington, D. C, April 22, 1867 ; Rev. D. W. Anderson, pastor 
First Baptist church, of colored people, Washington, D. C, April 6, 1868; Judge Hugh 
L. Bond, Baltimore, May 4, 1868: Rev. J. \V. Alvord, May 4, 1868. 

Trustees resigned. — Rev. Charles B. Boynton, D. D., January 11, 1868; J. B. Hutchin- 
son, esq., March 2. 1868; E. M. Cushman, esq., March 2, 1868. 

Trustee deceased. — Rev. Benjamin F. Morris, June 28, 1867. 

Presidents of the University. — Rev. Charles B. Boynton, D. D., March 19, 1887; resigned 
and ceased to act as Trustee, August 27, J867 ; Rev. Byron Sunderland, D. D., August 27, 
1867. 

Secretaries of the Board.— "E. M. Cushman, esq., March 19, 1867; resignation accepted 
December 20, 1867; E. W. Robinson, elected December 29, 1867. 

Treasurer of the Board. — General George W. Balloch, March 19, 1867. 

Collegiate Department. — General Eliphalet Whittlesey, Professor of Rhetoric and Belles- 
lettres, September 21, 1868; William F. Bascom, A. M., Professor of Greek and Latin, 
September 22, 1868. 

Law Department. — Hon. A. G. Riddle, December 29, 1868 ; John M. Langston, esq., Pro- 
fessor, October 12, 1858. 

Medical Department. — Tlie President, cx-q^cio chairman ; Silas L. Loomis, M. D., Dean; 
Joseph Tabcr Johu.son, M. D., .Secretary and Treasurer. Faculty. — Silas L. Loomi.s, M. D., 
Professor of Chemistry and Toxicology, May 4, 18(i8; Robert Reyburn, M. D , Professor of 
Anatomy, May 4, 1868; Joseph Taber Johnson, M. D., Professor of Materia Medica and 
Therapeutics, May 4, 1868 ; Lafayette C. Loomis, M. D., Professor of Physiology and Micro- 
scopy, September 21, 1868; Alexander T. Augusta, M. B., Demonstrator of Anatomy, Sep- 
tember 21, 1868. 

Standing Committee on Agriculture. — D. B. Nichols. October 12, 1868; J. W. Alvord, 
October 12, 1868; General George W. Balloch, October 12, 1868. 

This committee was appointed with a view to the improvement of the university reserva- 
tion, to the employment of students who may desire by labor to defray in part their ex^ienses, 
and to the ultimate complete organization of the Agricultural Department. The need of an 
Education Society, to give aid to deserving and indigent j^outh — especially colored youth, 
who are almost without exception poor — is felt by the Board; but for the present the sub- 
ject of aiding students, particularly by providing them labor, is referred to this committee. 

Z.itrarian.— Danforth B. Nichols, April 8, 1867. 

Preparntorij and Normal Department. — Principals. — E. F. Williams, from May 2, 1867 ; 
John H. Combs, September 10, 1867; A. L. Barber, April 13, 1868. Female Principal, 
Miss Julia A. Lord, June 25, 1867. 

At the late meeting, December 29, 1858, the board elected Brigadier General Charles H. 
Howard to the chair of modern languages, which he declined, and at the same time a com- 
mittee was chosen with the purpose in view to secure, if possible, the services of Major Gen- 
eral O. O. Howard as President of the University. It should be here stated that the Presi. 
dency of the Board of Trustees and the Presidency of the University, originally constituting 
a single office, have been separated. 

The University site. — The site for the university was purchased by the trustees of John A. 
Smith, for $147,500. The price was originally fixed at $150,000, the number of acres being 
by estimate 150. Thomas Coyle, however, holding the right by lease to take sand from the 



250 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

liill for a term of yctirs, the owner of the land, after a protracted negotiation, finally made 
ihe proposition to deduct $2,500 from the price on acconnt of the encumbrance, and this 
offer was accepted. The deed was made April 28, 1860, but was not finally executed and 
delivered till May 25, ensuing. The Trustees subsequently paid Thomas Coyle $5,000 for a 
surrender of his lease. The terms of the purchase were $20,000 cash, the balance payable 
in 10 equal annual instalmentf, and the interest on the whole unpaid principal payable 
semi-annually. Originally, 50 acres were appropriated for university grounds. Subse- 
quently 10 acres were added, and still later an additional 10 acres for the park was set aside, 
making in all, in round numbers, 70 acres. The remaining 80 acres were laid off in lots, 
and mostly sold, making it certain that their proceeds will pay the entire oilginal purchase. 
The University huildings. — These buildings consist of a spacious university edifice proper 
four stories high, imposing in external appearance, commodious in its internal plan, and 
standing upon a commanding and handson.e as well as healthy location, looking down" 
upon the city and a broad expanse of the country, including many miles of the winding 
Potomac. There is also an ample dormitory, capable of accommodating the teachers and 
300 scholars w'ith board and lodging; three stories and basement, with every appointment 
belonging to a first-class structure for such purpose. A very large and commodious medical 
building is erecting on the premist's, three stories in height, and corresponding in architec- 
ture and appearance with the other structures. The Normal and Preparatory department 
moved into the apartments in the University building, designed for that purpose, early in 
November last, and the teachers and students entered the dormitory with the opening of the 
new year of 1869. In the appendix will be found a note upon the material of which the 
buildings are made. 

The cost of the university structure and dormitory, when fully completed, w'ill be quite 
|100,000. The Fj'cedmen's Bureauis building these, as also the medical building, in pur- 
suance of an act of Congress approved March 2, 1868, authorizing the Bureau thus to aid 
the cause of education from the freedmen and refugees' fund, the aid in this case being 
justified by the fact that the University is intended to embrace within its benefits the children 
of freedmen and refugees. "The refugees' and freedmeu's fund" embraces all moneys 
belonging to the government which come into the custody of the Bureau through the iuci- 
dents of the war, comprising among other items those arising from rents, fines, and sales of 
old property. The name is used to distinguish it from the regular appropriation. Other fine 
school structures, similar to these university buildings, though not in any case on so large 
a scale, have been erected at important points in the south from the same funds. These 
buildings are held in the actual or constructive possession of the government, to await the 
direction of Congress, the expectation being that the Commissioner will be ordered to sur- 
render them as the property of the associations upon whose lands they stand, with the lim» 
itation that they are to be forever used for educational purposes. Where the principle of 
the common law is restrained by no statute, it is clear that the government has no valid claim 
upon these buildings, as they become a part of the realty. 

Normal and Preparatory Department.^Thls department was opened on the second day of 
May, 18C7, in a comfortable building which, with three acres of land, had been purchased 
by the authorities of the Freedmeu's Bureau, by deed dated December 21, 1836, for the sum 
of $12,000. The funds used in this purchase consisted of the retained bounty which accumu- 
lated under an order of Major General B. F. Butler, issued in 1804, at the period when State 
agents from the north were enlisting colored soldiers in his department in Virginia and North 
Carolina during the war. The purpose of the order was to save for these enlisted soldiers 
and their families a portion — one-third— of the large State bounty which they were receiving 
and wasting in dissipation. When General Howard took charge of freedmeu's affairs, this 
retained fund, then in the hands of numerous officers, was immediately ordered into the cus- 
tody of the Bureau, to be held for the benefit of the colored race, and subject to the call of 
legal claimants. This building and land were purchased with nmney from this fund, and 
lias been rented since January 1, 18C7, to the Howard University at$l ,200 per annum. The 
most of this retained bount}^ which, when called into the possession of the Bureau, amounted 
to some $150,000, has since been paid to the legal claimants, reducing the amount in August 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 251 

last to about $30,000; and if the portion invested in this property shall ever be legally chaaicd 
it -will be at once refunded, the investment being exceedingly judicious in a pecuniary as 
well as in every other point of view. This money is not in any sense public funds, and is 
not so regarded at the Treasury Department. It is simply money belonging to colortd sol- 
diers, held in trust, subject to their call ; and its investment in a mode not ouly to return fair 
interest but also to aid in educating the colored race, can be deemed by just men only in the 
light of a wise and beneficent disposition of the matter on the part of General O. O. Howard. 
The house was well repaired by the Bureau, and since the school has vacated the premises 
they have been occupied by the Medical Department. 

The Normal and Preparatory Department has been eminently successful. It opened with 
five scholars in May, 1SG7, and so rapidly increased in numbers that it became necessary to 
employ a second teadier, the first quarter closing with an excellent school, the whole num- 
ber for the period on the register being 83, of whom 20 were females, not including a night 
school of 11 scholars, under a good teacher. At the close of the first quaitcr the principal, 
Rev. Edward F. Williams, a graduate of Yale College and Princeton Theological Seminary, 
who had given the very highest satisfaction, resigned, in order to embark in liis profession, 
and was succeeded by JohnH. Combs, A. M., a graduate of Williams College, who served 
from October, 18G7, till April, 1868, when he gave place to A. L. Barber, a graduate of 
Oberlin, and a gentleman eminently adequate to the position. Miss Julia A. Lord, of Port- 
land, Maine, the female principal, has continued to serve in this position, with the same supe- 
rior efliciency which distinguished her labors in the colored grammar school of AVashington, 
from which she was called to this place. The total number of students for the year ending 
in June, 18(38, was 127, and the exercises of the first anniversary fully satisfied the expecta- 
tions of the most sanguine friends. The fall term of 1868 proved still more satisfactory, 
commencing with more than 60 scholars and the number soon reaching 110, most of whom 
are pay scholars. Of the whole number only 12 are white. The school, since taking posses- 
sion of its new and very handsome and commodious quarters in the university building, has 
put on new strength, and an assistant teacher, a colored young man of good qualifications, has 
been added to the corps of instruction. The large classes in grammar, philosophy, arith- 
metic, algebra, and other advanced English branches, as well as the three classes in Latin, 
numbering in all about 30, and a small class in Greek, progress with as much rapidity and 
thoroughness as do scholars in the same branches in other schools of this advanced grade, 
and this statement is based upon extensive personal knowledge of this as well as other 
schools of the higher class in the District. Tuition is free to such as cannot afford to pay. 

Tfie Medical Department. — The Medical Department was organized by the election of three 
members of its faculty in the early part of May, 18G8, and in the month of September a 
fourth professorship was filled. The list of the university officers and faculties, to be found 
on a previous page, furnishes the facts in these cases. In September, also, Dr. Alexander T. 
Augusta, a distinguished colored physician of Washington, was elected as Demonstrator of 
Anatomy. Dr. Augusta is a gentleman of decided abilities, and is thoroughly educated in his 
profession. He is a native of Norfolk, Virginia, free-born, and served his apprenticeship as abar- 
ber in that city, subsequently working as a journeyman at his trade. In his boyhood he learned 
by stealth to read a little, and subsequently acquired, while working at his trade, some addi- 
tional knowledge. At a later period he read medicine for a time in the office of a respect- 
able physician in Philadelphia, but he could get no access to the medical college of that 
city by reason of his color. He went to California to get money to prosecute his purpose, 
and was highly successful. On his return he made another efibrt to find entrance to a 
Medical College, and was repulsed both in Philadelphia and in Chicago. He finally went to 
the University of Toronto, and was cordially welcomed to the Medical College of that very 
distinguished institution, second to no university in British America, and after some half a 
dozen years of laborious academic, classical as well as professional study he received the 
degree of Bachelor of Medicine, with the full honors of the college. During the war he 
was a surgeon in the army, and while stationed at Savannah, Georgia, in charge of a hos- 
pital in that city, he was repeatedly associated in professional reVations with medical gentle- 
men of the first eminence in that city, who treated him with uniform courtesy. They often 



252 , SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 

came to his hospital to observe cases interesting to the profession, and to join with him in 
uncommon surgical operations ; facts honorable alike to both parties. Dr. Augusta is the 
only colored gentleman connected with the medical faculty, so far as it has yet been organ- 
ized, and for this reason, as well as for the essential interest which marks his career, refer- 
ence is here made to him. It is a suggestive fact that after such struggles to gain access to 
a medical school for his own culture, he should thus be called as a teacher in the first school 
. of medical science founded for his race in America. 

The first session of this Department was inaugurated in a lecture by Professor L. C. 
Loomis, which, in order to accommodate the very large audience certain to be called forth 
on the novel occasion, was delivered in the audience room of the new Congregational church. 
The session was announced to open on the 2Sth of October, but arrangements were not com- 
plete for the lecture till the succeeding week, and it was delivered November 4, 1868. Since 
that date the course of lectures has proceeded regularly, three each day of the week, dis- 
tributed among the six members of the faculty. The class numbered six in December, 
and a considerable accession was expected with the beginning of the winter session, at 
the opening of the new year. The college is at present occupying the large building on 
Seventh street, recently vacated by the Normal and Preparatory Department when' that school 
took up its permanent residence in the university edifice. This is a temporary arrangement, 
for two or three months only, while the very spacious and handsome medical college struc- 
ture near that location is finishing. On the same square two large edifices are nearly com- 
pleted, into which the Freedmen's general hospital — Campbell hospital, as it is commonly 
called — comprising several hundred patients, is to be transferred, from the old barrack build- 
ings situated in that immediate vicinity. This hospital, which is freely open to the medical 
students of the college for purposes of instruction, contributes vastly to the value of the 
course of instruction. 

The present course of lectures embraces in its plan Chemistry, Anatomy, Materia Medica, 
Physiology, and clinical lectures upon operative Surgery — the four main fundamental branches 
of medicine — and an attendance upon the course, together with study and recitations under 
a respectable practising physician during the entire year, will be regarded by the University 
as equivalent to one year in the Medical College. Very superior and ample chemical appa- 
ratus, and a complete cabinet of Materia Medica have recently been received. 

Other Departments. — The Trustees appointed a committee, June 25, 1867, to report a plan 
for the organization of a Theological Department, but no action has yet been made public. 
Initiatory steps were also taken toward establishing a Law Department, and, in October last, 
John M. Langston, a graduate of Oberlin, a colored gentleman of superior attainments, was 
elected professor. December 30, 1868, the trustees publicly announced that the Department 
was organized, and a regular course of lectures would commence January 4, 1869, the faculty 
to consist of Professor Langston and Hon. A. G. Piddle, an eminent lawyer of Washington, 
and formerly a member of Congress from Ohio. On the evening of March 31, 1869, the first 
session of this Department closed with public exercises, in which the class of 15 colored and 
one white student all participated. The essays and discussions showed much study and 
thought, and were highly respectable as literary productions, most favorably impressing all 
who heard them. These students represent nearly a dozen States, and several are liberally 
educated. They all showed a manly grappling with their work, and the professors have 
ample reason to be satisfied with the opening term. 

PUBUC SCSfOOLS ANJ) EARLIEST LEGISLATION FOR THE CRISIS. 

The abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia took effect on the 16th of April, 1862, and 
on the 2 1st of May, a little more than a month later, Congress, believing that with their freedom 
the subjects of slavery must be educated for their new condition, passed an Act requiring 
"ten per centum of taxes collected from persons of color in Washington and Georgetown to 
be set apart for the purpose of initiating a system of primary schools for the education of 
colored children" residing in these cities. This Act made the boards of Trustees of the two 
cities the custodians, in their respective cities, of the funds arising both from this tax and from 
contributions, the two species of funds however to be kept separate. The special friends of 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 



253 



colored scliools in the District, entertaining solicitude as to the, execution of this law in good 
faith by the Trustees of the public schools, communicated their apprehensions to the friends 
of the cause in Congress, and on the 11th of July ensuing Congress passed another Act, 
under which the work of establishing colored schools was confided to a " Board of Trustees 
for Colored Schools for Washington and Georgetown." This board, consisting of three 
members, is appointed by the Secretary of the Interior, the term of one member expiiiug 
annually. The members of the first board, who held the office by the terms of the law one, 
two, and three years, respectively, were Daniel Breed, Zenas C. Robbins, and S. J. Bowen. 
Under this Act the municipal authorities of the two cities accredited to the colored school 
fixnd for the first two years as follows : 



1862. 



In Washington §250 2S 

In Georgetown | 

Total for the two cities 



1863. 



$110 89 
G9 72 



Total. 



$067 14 
69 72 



f3G 86 



In 1862 no separate registry was kept of the taxes of colored people in either city, and the 
sum accredited for that year in Washington was a rough estimate. In 1863 there was a 
separate registration, but the friends of the colored schools regarded it as incomplete, and 
the fund not at all equal to what was justly due, as they had confidently expected full $3,000 
annually. 

The Act of 1802 thus proving a failure, another Act was passed and approved June 25, 1864, 
repealing the ten per centum clause of the Act of 1862 and providing, instead of that feature, 
that such a proportion of all the school funds raised in Washington and Georgetown should 
be set apart for colored schools as the number of colored children might bear to the whole 
number of children, taking the last reported census of children hetwccn the ages of six and 
seventeen as the basis of the calculation. It v/as also provided that the moneys accruing 
from fines, penalties, and forfeitures under United States laws in the District should be 
apportioned for school purposes in the same manner. This Act was also, like the other, con- 
strued by the municipal authorities in such manner as to deprive the colored schools of a 
large portion of the funds which the friends of those schools bflieved the act intended to give 
them. On the 23d of July, 1866, Congress further enacted that the previous Act should " be 
so construed as to require the cities of Washington and Georgetown to pay over to the Trus- 
tees of the colored schools of said cities such a proportionate part of all moneys received or 
expended for school or educational purposes in said cities, including the cost of sites, build- 
ings, improvements, furniture, and books, and all other expenditures on account of schools, 
as the colored children, between the ages of six and seventeen years in the respective cities, 
bear to the whole number of children, white and colored, between the same ages ; that the 
money shall be considered due and payable to said Tiustees on the first day of October ot 
each year ; and if not then paid over to them, interest at the rate of ten per centum per annum 
on the amount unpaid muy be demanded and collected." This Act seems to have accom- 
plished the purpose for which it was designed, the funds which it brought into the hands of 
the Trustees in 18G7 enabling them to inaugurate something in the nature of a .system of 
public colored schools in the two cities. The main object of the bill was to provide for the 
establishment of primary free schools throughout the county of Washington, in the District, 
outside of the two cities. It was prepared by Senator Patterson, of New Hampshire, at that 
time a member of the House, and it was a section incorporated in it pertaining to the division 
of the school money in the cities of Washington and Georgetown that first eftectually placed 
in the hands of the colored people the funds that belonged to them. To Senator Patterson 
belongs the honor of obtaining this meed of justice for this long abused class. 



254 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

THE FIRST PCBLIC COLORED SCHOOL 
m the District of Columbia was opened on the Jst of March, J8G4, in the Ebenezer Church, 
the original colored church of Washington— the eariiest sanctuary of their religion thus 
becoming the earliest home of their free public school. Miss Emma V. Brown, of George- 
town, an educated, capable colored girl, was appointed the teacher, at a salary of .$400, and 
Miss Frances W. Perkins, a generous, spirited young woman, from New Haven, Connecti- 
cut, went into the work with Miss Brown, at first without compensation, though she was soon 
supported by the New England Freedmen's Aid Society of Boston. The school commencing 
with 40 scholars, rose immediately to more than 100, and the house was soon so thronged 
that many applica.nts were daily refused. It was through the exertions of this volunteer 
tf'aclier, Miss Perkins, that in ]8G5 

FIRST PUBLIC SCIIOOL-IIOUSE FOR COLORED CHILDREN. 

in the District was built. Through her solicitations, in the summer of 1864 and while at 
work in the Ebenezer Church, a woman of large benevolence in New Haven, Connecticut, 

Mrs. Parker, placed at her disposal ij; 1,000, to aid in building a house for this school. 

The Trustees, encouraged by this donation, gathered what they could from other sources, 
and after securing with some difficulty a lot, 42 by 120 feet, for the purpose, on C street 
south, between Second and Third streets, Capitol Hill, erected in the winter a frame building, 
42 feet square, two stories, and two school-rooms on each floor. The school was moved 
into it May 1, 186.5, on v/hich occasion there were formal dedication exercises, an address 
being delivered by Eev. Henry Highland Garnet, D. D., then pastor of the Fifteenth street 
Presbyterian Church, now president of Avery College, Allegheny City, Pennsylvania. 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS CONTINUED. 

These schools, which began in the Ebenezer church in a suig'e room, with two teachers, 
in March. 1864, and iu the spring of 1865 moved into the first school house built fur public 
schools in the District, were increased by the Aid Societies to four schools and as many teach- 
ers in 1863, and to five schools with seven teachers by the Trustees in the summer of 1867. 
In the autumn of the last named year the Trustees commenced their school year with 31 
teachers, four more being soon added, making for nearly the whole of that year 35 teachers, 
while through the winter and spring months the number was 41, the Aid Societies furnishing 
at the same time 28, making a total of 6y teachers. Tiie average number through the school 
year of 1867-68, was 61. 

The largest number of public schools sustained by tiie Trustees in the school year of 
1867-'68, was41 ; average number 39 ; largest number by otlier parties 25 ; average nu)uber 
21 ; largest number of scholars belonging to the schools iu any month, (February,) 2,069; 
average number belonging to the schools from November 1 to June 30, 2,8^6; average 
attendance for the same period, 2,5-23 ; per cent, of average attendance in all schools for the 
year, 89. In these statistics the schools of the Trustees and of the societies are combined, as 
they were all under the control of Mr. Newton and all subjected to the same regulations. It 
will be seen that the attendance, considering the material, was very excellent, and such was 
the case during all the years of his superintendence. The follov^ing figures are important 
iu this connection: 

Total colored population in Washington, November, 1 867 3 ! , 937 

Total colored populatiou in Georgetown, November, 1867 3, 284 

Total - 35,221 

Increase since 1860 in Washington 20, 954 

Increase in Georgetown since I860 I, ?>i9 

Total - 22,303 

Number of colored children between the ages of 6 and 17, in Washington 8,401 

N umber of colored children between the ages of 6 and J7, in Georgetown 894 

Total 9,295 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLOSED POPULATION. 



255 



Tt tlms appeals that the laro-ost luiuibev of scholars 'a school in any month last year was 
much less than one third tlie number of coloreJ children in the District between the ages of 
6 and 17, and when it is considered that very many above 17 years of age are embraced in 
the number in school, it seems safe to say that not more than one third of the children within 
the specified ages were at any time last year attending school, including both public and 
private. It may be added that the records of the present year present a still more painful 
condition of things growing out ot the withdrawal of nearly all foreign aid. 

liecnpitidatiun of Ce72sus returns. 

The following statemonf: shows the movement of the population of the Distri.'t, including 
the town and county of Alexandria before their retrocession tj Virginia. 



Year. 


Whites. 


Free colored 


Slaves. 


Total. 


1 800 


10,066 
16, 079 
22.614 
27, 563 
30, 657 
37,941 
60, 764 
88, 327 


783 

2,549 

4,048 

6,152 

8,361 

10,059 

11,131 

38, 663 


3, 244 

5, 395 
6,377 

6, 1 19 
4, 696 
3 6^7 
3, 185 


14,093 


1810 


24,023 


]820 


33, 029 


1830 


39, 836 


1840 

]850 

I860 


43,912 
51,687 
75, 080 




1 ^6, 990 









As Alexandria, with the other portion of the District as originally constituted south of tha 
Potomac, was retrocedcd to Virginia ia 1846, the population of the retroceded territory in 
1850 is subjoined, also the population of the cities of Washington and Georgetown separately 
for 18.50 and 186!.). 



1850. 

Alexandria 

Washington 

Georgetown 

Remainder of District 

18G0. 

Washington 

Georgetown 

Eemainder of District 



White. 


Free colored. 


7, 299 




1,413 


29, 730 




8, 158 


6, O80 




1,561 


2,131 




340 


50, 139 




9, 209 


6, 798 




1,358 


3,827 




.564 



Slaves. 



1,.332 

2,113 

725 

849 



1, 



834 



Total. 



10, 


094 


40, 


001 


8 


•i6C) 


:>, 


320 


61, 


122 


8, 


733 



It will be seen from the above figures that the free colored population of tlte two cities in 
1860 was 10,567, and as in that year there were full 1,200 colored children in the schools 
of the cities, it follows that there was about one child in school to nine, of the free colored 
population. In 1867, the colored population of the tw'o cities was 35,221. With the same 
proportion of children in school as in 1860, there would be with this population, about 
3,900 under instruction, which is very nearly the number now in the schools of the cities. 
This shows that the facilities for instruction are about the same now for the colored children 
as before the war. The school-houses and methods of instruction, however, are now much 
better than in 1860, but the proportion of children actually reached by the privileges seems 
to be without enlargement. 



256 SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 

SCHOOL PROPERTY BELONGING TO TRUSTEES OP PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

The schools, when the Northern societies came here during the war, were at first held in 
the basements and lecture halls of colored churches. A few school-houses were soon built 
in a teaiporary way, and as the war drew near its end the barrack buildings were liberally 
turned over by the government for such use, and tbeso buildings still constitute the largest 
portion of the school accommodations. These school rooms were rough and inconvenient, 
and still continue to be so. The houses built last year are, however, furnished with modern 
school furniture, as were a few of the old buildings previously, and these are quite com- 
modious and comfortable. The following is a general description of the school property 
belonging to the trustees of colored schools at this time : 

District 1.— Square 182, M street, near 17th. Land about 22,800 feet. Temporary frame 
building, 48x72 feet two stories ; 8 rooms, 444 seats. 

District 2. — Square 51 L O street, between 4th and 5th, Land about 8,640 feet. Brick 
school-house 45x88 feet, two stoiies ; eight rooms each 22x38 feet ; 444 seats. 

DJs^ric^ 2.— Square 935, corner ] 2th street east and D north. Land about 10,000 feet; 
donated by government. Frame building, four rdoras ; would seat 200 scholars. 

District 3. — Square 762, C street south, between 2d and 3d streets east. Land about 6,300 
feet ; frame building, four rooms, 200 seats. 

District A. — Square 412, corner 9th and E streets south. Land about 8,000 feet; brick 
house, same as in district two. 

District 4. — Square (J83, Delaware avenue, between H and I streets south. Land about 
7'550 feet; temporary frame building belonging to government, two rooms, would seat 200 
scholars. 

District 5. — Georgetown, east street. Land about 5,800 feet ; frame building ; two stories, 
eight rooms, 444 seats ; bad location ; the best that could be obtained for the purpose when 
bought. 

The two brick houses (the one in district 2, and the other in district 4) were built last 
year, the contract price being some $7,200 each, and when furnished and ready for occupa- 
tion cost each not far from f 9,000. Erected in haste they are not what, with more time, 
the authorities would have made them. Besides the above specified lots and buildings, the 
Trustees are erecting a four-story brick edifice which they have appropriately named " The 
Stevens School-House," in honor of Thaddeus Stevens, of Penn. The name was suggested 
by Mr. William Syphas, then chairman of the board, in the following resolution, offered by 
him September 4, 1888: '^ Resclved, That the New school-house on Twenty-first street be 
called the 'Stevens School-house' in honor of the late Hon. Thaddeus Stevens, of Penn- 
sylvania, the champion of free schools for all." The building is located in square 72, 21st 
street, between K and L, on a lot embracing about 11,765 feet. House 48x83 feet ; 12 rooms 
with the one story for a hall, or IG rooms without hall, each room seating 60 scholars. The 
original plan vt'as to make the lower story a hall, to be let for public purposes, bnt it is believed 
that the Trustees will decide to use this very desirable part of the building lor school pur- 
poses, which will accord with the law governing the use of the school funds. The cost of 
the house, finished and furnished, including lot, will probably be about |35,000. The house, 
furniture, and lot in Georgetown may be estimated at $5,000 ; the house, furniture, and lot 
on M street at |4,000 ; and the house, furniture, and lot on C street, Capitol Hill, at $3,500. 

TRUSTEES OF THE COLORED SCHOOLS. 

The following shows the names of those who have served as Trustees together v/ith the 
period of their service. The act of Congress establishing the board, provides that they shall 
be appointed by the Secretary of the Interior. The original board was appointed July 1, 
1862, consisting of S. J. Bowen, Daniel Breed, and Zenas C. Robbins. Mr. Bowen served 
two terms of three years each, and was succeeded last year (1883) by William Syphax, a 
well-known and intelligent colored citizen of Washington, who is doing his work with fidelity 
and excellent judgment as chairman of the board. He was born at Arlington, on the estate 
of Mr. Custis, who manumitted the mother and family when this son was a child, giving 
them a house and small tract of land on the border of the estate, which was confirmed to 
them by the Thirty-ninth Congress. Mr. Breed served tvvo'terms, the first being a term of 
one year, and v/as succeeded by Albert G. Hull, the present City Collector, w-hose term ex- 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 257 

pires in 1869. Mr. Robbins served one term of two years and was succeeded in the next 
term of tiiree years by Rufus Laten, resigned, Stephen J. W. Tabor, resigned, J. McClary 
Perkins, removed, and G. E. Baker, who completed the term. Alfred Jones, a prominent 
colored merchant of Washington, was appointed in 18GT, his term expiring in 1870, and is 
the treasurer of the board. 

THE TEACHERS. 

The Trustees at this time, January, 18S9, report fifty schools in successful operation, forty- 
three in Washington and seven in Georgetown. The superintendent, Mr. George F. T. Cook, 
had been ten years the teacher of a large colored private school in Washington when ap- 
pointed to his new position, and is well educated. The schools are all in charge of female 
teachers, fifty in number, of whom twenty-five are white and twenty-five colored. The 
majority of the white teachers have been in these schools from the beginning of the new 
order of things, in 1865, and are remarkably capable and eificient. There are also some very 
superior colored teachers. Without in any degree disparaging others, mention may properly 
be made of Miss Sarah L. Iredell, who has charge of the school in what is known as the 
brick school house on the Island, (Washington.) She was educated at the Institute for 
colored youth in Philadelphia, where she graduated with the highest honors.. The charac- 
ter of her scholarship is by no means ordinary or superficial, as the classical course of that 
excellent Institution includes the reading of Virgil's Aeueicf, the Odes of Horace, Cicero's 
Orations, the Greek Testament, and Xenophon's Anabasis. 

Among the superior colored teachers, the name of Miss Emma Brown may be given. She 
has already been mentioned in connection with the Georgetown schools, and was educated 
at Oberlin. There are also other colored teachers, ec^ucated at the above-named places, or 
at the Baltimore convent, or elsewhere, who, in ability and attainment, are quite equal to 
holding important positions in their profession. Eighteen of the colored teachers are natives 
of this District, the others being from the north, as also are all the white teachers. Sixty 
scholars are assigned to each teacher under the regulations of the Board of Trustees, but in 
some localities this number is exceeded. The school rolls now show an average of about 
fifty-five to each school, making a total of about 2,750 on the rolls, with an average attend- 
ance of about 2,500. There are eight schools in each of the three large scl:ool-hou.ses and 
in the new building, the Stevens school house, there will be twelve. December 1, 1868, 
was the time fixed for the completion of the Stevens school house, but at this date, January, 
1869, much remains to be done, and owing to want of funds, the Trustees have been obliged 
to suspend some portions of the work. .This is greatly to be regretted, as the building is so 
much needed. If opened at the time expected, every room would have been at once occu- 
pied, to the great benefit of those schools and scholars for whom it is intended.* The 
teacher in each of these buildings, who has the care of the highest school, has also the 
special direction of all the schools in the building. The pay of the teachers is fixed at $50 
per month, with $8 per month additional for those who are in charge of the large buildings. 
The Trustees, conceding this compensation to be inadequate to secure and i^etaiu first-rate 
teachers, hope ere long to be able to make it larger. 

It should be especially stated that the Trustees have made it a prir-ciple in selecting teach- 
ers, to seek for those having the best qualifications, without regard to color, subjecting all 
alike to a rigid examination. In a circular issued September 10, 1868, the Trustees say: 

" It is our determination to elevate the character of the schools by insisting on a high 
standard of qualifications in the teachers. This can be done only by employing the best 
teachers that our money will procure, irrespective of color. While we think it right to give 
preference in our schools to colored teachers, thtlr quulijications being equal, yet we deem it 
a violation of our ofiicial oath to employ inferior teuchers when superior ones can be had for 
the same money. It is no discredit to admit that the number of colored teachers, at least in 
this District, who can compete successfully with those of the hitherto more favored class, 
especially those from the northern States, is at present small. When our young men and 
women shall have enjoyed equal advantages for a sufficient length of time, we may expect 
this will be changed. The present duty of the Trustees plainly is to employ the best teachers 
who offer themselves. 



'Note. — Since the above was in type this school-houBc has been completed and opened. 

17 



258 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION". 

"The children of the people of color, for the most part, can attend school for but a few 
years, when they must seek employment by which to obtain a livelihood ; it is, therefore, of 
the highest importance that they should make the most of their brief time in school. They 
should have the best of teachers and the best methods. The methods of teaching have, 
within the past few years, been as much improved as have those of travel by the introduction 
of steam. Teachers, who maj'' have th'e same amount of learning, differ greatly in their 
ability to teach and train young minds. A skilful teacher, using the best modern methods, 
will accomplish more in one year, and do it far better, than a poor teacher will accomplish 
in three years. We deem it, therefore, little short of a crime against those for whose educa- 
tion we are made responsible to knowingly employ inferior teachers when better ones can be 
had, however worthy and deserving the former may be in other respects." 

CHARACTER OP THE SCHOOLS. 

Of these public schools, five are classified as grammar schools. There was some ex- 
travagance in the representations which attended the earlier efforts in the contraband 
schools. The avidity for instruction and the advancement made by these wild children from 
the plantations tilled the northern teachers, who engaged in the interesting work of first 
gathering them into places of instruction, with so much astonishment and enthusiasm tliat 
in the novel and exciting work unreasonable expectations were in some degree indulged. 
There were also many children of the District who mingled in those early free schools, who 
had already been rudely taught some of the first elements. The teachers, not knowing 
that there were many of this class in the District, oftentimes supposed that the children 
learned under their instruction what in fact they had learned before. With these considera- 
tions fully in view, however, it may still be justly affirmed that the progress of these colored 
children has been equally as rapid as that of the white. They seem to succeed in mathe- 
matics and other studies, which demand the exercise of the reasoning faculty, quite as well 
as do the children of the lower classes among the white population, and the schools in all 
the grades justify the best hopes which have been cherished by their friends, furnishirLg 
abundant grounds for faith in the capacity of the race to rise to the highest range of intel- 
lectual culture, and most certainly of faith in their capacity to become sufficiently intelli- 
gent to discharge well the prerogatives of good citizens. The whole body of white teachers, 
who have taught colored children in this District, since the war, are unanimous in the 
opinion that the black children learn just as rapidly and thoroughly as do children of any 
other color. Thoughtful, fan- minded men and women, who have carefully watched these 
schools are compelled, no matter what their prepossessions, to corroborate this judgment 
of the teachers. These statements are made with deliberation, and are authorized by the 
result of very large personal observation of the schools, as well as large personal acquaint- 
ance with the teachers, on the part of the person who makes them. These facts impose upon 
the country an imperative and stupendous work. They show that we have a million of 
colored children, almost entirely untaught, yet capable, and intensely eager to learn. These 
children must be educated or the country can scarcely stand. How can you build the house 
of which you have never laid the foundation. Take no timely precaution against the con- 
tagion to which youth is exposed, and no future care will cure the malady. Emphatically 
is this the ease with these children, who have come up oitt of servitude and are subjected 
to the most untoward home influences. They will soon be out of the reach of a teacher. 
Once they are grown they will never submit again to become children. So sensible of this 
were the wise Lacedemonians that when they were required to give fifty children as hosta- 
ges they chose rather to give fifty of the most eminent men in the State, whose principles 
were already formed, than children to whom the want of early instruction would be a loss 
entirely irreparable. It would be, according to the beautiful expression of Pericles, like 
cutting off the season of spring altogether from the year. 

SCHOOL FUNDS AND THE FREEDMEN'S BUREAU. 

In has been seen in these pages that much assistance, both in money and material, and in 
many forms has been contributed to the work of colored education in the District by the 
Freedmen's Bureau. In the annual reports of the Bureau these contributions to the cause 
are designated as derived from funds bearing difi'erent names, and as the nature of these 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLOKED POPULATION. 259 

funds is not well understood a concise statement of their origin may be found useful in tliis 
connection. 

Refugees and Freedmen^s Fund. — When the war closed there were found large sums of 
money in the hands of various military officers, the accumixlations resulting from incidents 
of the conflict. When the Freedmen's Bureau was organized these funds were all called 
into the custody of its accounting officer, and to distinguish them from those derived from 
the regular appropriations by Congress for the support of the Bureau, are described by the 
Commission as the Refugees and Freedmen's funds, derived from miscellaneous sources. 
The chief of these sources were the tax on cotton, wages retained from the freedmen em- 
ployed by the government during the war, for the relief of destitute freedmen's families, 
fines in the provost courts, taxes levied upon the planters and men of wealth in New Or- 
leans, and other parts of Louisiana, for the support of colored schools, proceeds of confisca- 
ted property, marriage certificates, and contracts. During the first year after the war 
closed a considerable amount was received from the produce of farms and other abandoned 
lands, from rents of buildings and lands held as abandoned, in all amounting to nearly a 
million of dollars. The taxes upon cotton, wages of Freedmen withheld, fines in provost 
courts, and donations above specified, and moneys from sales of confiscated property, mar- 
riage certificates, and contracts, are generalized in the reports as the Freedmen's tund, but 
are all embraced under the name of Refugees and Freedmen's fund. This fund, which has 
been constantly receiving additions, from the miscellaneous sources, as well as suffering 
depletions from its donations, was reduced in August last to about $16,000. In the general 
appropriation act, approved March 2, 1«67, is the following clause: ''Provided, That the 
Commissioner be hereby authorised to apply any balance on hand at this date, of the 
Refugees and Freedmen's fund, accounted for in bis last annual report, to aid educational 
institutions actually incorporated fbr loyal refugees and freedmen." Under this provision 
contributions have been made to such institutions in this District, as follows : 

The Howard University, Congregationalist, !|25,000 ; National Theological Institute 
University, Baptist, $10,600 ; St. Martin's Female Academy, Catholic, $2,000. 

Retained Bounty Fund. — This is a fund which accumulated under an order of Major Gen- 
eral B. F. Butler, issued in 1864, while he was in command of the department embracing a 
portion of Virginia and North Carolina. It was an order fraught with wisdom. This de- 
partment was, at the time, thronged with State agents, ofteiiug very large bounties for con- 
traband recruits to fill the State quotas. This order required the State agent or other person 
not enlisting recruits under the direct orders of the War Department, to pay one third of the 
bounty, in case of each recruit, into the hands of the superintendent of recruiting, and that, 
in default of such payment, the recruit should have his papers so certified that he could not 
be counted in any State quota. The object was to save the money for the benefit of the 
recruit and his family. When General Howard came to take charge of the Bureau, he very 
discreetly ordered all the fund, which was then scattered in the hands of many officers, into 
the custody of the Bureau. It amounted at that time to $115,236 49, and was embraced 
under the general name of Refugees and Freedmen's fund, but as it is in no sense public 
money, but essentially funds belonging to individuals, held in trust by the government, it 
has been kept separate and paid over to the legal claimants as fast as found. The bahince 
still unclaimed, at the close of August last, was $24,963 63. The Bureau has used $I2,00(t 
of this unclaimed sum in the purchase of the building in which the preparatory department 
of the Howard University was at first held, and in which the medical department is now 
temporarily located. It is leased to the University at an annual rent of ten per cent on its 
cost, thus aiding the cause of the colored race, at the same time that a liberal interest is 
accumulating on the fund. The property has largely enhanced in value since the purchase. 
School Fund. — This has been treated as a local fund by the Bureau, each assistant com- 
mitteeman expending it in the district in which it may have accrued. It is derived from a 
provision in the act of Congress of July 16, 1866, which declares that " the commissioner 
shall have power to seize, hold, lease or sell all buildings and tenements, and any lands 
appertaining to the same, or otherwise formerly held under color of title by the late so-called 
confederate states and not heretofore disposed of by the United States, and buildings or 



260 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

lands held in trust for the same by any person or persons, and to use the same, or appropri- 
ate the proceeds derived therefrom, to the education of the freed people." Nothing has been 
received from this source in this District, and nothing expended. 

The General appropriation. — The act of JJIarch 2, 1867, appropriated "for buildings for 
schools and asylums, including construction, rental, and repairs, iive hundred thousand 
dollars." It is from this appropriation that the assistance in erecting houses has been 
extended in various waj's to the Trustees of Public Colored Schools of the District, and to 
nearly all the private enterprises in the District looking to the education of the colored people. 
Among the donations to the public schools of the District were two sums of twenty-five hun- 
dred dollars each, given in aid of the two branch school buildings erected in Washington in 
the autumn of 1 867. Liberal assistance has also been given these schools in the form of 
lumber and old barrack buildings. From this appropriation also the Howard University 
buildings are erecting, and the Colfax Industrial building, and aid has been given to nearly 
all the schools of the District which have the education of the colored people specially in view. 

LEGISLATION 1868-'69. 

In the early part of Jaly, 1868, some of the friends of education in Washington conceiving 
it to be for the interest of the schools to have them all, both white and colored, under the 
supervision of a single board of trustees, proposed to the Committee on the District in the 
Senate to transfer all the duties of the trustees of colored schools in Washington and George- 
town to the trustees of white schools, abolishing the board of trustees of colored schools, but 
leaving the schools themselves without any change in relations and condition. The members 
of the committee in the Senate understanding from the representations that this plan was in 
accordance with the wishes of the leading colored people of the two cities, through Mr. 
Patterson, of New Hampshire, presented to the Senate July 3d the following bill, which was 
passed without discussion or dissent : 

"Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United Slates of America in 
Congress assembled, That the several acts of Congress authorizing the appointment and 
defining the duties of a board of trustees of colored schools in the cities of Washington and 
Georgetown, in the District of Columbia, be, and tlie same are hereby, so modified as to 
transler all the duties heretofore imposed by said acts on said trustees of colored schools to 
the trustees of public schools in said cities. All laws and parts of laws inconsistent here- 
with are hereby repealed." 

It should be stated in justice to Mr. Patterson that he had nothing to do with the matter 
in committee, and presented the bill under the suggestions of the other members of the com- 
mittee who more especially had the matter in charge. When this action of the Senate was 
announced the colored people specially interested in the schools went immediately to the 
Committee on the District in the House and made their remonstrance against the measure, 
and the bill, sent to the Committee ou the District in the House, lay there till February 
last, the colored people, and in fact most of those originally proposing the measure to the 
Senate, supposing, as it appears, that it would receive no further attention. It was, however, 
February, J 869, reported to rhe House, and passed, as in the Senate, without debate or 
opposition. Its passage, however, created great excitement among the colored people of the 
District, the great mass of whom seemed to be utterly opposed to the measure. They held 
a public meeting and took formal action expressive of their views, and on the succeeding 
Sabbath the matter was presented in all the colored churches of the two cities, an over- 
whelming majority being fotiud unqualifiedly opposed to the act. At the public meeting 
above referred to, held in the Israel Bethel church February 9, 1869, at which Mr. John F. 
Cook presided, the following resolutions were passed : 

"Whereas by an act of Congress of May 21, 1862, provision was made for initiating a 
system of priujary schools for tlie education of colored children in the cities of Washington 
and Georgetown, and the execution of the law was committed to the boards of trustees of 
public schools : and whereas by said boards positively refusing said executive trust, it was 
made necessary that Congress, by another act July IJ, 1862, should place the execution of 
the law in charge of a separate board of three trustees of colored schools, to be appointed by 
tlie Secretary of the Interior; and whereas that officer, in such ajipointincnts, has rendered 
perfect satisfaction to ua as a people, and we have been generally satisfied with the faithful- 
ness of said trustees of colored schools in the discharge of this trust ; and whereas the act 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 261 

recently passed by Congfress transferring this duty from the trustees of colored schools to the 
trustees of public schools, thus subjecting it to the chances of being again refused, or at least 
being negligently or indifferently executed by persons whose positions are held by tenure of 
local politics and the prejudices consequent thereunto: Therefore, 

''Resolved, That we, the colored citizens of Washington and Georgetown, D. C, deeply 
regret the action of Congress in making this transfer of the schools for colored children to 
the trustees of public schools until some more perfect system can be established in the District 
of Columbia." 

" Resolved, That we, the colored citizens of Washington and Georgetown, District of 
Columbia, do hereby tender our thanks to Messrs. Albert G. Hall, Alfred Jones, and Williaui 
Syphax, trustees of our schools, for the faithful perfornuiace of the trust committed to them, 
and do assure them of our hearty co-operation in all their efforts to promote the educational 
interests of oar children." 

The above resolutions were passed bj* almost a unanimous vote. The only opposition 
made to the action was based upon the idea that it was indiscreet for the colored, people to 
array themselves against the action of Congress, which was controlled in its measures by the 
friends of the colored race. The measure in itself was not defended at all. Similar reso- 
lutions were adopted at ciowded meetings held at the Nineteenth street Baptist church, at 
Asbury chapel. Union Bethel church, the Third Baptist church, the Ebeuezer church, and 
other churches. The last meeting was held at the Fifteenth street Presbyterian church to 
take final action on the matter. The pastor, Rev. J. Stella Martin, addressed the congre- 
gation, and the following resolution was adopted, but one person voting in the negative: 

"Resolced, That we are in favor of free schools and equal school rights, under a school 
system embracing white and colored children, and therefore we deprecate any legislation that 
does not abolish in Into the present system, built upon distinctions of race and color. Wo 
especially deprecate the bill transferring the powers from the board for colored schools, because 
it leaves it optional with the board to be afipointed under that bill, should it become a law. 
to continue colored schools ; and also because the apportionment of the proposed board will 
be controlled by local politics, which one year may put in our friends, and tue next year our 
enemies, which last, having the power of keeping up distractions in schools, gives every 
reason to believe they will use that power. We therefore petition Congress most respectfully 
to reserve all legislation on the subject till such time as they can pass a bill which will make 
us in the matter of school rights equal with all others before, (lie law; that we may not be 
dependent upon personal favor in a matter so vital, nor exposed to political hostility in cir- 
cumstances where we are powerless." 

On the 13th of February, 1869, the President returned the bill without his signature, with 
his reasons as follows: 

" The accompanying paper (preamble and resolutions of the colored people on the subject) 
exhibits the fact that the legislation which the bill proposes is contrary to the wishes of the 
colored residents of Washington and Georgetown, and that they prefer that the schools for 
their children should be under the management of trustees selected by the Secretary of the 
Interior, whose term of ot3Sce is for four years, rather than subject to the control of bodies 
whose tenure of office, dependmg merely upon political considerations, may be annual Ij^ 
affected by the elections v\'hich take place in the two cities. 

"The colored people of Washington and Georgetown are at present not represented by a 
person of their own race in either of the boards of trustees of public schools appointed by 
the municipal authorities. Of the three trustees, however, who, under the act of July 1), 
1862, compose the board of trustees of the schools for colored children, two are persons of 
color. The resolutions transmitted herewith show that they have performed their trust in a 
manner entirely satisfactory to the colored jjeople of the two cities, and no good r(;asou is 
known to the Executive why the duties which now devolve upon them should be transferred 
as proposed in the bill. 

'• With these brief suggestions, the bill is respectfully returned, and the consideration of 
Congress invited to the accompanying preamble and resolutions. 

"ANDREW JOHNSON. 

"Washington, D. C, February 13, 18G9." 

With the facts which had been disclosed in relation to this matter in view, Congress declined 
to act further upon the measure, and thus it ended. 



262 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 



SUMMARY. 



Private and ihcorporatRd educational institutions for colored persons, Washington and 

town, January, ]869. 



Georse- 



Location. 



JlowfirdUniversit}', Normal and Preparatory Department. 

Mo wai'd University Law sctiool 

Howard Univei'sity Medical school 

Howard University Uollegiate Department 

Waylaad Theological Seminary 

national Theological Institute and University, Rev. E. 

Turney, D. O. 
National Theological Institute and University, Eev. G. 

Jl. P. King. 

New England Friends' Mission school 

Colfax Industrial school 

Miss Walker's Industrial School , 

Orphan Asylum school 

St. Aloysius's Parochial school : 

St. Jlartin's Academy 

St. Martins Parochial school 

St. Martin's Academy 

St. Martin's Parochial school 

Iteiormed Presbyterian Mission school 

Miss Maria II. M"aun's schcol , 

Miss K. A. Cook's school 

Thomas H. Mason's school 

Joseph Ambush's school 

Mrs. C. W. Grove's school 

Mrs. Louisa Ricks's school 

Kev. E. Tnrney-s school— Miss L. Warner, (eacher 

liev. E. Turney's school — W. Waller, teacher 

Rev. Chaiiucey Leonard's school 



Seventh street and boundary. 



Nineteenth and I streets 

I street, near Twenty-third. . . 

Judiciary Square 



Thirteenth street west, and S. . - 

R and Eleventh streets 

Near boundary, Fifth street 

Eighth street, near boundary... 
First street, between I and K- -. 
Vermont Avenue and L street.. 
Vermont Avenue and L street.. 
Fifteenth street, bet. L and M.. 
Fifteenth street, bet. L and M .. 
Sixth street west near M south. . 

Seventeenth and M streets 

Sixteenth street, bet. K and L-. 
L street, near Twenty-first west 

Eleventh and IC streets 

Twenty-third street and Circle. 

1 street, near Seventeenth , 

Baptist Cburcb, Vt. Avenue 

Fourth street east, near D south 
Third and G streets 



Total 



NIGHT SCHOOLS. 



Colfax Industrial school 

Washington Christian Union 

Washington Christian Union 

J. II. Fletcher's school, (Washington Christian Union) 

Rev. E. Turney's school 

Rev. E. Turney's school 

Rev. E. Turney's school — W. Waller, teacher 

Rov. E. Turney's school — John Johnson, teacher 

Rev. E. Tnrncys school— Mrs. Ellen Reeves, teacher. 

St. Martin's school 

Rev. Chatincey Leonard 

Henry Thorps 



R and Eleventh streets , 

street, bet. Fourth and Fifth. 

E street. Island 

Judiciary Square 

1 street, near Twenty-third 

Baptist Church, Vt. Avenue 

Baptist Church, Fourteenth st . 
Nineteenth st. we^t, near b'dry 

Arlington'-' 

Fifteenth street, bet. L and M . . 

Corner Third and G streets 

Near Navy Department 



Total 



Mixed. -- 
Males - .. 
Males - . . 

Male 

Males - . . 
Male.s . . . 

Mixed... 

Mixed- .. 
Girls.... 
Women - 
Mixed - . . 

Girls 

Girls.,.. 
Girls.... 
Boys ... 
Boys ... 
Mixed. .. 
Mixed... 
Mixed... 
Mixed-. 
Mixed... 
Girls ... 
Girls . . . 
Women 
Mixed-. 
Mixed-. 



Mixed - 
Mixed. 
Mixed. 
Mixed - 
Men .. 
Men .. 
Men .. 
Men .. 
Mixed - 
Males - 
-Mixed - 
Males . 



112 
16 
8 
1 
35 
45 

50 

250 
200 
70 
55 
80 
40 
45 
30 
30 
200 
50 
30 
50 
65 
20 
50 
25 
15 
55 

1,628 



212 
2C0 
50 
75 
30 
30 
15 
20 
100 
15 
25 
20 



Not in the District. 



Colored Public Schools, Wushinoton and Georg 


etoicn, January, 


1869. 








Buildings, property 
of— 


S 

c 
d 


,3 

o 


Grade. 


a 


Location. 


3 

a 


o 


i 
s 

"S 
t— 1 


3 
S 
B 

5 


•d 

X 

§ 


■3 

a 

> 


M street, near Seventeenth street 


Trustees 


8 
4 
4 
1 
4 
1 
8 
4 
4 
8 

8 


8 
3 

2 
1 
5 

1 
8 
4 
1 
8 

7 


1 
] 
1 

2 


o 

1 
1 


2 

1 


1 




400 
102 


Corner Twenty-fourth and F streets 

Fourteenth street, near canal 

( Jovner Thirteenth and S streets 

L street, near Sixteenth street 

O street, between Fourth and Fifth streets . .. 

C street south, near Second street east 

Corner D sireet northand Twelfth street east. 
Corner E street south an.-i Ninth street west . 

Delaware Avenue. H and I streets south 

C eorgetowu. East street 


Government 

Rel. denomination ... 
N. E. Friends 






100 








70 


1 


1 






220 
50 


Trustees 


3 

1 


o 

1 


1 


1 
1 




400 
220 


Government 

Trustees 






60 


1 
3 


2 


o 


1 




400 
ICO 


Trustees 


o 


1 


1 


350 


Total 


56 


50 


18 


12 


10 


5 


4 


2,532 






1 





SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATIOIi. 
Teachers of Colored Pullic Schools. 



!63 



Location of schools. 



State. 



i- .3-- 



Miss Sarah G. Brown 

Mrs. Anna P. Spencer 

Miss M. E. Brooks 

Miss Helen A. Simmons 

Mrs. M.C. Hart 

Miss Mary E. Garrett 

Miss Laura V. Fisher 

Miss Abby S. Simmons , 

Miss Annie E. Washington 

Miss C. A. Jones 

Miss Lucy A. Barbour 

Miss Mary F. Kiger 

MissG. L Fleet , 

Miss R. H. Ehvell 

Miss H. S. Macoraber 

Miss Mary E. Oliver 

Miss Mary E. Gove 

Miss Mary C. La^-ton 

Miss S. H. Pi"rce 

Mrs. Nancy Warrick* 

Miss Emma J. Ilutchins 

Miss Laura W. Stcbbins 

Mrs. E. H. Disbrow 

Miss C. F. Withington 

Miss Annie L. Foofe. 

Miss Annie M. Wilson 

Miss Maria A. Dorster 

Miss Rachel J. Cook 

MissK. G. Crane 

Miss .Sarah Purvis 

Miss Christiana Nichols 

Miss Helen M. Gordon 

Miss Grace A. Dyson 

Miss E. L. Crane 

Miss Sarah L. Iredell 

Miss M. R. Nason 

Miss Emma Prentiss 

Mrs. E.J. Brooks 

Miss G. Vv'ithiugton 

Miss Mary R. Goines 

Miss Mary E. Reed ^. . 

Miss Eliza G. Randall 

Miss Anna V. Tompkins 

Miss E. A. Chamberlain 

Miss P. T. Chamberlain 

Miss C. W. Moore 

Miss Julia Luckett 

Miss Mary A. Coakley 

Miss Sophia P. Parsons 

Miss Martha C. Simms 



Total 



M street, near Seventeenth street. . 
do 



.do. 
.do. 
-do. 
.do. 
-do. 
.do. 



Corner Seventeenth and I streets 

do 

do , 

Corner Tvi'enty -fourth aud F sts. 
do 

Fourteenth street, near canal 

Corner Thirteenth and S streets.. 

do 

do 

do 



.do. 



L street, near Sixteenth street 

O St., bet. Fourth and Fifth sts. .. 



.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 



.do. 



C St. south, near Second st. east 

do 

do 

do 

Cor. D St. north and Twelfth st. east . 
Cor. E St. north and Ninth st. west. 

do 

do 



.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 
.do. 



Delavyare av., near H st. south... 

do 

East street, Georgetown 

do 



.do. 
.do. 
-do. 
.do. 
.do. 



Massachusetts . . . 

New Jersey 

Maryland 

Connecticut 

Miissachusetts . ., 
Dist. Columbia.. 

do , 

Connecticut 

Dist. Columbia. . 

, do 

do 

do 

do 

Connecticut 

Massachusetts . . 

do 

do 

, do 

do 

Dist. Columbia. . 
New Hampshire 
Massachusetts . . 

do 

Dist, Columbia. . 

do 

New York 

Massachusetts . . 
Dist. Columbia. . 

Maine 

Pennsylvania 

Dist. Columbia. . 
Massachusetts . . 
Dist. Columbia. . 

Vermont 

Pennsylvania 

M.issachusetta .. 

Ohio 

Dist. Columbia. . 
Massachusetts . . 
Dist. Columbia. . 

do... 

Vermont 

Dist. Columbia. . 
Massachusetts . . 

do 

New Jersey 

Canada 

Dist. Cclumbia. . 

New York 

Di.st. Columbia. . 



18o7 

1868 

1868 

mZi 

IcGrf 

lb(J8 

i8li7 

18fi5 

1857 

18()7 

1807 

1867 

1867 

1865 

1867 

1867 

ISiUi 

1868 

1867 

1861 

1863 

1864 

1866 

1868 

1867 

1868 

186.5 

1867- 

1865 

1868 

1868 

1865 

1867 

1865 

1868 

1867 

1868 

1867 

18G7 

18(i7 

1868 

1867 

1868 

1864 

1864 

1864 

1668 

186S 

1865 

1868 



* Mrs. Warrick, an excellent colored teacher, has been already mentioned under her maiden name of Nancv 
Waugh, as teacher with Rev. Chauncey Leonard in the .Smother's school-house, at the lime it was destroyed 
by incendiaries in 1863. Soon after that event she opened a private school in the Nineteenth-street Baptist 
church, subsequently removing it to L street, near .Sixteenth street, where she continues to teach, having 
from 40 to 50 scholars. During most of the present school year, 1868-'69, her school-house has been u.^ed by 
the Trustees of the colored public schools, as they were needing more room, and she was also emploj ed by 
them to conduct the school. In April, 1869, she resumed her private school. 



264 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

2. COLORED SCHOOLS OF WASHINGTOIT COUNTY. 

LEGISLATION — 1856, I8()2. 

The earliest attempt to establish a system of free schools in the District outside the cities 
was embraced in an Act of Congress approved August 11, 1856. This Act, however, was 
not to become valid unless approved by "a vote of the majority of those persons residing and 
paying taxes within the limits of the District in which the poll is opened," the act providing 
for the division of the territory into seven school districts. The result was the rejection of 
the act in every district. The women, who were entitled to the franchise under the act, 
generally voting, it is believed, with the majority. The 36th section provided that "those 
who are for this act shall write on their ballots ' school,' and those opposed 'no school.' " It 
resulted that those who wrote "no school" had it all their own way, and as this was the 
first experiment in giving the franchise to women by Congiess the result is the more curious. 
Mr. De Vere Burr, of district 5, was one of the commissioners under the law of 1856 and a 
warm friend of the cause. In that district three women voted, Mrs. Ann McDanicl, a large 
jax payer, who voted "school," and Mrs. Emily Beall and Mrs. Washington Berry, who 
voted "no school." 

Thus the matter rested till March 19, 1862, when Mr. Grimes, chairman of the District com- 
mittee of the Senate, introduced into that body a copy of the act of 1856, with the section 
making it optional with the voters of the districts to accept its provisions omitted. It was 
referred to the District committee, who made no changes in its provisions, except such as 
restricted the taxation exclusively to property owned by white people. This exemption was 
not a new proposition in the Senate, as the same principle was asserted in a bill for the 
encouragement of free schools in Washington, which passed the Senate in May, 1858, but 
which went to the House District Committee, and was there buried. It proposed in sub- 
stance to create a new school fund amounting to $50,000 from the fines and forfeitures in the 
District, and to paj' annually from the United States treasury to the support of the schools 
of the city as much as the city raised for the eame purpose annually, not exceeding $20,000 
a year. When this bill was reported to the Senate by Mr. Brown, of Mississippi, chairman 
of the District Committee, Mr. John P. Hale, May 15, 1858, moved an additional section in 
amendment as follows: ^^ And he it further enacted, That all taxes levied on the estates of 
colored persons in the city of Washington shall be devoted to the support of schools for the 
education of colored children, under the direction of the government of the city." In offering 
the amendment Mr. Hale, in terms of conciliation, but of melancholy significance, appealed 
to the reason and humanity of the party then reigning in that body as follows : 

" I desire to state that several of these individuals have spoken of it to me as a case of 
extreme hardship that the colored population here are taxed for the support of schools — and 
it forms no inconsiderable amount of the taxes contributed — and whilst they are compelled 
to pay taxes, their children have not the slightest benefit of the schools. I do not propose to 
establish any mixed schools or anything else, but to donate the taxes collected from this class 
to the education of their own children under the direction of the city government, and it 
seems to me to be a matter of such plain justice that it will hardly be denied. They are an 
oppressed and degraded people, and I think it hardly comports with the magnanimiiy of their 
superiors to collect their money and to use it to educate their own children. I hope that this 
proposition will commend itself to the chairman (Mr. Albert G. Brown, of Mississippi) of 
the District Committee." 

Senator Brown, with large and enlightened ideas pertaining to free schools for his own 
race, was not willing to give the slightest aid, even indirectly, to encourage free schools for 
the colored race. "The city authorities have never made provision for the education of 
colored people," said he, "_and I do not believe they ever will." He would not consent to 
tax the colored people to aid in their enlightenment, but would exempt their property from 
taxation for support of education. Mr. Hale, anxious to secure any relief, however small, 
the dominant power would give, immediately offered the following modification of his amend- 
ment, which was accepted without debate: 

" Section — . And he it further enacted, That the estates of colored persons in the District 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 



2G5 



of Columbia shall be entirely exempted from all taxes levied for schools and school-houses 
in the District." 

The Act of May 20, 1862, which, as has been stated, was copied mainly from the act of 
August 11, 1856, -embraced amendments confining the taxation for white schools and school- 
houses to property belonging to white persons, in accordance with Mr. Hale's amendment, 
though confined to the territory outside the cities. This bill, referred to the District Com- 
mittee March 19, 1862, was reported March 24 by the chairman, Mr. Grimes, with the 
modifications above indicated, and when the bill was under discussion in final debate, April 
4, he offered as an amendment the following, which was adopted as the thirty-fifth section 
of the act: 

" Section o5. And be it further enacted. That the said levy court may, in its discretion, 
and if it shall be deemed by said court best for the interest and welfare of the colored people 
residing in such county, levy an annual tax of one-eighth of one per cent, on all the taxable 
property in said county outside the limits of the cities of Washington and Georgetown, 
owned by persons of color, for the purpose of initiating a system of education of colored 
children in said county, which tax shall be collected in the same manner as the tax named 
in section thirteen of this act. And it shall be the duty of the trustees elected under section 
nine to provide suitable and convenient rooms for holding schools for colored children, to 
employ teachers therefor, and to appropriate the proceeds of said tax to the payment of 
teachers' wages, rent of school rooms, and other necessary expenses pertaining to said schools ; 
to exercise a general supervision over them, to establish proper discipline, and to endeavor 
to promote a full, equal, and useful instruction of the colored children in said county. It 
shall be lawful for such trustees to impose a tax of not more than fifty cents per month on 
the parent or guardian of each child attending such schools, to be applied to the payment of 
the expenses of the school of which such child shall be an attendant, and in the exercise of 
this power the trustees may from time to time discontinue the payment altogether, or may 
graduate the tax according to the ability of the child and the Avants of the school. And 
said trustees are authorized to receive any donations or contributions that may be made for 
the benefit of said schools by persons disposed to aid in the elevation of the colored popula- 
tion in the Distiict of Columbia, and to apply the same in such manner as in their opinion 
shall be best calculated to effect the object of the donors, said trustees being required to 
account for all funds received by them, aud to report to the commissioners in accordance 
with the provisions of section twenty-two of this act." 

The Act was entitled, " An Act to provide for the public instruction of youth in primary 
schools throughout the county of Washington, in the District of Columbia, without the 
limits of the cities of Washington and Georgetown," the same as the act of 1856. Both acts 
provided for the appointment of "seven intelligent inhabitants of the said county," outside 
the cities, by the levy court as school commissioners, and for the division by them of the 
territory under their jurisdiction into seven school districts, which districts were empowered 
to raise money by taxation to build school-houses and supply furniture. The levy court was 
required annually to impose a tax of one-eighth of one per cent, on all the assessable property 
in said territory "owned by white persons." The individual districts were enjoined to 
choose three district trustees to manage the district affairs, and a district collector. In case 
any district should persist in disregarding the requirements of the Act, the money annually 
raised by the assessment of the levy court, of which one-seventh belonged to each district, 
was to be held two years from the refractory districts, and then to be divided equally among 
the districts which had complied with the conditions of the Act. It was soon found that this 
legislation was so imperfect that little would be accomplished under it for white schools, 
while for the creation of a system of public schools for the colored people it would contribute 
no real assistance at all. It failed to benefit the colored people because it did not embrace 
in its provisions the principle vital to the free school system — that the taxable property of the 
State should provide for the education of all the children of the State without regard to the 
individuals to whom the property may belong, the children of poverty and of aiHuence 
standing on an absolute equality in all the rights and the privileges of the schools. The Act 
of 1862 was based upon ideas wholly averse to this theory. The Act of 1856 contemplated 
only the white race. The Act of 1862 embraced in its provisions both the white and the 
colored races, but in providing for the separate assessment of the property belongin<j to the 
two races it ceased to be a common school law in any just sense of the term. The provision 
in the amendment introduced by Mr. Grimes authorizing the commissioners in their discre- 
tion to fix a limited tuition to be paid in the colored schools by such as were able to pay, and 



266 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

■which was also embraced in a section of the bill pertaining to white schools, was another 
feature tending directly to foster the idea of caste and to degrade the free school system in 
the public estimation. It was a feature, moreover, which had been tried in the white public 
schools of Washington for the first third of a century of their history, and repudiated as a 
calamitous experiment years before the passage of this act. Tbe commissioners early saw 
that the act was exceedingly defective. At a special meeting of the board February 14, 1863, 
Dr. C. H. Nichols, the president of the board, after stating that in his judgment the existing 
law could not be made effectual in the erection of the school-houses essential to the estab- 
lishment of the schools contemplated in the act, presented the draught of a bill which he had 
prepared as a substitute for the existing act, to be put into the hands of the District Com- 
mittee. The bill was read section by section and approved by the members present at that 
meeting. In May, 1863, Dr. Nichols retired from the board, but bis bill seems to have been 
placed in the hands of the District Committee of the Senate. On the 28th of January, 1864, 
at a meeting of the board, Mr. S. P. Brown, from the committee on the school act, reported 
a new bill, which had been prepared by Mr. C. H. Wiltberger. February 1, 1864, this bill 
was taken up, and, after discussion, adopted with some amendments, and the committee 
instructed to place it in the hands of the Senate District Committee. 

THE ACT OP 1864. 

This act, which is the existing school law for the whole District, originated in a bill 
brought into the Senate December 21, 1863, and one of the two bills already mentioned as 
in the hands of the District Committee. On the 9th of February, 1864, Mr. Grimes sub- 
mitted the Wiltberger bill, with some modifications, as a substitute for the bill No. 26, already 
before the Senate, and on February 18 it was discussed at some length in the Senate and 
passed without any opposition, the only controversy being upon the expediency of allowing 
the commissioners $4 per day for actual service as was provided in the bill, the provision 
being finally by general assent discarded. The bill went to the House February 19, was 
referred to the District Committee February 26, and was reported back to the House April 
28 by Hon. James W. Patterson, then chairman of the District Committee of that body, 
with amendments, constituting substantially a new bill. On the 8th of June, when the 
Senate bill came up in the House, Mr. Patterson moved the adoption of his bill in the way 
of a substitute for that of the Senate, and said : 

" As this bill has not been printed, perhaps I ought to say a word in explanation, especially 
as it is an important bill for the District. It will be observed by comparing the Senate bill 
(No. 26) with the substitute reported by the House Committee that there are several minor 
amendments, some of them intended to perfect the bill, and others designed to bring it into 
complete conformity with the best results of the experience in those States where systems of 
education have been most liberally and successfully sustained. In the 20th section we have 
endeavored to gi've efficiency to the system by requiring all penalties and forfeitures imposed 
for violation of the laws of the United States to be paid into the hands of certain officers, 
who are made the custodians of this fund and are required to expend it for school purposes. 
But the most important feature of the amendment is to be found in the 17th and 18th sections, 
and in the proviso to the 19th section, which provides for separate schools for the colored 
children of the District. To accomplish this we have provided that such a proportion of the 
entire school fund shall be set apart for this purpose as the number of colored children, 
letween the ages of six and seventeen, bears to the whole number of children in the District. 
These are the principal points of difference between the Senate bill and the substitute reported 
by the Committee for the District of Columbia. I may say that the committee were unani- 
mous in their approval of these provisions, and I trust that that foreshadows the unanimity 
in the House. We may have differences of opinion in regard to the policy to be pursued in 
respect to slavery, but we all concur in this, that we have been brought to a juncture in our 
national affairs in which four millions of a degraded race, lying below the average civilization 
of the age and depressed by an almost universal prejudice, are to be set free in our midst. 
The question now is, what is our first duty in regard to them ? I think there can be no 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLOKED POPULATION. 267 

difference of opinion on this, that it is our duty to give to this people the means of education, 
that they may be prepared for all the privileges which we may desire to give them hereafter." 

The bill was adopted without opposition June 8, 1SG4. The following are the sections to 
which Mr. Patterson called attention, and which constitute the only legislation of solid 
substance ever enacted by Congress for the establishment of colored schools in the District, 
embracing in their provisions the cities as well as " the county parts :" 

" Section 17. It shall be the duty of the said commissioners to provide suitable and con- 
venient houses or rooms for holding schools for colored children ; to employ and examine 
teachers therefor, and to appropriate a proportion of the school funds, to be determined by 
the numbers of white and colored children between the ages of six and seventeen years, to 
the payment of teachers' wages, to the building or renting of school-rooms, and other neces- 
sary expenses pertaining to said schools; to exercise a general supervision over them, to 
establish proper discipline, and endeavor to promote a thorough, equitable, and practical 
education of colored children in said county. It shall be lawful for said commissioners to 
impose a tax of not more than fifty cents per month for each child on the parents or guardians 
of children attending said schools, to be applied to the payment of the expenses of the school 
of which said child shall be an attendant ; and in the exercise of this power the commissioners 
may, from time to time, discontinue the payment altogetlier, or may graduate (he tax according 
to the ability of said tax-payers and the wants of the school : Provided. That no child shall 
be excluded from such school on account of the inability of the parent or guardian to pay 
said tax. And said commissioners are authorized to receive any donations or contributions 
that may be made for the benefit of said schools by persons disposed to aid in the elevation 
of the colored population in the District of Columbi:i, and to supply the same iu such manner 
as in their opinion shall be best calculated to effect the objects of the donors, said commis- 
sioners being required to account for all funds received by them, and to report to the levy 
court in accordance with the provisions of section nine of this act. 

"Sec. ]8. The first section of the act of Congress eatitled 'An act providing for the 
education of colored children in the cities of Washington and Georgetown, District of 
Columbia, and for other purposes,' be and the same is hereby repealed ; and that from and 
after the passage of this act it shall be the duty of the municipal authorities of the cities of 
Washington and Georgetown, in the District of Columbia, to set apart each year from the 
whole fund received from all sources by such authorities, applicable under existing provisions 
of lav/ to purposes of education, such proportionate part thereof as the number of colored 
children between the aoes of six and seventeen years in the respective cities bear to the 
whole number thereof, for the purpose of establishing and sustaining public schools in said 
cities for the education of colored children ; that the said proportion shall be ascertained by 
the last reported census of the population of said cities made prior to said appointment, and 
shall be regulated at all times thereby ; and that the said fund shall be paid to the trustees 
appointed under the act of Congress approved July eleven, eighteen hundred and sixty-two, 
entitled 'An act relating to schools for the education of colored children in the cities of 
W^ashington and Georgetown, in the District of Columbia,' to be disbursed by them in 
accordance with the provisions of said act. 

"Sec. 19. One-fourth part of all the moneys now in the hands of the juarshal of the 
District of Columbia, or of any other officer of said District, which have accrued from fines, 
penalties, and forfeitures imposed for the violations of the laws of the United States within 
said District, shall be by such officer or officei's paid to the ' board of commissioners of primary 
schools of Washington county. District of Columbia,' one-fourth part to the mayor of the 
city of Georgetown, and the remaining two-fourths thereof to the mayor of the city of Wash- 
ington; the said sums, so paid to the said commissioners and the said mayors, to constitute 
in their hands funds for the support of primary schools within the said county aud public 
schools iu said cities in the proportions aforesaid. And it shall be the duty of said marshal 
and other officers to pay over every three months, from aud after toe passage of this act, all 
money coming into their hands iu the manner aforesaid, to the said board of commissioners 
of primary schools and to the said mayors, in the proportions aforesaid, for the use of the 
said primary and public schools, any law to the contrary notwithstanding: Provided, That 
the funds thus obtained for educational purposes shall be applied to the education of both 
white and colored children, in the proportion of the numbers of each between the ages of 
six and seventeen years as determined by the latest census report that shall liave been made 
prior to such appointment ; aud the mayors of the aforesaid cities of Georgetown and Wash- 
ington are hereby authorized and instructed to pay over such .part thereof as may be appli- 
cable, under the provisions of this section and the proviso thei'eto, to the education of colored 
children iu the aforenamed cities, to the trustees appointed under the act of July eleventh, 
eighteen hundred and sixty-two, entitled ' An act relatmg to schools for the education of 
colored children in the cities of Georgetown and Washington, in the District of Columbia,' 
to be used for the education of colored children according to the provisions of law ; and the 
aforenamed officers failing to pay over the moneys as aforesaid shall be liable to the penalty 
imposed by the second section of the act of Congress approved July twelfth, eighteen hun- 
dred and sixty-two, entitled ' An act to provide for the payment of fines and penalties collecte4 



268 SCHOOLS OF THE- COLOEED POPULATION 

by and paid the justices of the peace in the Dist;ict of Columbia under the acts of Congress 
approved the third and filth of August, eighteen hundred and sixty-one, and for other pur- 
poses.'" 

THE SCHOOL FUNDS. 

The act of 1864, as the bill came from the hands of Mr. Patterson and became a law, 
embraces the true ideas of the free school system as enunciated with such terseness and force 
by Mr. Grimes and Mr. Morrill. Under its operations the friends of common schools were 
Inspired with new energy, and the colored schools were now immediately brought into con- 
sideration as an established fact in the county. The provision authorizing the commissioners 
to impose a tuition upon children whose parents might be able to pay is retained in the law 
of 1866, and must have found place in Mr. Patterson's very excellent bill through inadvert- 
ence in the collating of the various bills which came before him. 

The old board of commissioners and its officers were continued under the new law, and 
some of the members took hold of the work imposed upon them with much energy and public 
spirit, while oth'ers seem to have done nothing. There was soon disclosed in the board a 
decided difference of opinion as to the interpretation of the act. Some members of the board 
understood it to provide for the division only of that portion of the school fund derived from 
fines and forfeitures between. the white and colored schools according to the number of white 
and colored scholars, while that portion derived from taxation was to be divided exclusively 
among the white schools. Other members believed that the entire fund should be divided 
between the white and colored schools. At a meeting of the board December 15, 1864, 
Commissioner Wiltberger proposed the issue of an order directing the funds derived from 
taxation to be used exclusively for white schools. Pending the discussion on this question, 
Mr. Miller offered the following : 

" Resolved, That this board take a vote to determine whether the colored schools are entitled 
to a proportion of the school fund arising i'rom taxes under the law of Congress approved 
June 25, 1864." 

The result of the vote was, two yeas — George Mathiot and David Miller ; three nays — 
C. H. Wiltberger, B. W. Keyser, and B. T. Swart. The resolution offered by Mr. Wilt- 
berger, to the effect that the fines should be divided according to the number of scholars 
between the white and colored schools, and that the money from taxation should be used 
exclusively for the white schools, was then adopted. At the next meeting of the board, 
February 2, 1865, Mr. Miller ofiered a resolution affirming the following opinion of the levy 
court, dated January 9, 1865: 

^''Resolved, That in the opinion of this court the school commissioners of the county of 
Washington, District of Columbia, are required by the act of Congress approved July 25, 
1864, to appropriate the money derived from all sources, and constituting the school fund for 
the support of schools for white and colored children residing in said county in the proportion 
that said white and colored children between the ages of six and seventeen years have to 
each other in numbers according to the last census." 

Of the four commissioners present at this meeting, Messrs. Miller and Mathiot voted in the 
affirmative, and Messrs. Swart and V^iltberger in the negative. Mr. Wiltberger, on the other 
hand, produced a written opinion from Joseph H. Bradley, sr., arguing at some length that 
the terms of the act confined the distribution of the funds for the benefit of colored schools 
exclusively to that portion derived from the fines, penalties, and forfeitures. Meanwhile the 
levy court took more distinct action, declaring to the board in a resolution that any distribu- 
tion of the funds which did not give the colored schools the same share of the moneys accruing 
from taxation that was conceded by the board to them from the fines, penalties, and forfeitures 
would be deemed by the court an unlawful distribution. Soon after this action of the levy 
court the board, at a meeting April 20, 1885, on motion of Mr. Wiltberger, voted, without 
dissent, to divide the school money as instructed by the levy court from and after July 1, 
1864, and this decision was executed. 

In the work of 1864 and 1865, under the new act, the commissioners became sufficiently 
acquainted with the magnitude of the enterprise to be made sensible that the funds accruing 
under the provisions of that act were entirely inadequate to the demands of the cause. For 
white schools a house had been built in district No. 2 in 1864 ; a house in No. 1 and in No. 6 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 269 

in 1865, wLile for the colored schools the commissioners had attempted nothing in the matter 
of building houses at all. Although at first the white people were to a very large extent 
opposed to schools and school-houses, and hostile to the school act, there were always some 
sterling friends of the cause in every district, while, under the operations of the schools for 
two or three years, many others had become friendly to the free school system. The colored 
people, who were originally unanimous for the schools, had year after year grown more and 
more anxious and restless in their destitution. Under the pressure upon them, the commis- 
sioners at a meeting May 15, 1866, appointed a committee to present their case to Congress. 
The committee reported June 7, 1866, that they had waited on Mr. Grimes, chairman of the 
District committee, who gave them no encouragement. They asked for ($5,000) five thousand 
dollars, and in the civil appropriation bill approved July 28, 1865, the sum of ($10,000) ten 
thousand dollars was appropriated " for the payment in part for the purcliase of sites and 
the erection of school-houses in the county of Washington, in the District of Columbia." 
This money, which had mostly come into the hands of the commissioners late in the autumn 
of 1866, the last requisition being received by them in February, 1867, was nearly all 
expended for school-houses in 1866. At a meeting of the board January 3, 1867, it was 
voted to divide the appropriation between the white and colored schools according to the 
number of scholars, as it had been decided to divide the other funds. They assumed that 
this required one-third to be set aside for colored schools — the number of children five years 
old and under twenty, white, 1,2013; colored, 574, being the basis of distribution. This 
appropriation, it would appear from the records, was not divided by the commissioners as it 
came into their possession, the portion belonging to each class being kept by itself with its 
accruing interest, but was used in common, no account being taken of the periods in which 
the disbursements for the white and the colored schools were made, and the same has been 
the rule with the rest of the school funds. Otherwise the application of the funds seem to 
have been justly made upon the basis above stated. The resolution approved March 29, 1867, 
requiring a new enumeration of the children of the District, was enacted specifically to place 
the colored people in a more equitable position in the distribution of the school funds than 
they occupied under the census of 1860. This census was completed on the 1 Ith of Novem- 
ber, 1867, and the school act of November 25, 1864, had provided that in the division of 
school funds the proportion should "be ascertained by the last reported census," prior to the 
distribution. Inasmuch, therefore, as there was no specific distribution, the expenditures 
being made from a fund in common, it would only be just, in making up the final settlement 
of the account between the two classes oi schools when the building operations, still incom- 
plete, shall be finished, to give the colored people the benefit of the new census. 

Two school-houses for colored schools were built in 1866 and two in 1867, and in the spring 
of 1868 the commissioners found their treasury again empty, with their schools well filled 
with children and more houses imperatively demanded. At a meeting of the board February 
6, 1868, a motion was made to close all the schools at the end of the month. This was 
amended, making it conform to the terms of a resolution passed August 1, 1867, providing 
for their close April 1, 1863, but allowing the teachers who desired to continue, taking their 
chances for pay when there should be funds in the treasury, and the motion was in this form 
passed, six in the affirmative and one in the negative. Soon after this time another application 
was made to Congress for relief, and with the prospect of success the schools were continued, 
and maintained through that school year without any foreign aid, the teachers being generally 
promptly paid. On the 20th of Jul}', 1868, Congress made a second appropriation of ($10,000) 
ten thousand dollars "for the purchasing of suitable ates for the erection of additional school- 
houses, and for the maintenance of schools in the county of Washington, outside of the limits 
of the cities of Washington and Georgetown, the same to be expended under the direction 
of the levy court of the county of Washington, subject to the approval of the Secretary 
of the Interior." This appropriation has been about three-fourths expended — $4,000 to pay 
teachers and $2,728 50 for a colored school-house in district 7, and several hundred dollars 
on the colored school-house in district 1. The levy court approved of the above use of the 
$4,000, with the understanding that it should be refunded, and they increased the tax from 
i per cent, to 7-20 in order to meet the emergency. 



270 



SCPIOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 



The District of Columbia contains about fifty-two square miles exclusive of the bed of the 
Potomac, the westerly boundary of the District being the Virjijinia shore of the river at low 
water mark. The two cities contain less than fifteen square miles. This gives at least 
thirty-seven square miles in the county outside the cities. The school districts vary in size, 
ranging in area from about four to six square miles, the smallest of the seven being No. 3, 
the others being each from about four and a half to about five and a half square miles in area. 
The school-house in district No. 1 is some two and a half miles, and in No. 2 less than that 
distance, beyond the limits of Georgetown, and in the other districts the houses range from a 
mile and a quarter to double that distance from the limits of Washington, around the borders 
of which they are ranged. There has been no change in the division into school districts, 
originally fixed in 1862, except a small alteration early made in the line between No. 6 and 
No. 7. The division of the county is based upon the plan made in the act of 1856, the lan- 
guage of which act has been successively copied into the two subsequent acts. The popu- 
lation has not only very largely increased since that date, but it has also been entirely revo- 
lutionized as to its chief localities. Another consideration, and that which especially con- 
cerns the subject in hand, is the fact that the division in 1856 was made by Congress with 
exclusive reference to the white population. In any subsequent legislation the particulars 
here suggested should be carefully considered. The decennial census soon to be taken, it is 
to be hoped, will furnish a detailed enumeration of the population, the children of the pre- 
scribed school age, the area and the taxable property of each of the school districts, as well 
as like facts in detail pertaining to Washington and Gebrgetown. The census report of 1860 
does not give the area of the District of Columbia, and no census since the retrocession of 
Alexandria has given it correctly. In the census of 1860 the enumeration of the population 
is quinquennial, and consequently the number of children between 5 and 20 instead of 6 and 
18 years of age was assumed as the basis of calculation in the division of the fund distributed 
prior to the census of November, 1867, and this basis is still adhered to, but there can be no 
doubt whatever that all moneys accruing to the school fund subsequent to the census of 
November 11, 1867, including the $10,000 given by Congress, should be divided on the basis 
of that census, which gives a percentage in the county of Washington of 38.89 in the place 
of 32.35 under the census of 1860. 



Census returns, November 11, 1867. 





'•3 

o 
V2 


6 


■a 
J) 

O 


Total. 


Between 6 and 
17 years. 


3 


School age per- 
centage. 


Corporations, &c. 


s 
^ 




13 


1 
"o 
O 




1,2. 

3, 4, 5. 

6,7. 


1, 516 
2,441 
1,746 


538 
1,299 
1,605 


2,054 
3,740 
3, 351 












Creok. 












Eastern Branch. 












Maryland line. 












Total county of Wash- 
ington. 




5,703 

74, 115 
8,509 


3,442 

31, 937 

3,284 


9,145 

106, 052 
11, 793 


1,494 

17, 801 
2, 152 


951 

8,401 
894 


2,445 

26, 202 
3,046 


61. 10+ 

07. 94+ 
70. 65+ 


38.89 + 
33. 05+ 






29.34 + 












88, 327 


38, 663 


126, 990 


21, 447 


10, 246 


31, 693 















SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 
Census returns, 1860. 



271 



Corporations, &c. 


$ 


13 

u 
o 
"o 


"5 
o 


Between 5 and 
20 years. 


Total. 


Per cent, of those 
between 5 and 
20 yeara. 




-2 

13 


o 
O 


la 


"d 
o 

O 




3,827 
50, 139 

(i, 798 


1,398 

10, 983 

1,935 


5, 225 
61, 122 
8,733 


1,203 
16, 079 
2,307 


574 
4,014 

702 


1,777 

20, 093 

3, C09 


67. 64+ 
80. 02+ 
76. 66+ 


32. 35+ 




19.97+ 




23. 33+ 








60, 764 


14,316 


75, 080 


19, 589 


5,290 


24, 879 













Population by single years, between 6 and ]7, (school age.) — Census returns, Nov. 11, 1867. 





&c. 


6. 


7. 


8. 




9. 


Corporations, 


2 
^ 


■6 

u 
"o 


"3 
o 


S 


•6 

"o 
O 


"3 
o 


1 


•6 

"3 
o 

699 
61 

1C3 


o 


2 


"d 
£ 

"o 


'a 
o 




1,579 
213 
124 


513 

58 
79 


2,092 
271 
203 


1,709 
188 
126 


626 

58 
90 


2,335 
246 
216 


1,758 

198 
135 


2,457 
259 

238 


1,588 
195 
106 


601 
69 

79 


2,189 




264 




185 








Total District. 


1,916 


650 


2,560 


2,023 


774 


2,797 


2,091 


863 


2,954 


1,889 


749 


2, 638 




&c. 


10. 


11. 


12. 


13. 


Corporations, 


i 
[a 


O 


"3 
'o 


2 


'6 

_o 
"3 
o 


"3 
o 


2 
^ 


•d 
£ 

5 


3 

"5 


2 


■d 

o 
O 


3 

o 




1,709 
169 
129 


805 
89 
105 


2,514 
258 
234 


1,369 
175 
110 


623 
66 
54 


1,992 
241 
164 


1,423 
186 
135 


902 
91 
104 


2,325 
277 
239 


1,347 
176 
116 


736 
86 
73 


2,083 




262 




189 








Total District. 


2,007 


999 


3,006 


1,654 


743 


2,397 


1,744 


1,097 


2,841 


1,639 


895 


2,534 




14. 


15. 


16. 


17. 


"3 


Corporations,&c. 


6 


"6 

1 
o 


"3 


ia 


i 

u 
o 
"o 
O 


"a 
o 
H 


6 

i 


-3 

£ 
o 


■i 

o 


2 


£ 

o 
"o 
O 


o 


2 

C5 


Washington 

Georgetown 

County 


1,356 
169 
136 


781 
76 

77 


2,137 
245 
213 


1,311 
163 
143 


716 
83 

70 


2,027 
246 
213 


1,372 
169 
128 


765 
89 
61 


2,137 
258 
189 


1,280 
151 
106 


634 

68 
56 


1,914 
219 
163 


26,202 
3,046 
2,445 


Total District. 


1,661 


934 


2,595 


1,617 


869 


2,486 


1,669 


915 


2,584 


1,537 


758 


2, 295 


31,693 



272 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPUL^'JION. 

MRS. CARROLL'S SCHOOL, (DISTRICT NO. G.) 

The first colored school in the District, outside of the limits of the two cities, was established 
by Mrs. David Carroll in August, 1861, and it M-as the first established in the District specially 
intended for educating slave children. The earliest contraband school opened in Wash- 
ington was not started till the spring of 1862. David Carroll was one of the founders of the 
colored Presbyterian church of Washington, an original elder in the church, a man of 
property and superior character. This family went out to the farm-house belonging to Mr. 
Cornelius T. Boyle, beyond Benning's bridge, across the Eastern Branch, and took up their 
residence, shortly after the first battle of Bull Eun, with a view of buying the farm. The 
next Sabbath after they became occupants of the premises, Eev. Selby B. Scaggs, a white 
M-?thodist preacher and a farmer in that neighborhood, locked up the chapel in which he 
was wont to preach, and when the people came to the church they found him patrolling, 
key in hand, in front of the house, and declaring that he would have no more praying for 
the President and tlie success of the Union arms on his premises. It appeared that the 
pious officers and soldiers from the neighboring forts had taken part in the Sabbath services 
and given this offence to the pastor. In this emergency the colored people were invited to 
hold their services and Sabbath school at the Boyle farm-house on that day. They did so, 
and David Carroll addressed them, urging the building of a church in which the prayer for 
the Union would bo justified. John Payne, a colored farmer, offered a lot on his farm, and 
contributions to start the building operations were gathered, to the amount of fifty dollars, 
on the spot. Tliey also fixed upon a neighboring grove for a temporary place of worship, 
and a stand and seats were erected there in camp-meeting style the ensuing week. The 
next Sunday Eev. Mr. Simpson, a private in company F, of the 10th New York heavy 
artillery, on duty at Fort Meigs, preached the inauguration sermon in the grove ; also the 
dedication sermon in their new house just three months from that day. Mr. Deane, a white 
resident, kindly allowed the colored people to take all the timber for the church from his 
woodland, which had been prostrated by military orders. The weather on every Sunday ot 
the three months was fair, and this is recounted by these people as a special providence to 
them. The Sunday school, which had been maintained with the greatest interest at the 
Boyle farm-house, was moved into the nOvv house with the transfer of the meeting from the 
grove, and from that time the house has been crowded with scholars, old and young, many 
of them coming five or six miles to enjoy the weekly privileges. The first teachers were 
mostly Christian soldiers from the forts, birt those who were the early scholars have now 
the entire management of the school, including the superintendent, John H. Jackson, sou 
of Rev. Nathaniel Jackson, an intelligent colored preacher, who owns a place iu that neigh- 
borhood and was one of the leaders iu building the house, which they named Jones Chapel, 
in honor of another colored preacher who owns a small farm in that vicinity, and who is 
widely known in the District as a venerable and industrious man. Most of the early scholars 
have become members or this church. It is worthy of remark that this colored church and 
school, which have done so much good to these down-trodden people, were organized and 
for a time maintained upon the premises of one of the most extreme and uncompromising 
men who plotted treason in this District before the war and weut foremost into the rebellion, 
serving as surgeon in the rebel army through the conflict. The books for the Sabbath school 
were at first procured by contributions taken up in the church and school, but afterwards, 
Mrs. Carroll, who at first had the entire charge of the school, procured them from the man- 
agers of the Soldiers' Free Library in Washington. The officers and soldiers contributed 
generously and gave great encouragement to the work iu all its stages. 

Tlic day school. — Mrs. Carroll opened a day school in the Boyle house with twenty children 
the same week in which she started the Sunday school. The number rapidly increased to 
double that number, and as the colored people from the Maryland plantations pressed inside 
the District the school filled nearly the whole house, numbering at some periods nearly or 
quite a hundred. Mrs. Carroll's daughter by a former liusband, Miss Rebecca T. Cordon, 
was assistant in the school, which was continued with undiminished success till April, J 865. 
Mr. Carroll having died the previous year, the family returned to their house in Washingttm. 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 273 

The school was then taken in charge by Miss Ellen M. Jackson, the daughter of Eev. 
Nathaniel Jackson, and transferred to her father's house. She was soon, howevei', coiiii)elled 
by failing health to suspend her work, and died in that summer. Tliere was no day school, 
therefore, through the summer and autumn, but in January, 1866, Mr. A. E. Newton, the 
superintendent of the schools in Washington and Georgetown, visited tliat locality and 
promptly established a school in the Jones Chapel, employing Frederick A. Lawton, a white 
man from the north, as the teacher. There was at tliis time more open hostility to colored 
schools than had been manifested during the war when the military forces held control. No 
white family in the neighborhood would board a teacher of a colored school at this time, and 
there was no colored family in suitable condition to receive a boarder. Mr. Lawton found a 
home with Mr. Tabor, a Union man, who had fled from Virginia with his wife and built a 
rough shelter in a forest a mile from the chapel. Mr. Tabor, a native of New York State, 
was a man of intelligence who had seen better fortunes, and his wife was a woman of retine- 
meut. They had lost everything," and purchasing a piece of land here they were living iu 
such a shanty as they were able to build in their poverty. Mr. Lawton and the family suf- 
fered with cold the first winter, but the house was improved iu the summer, and he lived 
with them during the two years in which he taught the school. Mr. Lawton was supported 
the first year wholly by an association of Universalists of Auburn, 'New York, through the 
New York Freedmen's Relief Association, and in part by the same association the second 
year, 1867-'68, the commissioners of primary schools assuming most of his support in the 
latter named school year. His school during the two years averaged at different periods 
from 40 to 60 scholars. Mr. Lawton was elected teacher by the school commissioners August 
16, 1866, but as the pay, $37 50 per month, voted by the school board April 5, 1866, to all 
teachers, male and female, of colored schools, was so manifestly inadequate, Mr. Newton, in 
order to retain his services and to continue the school with efficiency, added $10 per month 
from the funds of the association. 

Mrs. Carroll, well known as one of the capable colored teachers of Washington for twenty- 
five years, under the name of Charlotte Gordon, was born and grew to womanhood a slave 
in Alexandria. Her owner, Mrs. Mary Fletcher, a good woman, believed in educating her 
servants and practiced her faith. She sent this child, Charlotte Pankus, to the best schools 
accessible to colored children in that city from the earliest school age. Sylvia Morris, Alfred 
Parry, and Joseph Ferrell were the excellent colored teachers whose schools she attended. 
Ferrell, of whom mention has been elsewhere made as a man of remarkable abilitiea, was 
sent to the penitentiary accused of furnishing passes to his enslaved brethren who run for 
freedom. He was sentenced for a term of seven years, and coming out at the end of this 
term, was immediately seized on a second accusation and sentenced to a second term of five 
years. Charlotte Pankus, with others of his old scholars, was in the court-house in Alex- 
andria when Thompson Mason, whose slaves were "caught running " with the forged passes, 
made his violent and vindictive argument for the second conviction. Ferrell subsequently 
had a school in Washington, and died here some years ago, persisting on his death-bed that 
he was innocent of the offence. This girl attended also for nearly two years an admirable 
school for colored girls which was maintained in Alexandria by tlie Sisters of Charity, who at 
the same period had a large boarding school for white girls in that city. Sisters Agnes 
Annina and Mary Frances are remembered by her as the teachers of the colored school. 
Miss Edmunds, who had a boarding school in the city at that period, and Benjamin Hal- 
lowell, the eminent Quaker schoolmaster, both befriended her, the latter named teacher 
instructing her in Latin, of which she acquired some knowledge. She began to teach when 
a mere girl in Alexandria, and. had a school there at the time of the Snow riot in Washington 
in 183.5. Some years later her owner, with the desire to make her free, sent her to Wash- 
ington without registration in order that she might acquire her freedom by the operation of 
the registry law, and she was in Washington when Alexandria was retroccded in 1846. 
Before this period she married Wm. H. Gordon, who a few years later went to California 
and died there, leaving her with a family of small children, whom she raised in a respectable 
manner by her industry and intelligence as a teacher. Her first school in Washington was 
in a house on I near Eleventh street, west, where she taught six years, with an average of 
25 



274 SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 

Svime forty scliolars. From this place she moved her school to New York avenue, near Thir- 
teenth street, into one of the houses of the locality known in that day as "Coyer Tan Yard," 
where she had an average of about fifty scholars for five or six years, till about 1858, when 
she movgd to Eighth between N and streets, in the northern section of the city — a location 
then known as "Nigger Hill,'' at that time and now the centre of a large colored population. 
Her school here was very large, and in 1860 she occupied two adjoining small brick buildings, 
which were filled with scholars, her daughter being assistant. She established also a Sab- 
bath school in connection with this school, and several white ladies took great interest in its 
progress, giving their personal aid as teachers and contributing to secure books. Among 
the most devoted friends of the school was Mrs. Mitchell, a Virginia lady, who gave her 
warm friendship to the work as a teacher from the beginning to the end of the school, which 
contiuued several years. Mrs. Mitchell is still a resident of Washington, an inmate of the 
family of her son-in-law, H. M. Binckley, esq., the Assistant Attorney General under the late 
.administration. The day school was crowded when the war broke out, and was dispersed in 
the spring of 1861 when the soldiers began to throng the city, the small children, of which 
■the school was mostly composed, being intimidated by the tramp of the armies. She had on 
her list at that time nearly a hundred and fifty scholars. This school was only briefly alluded 
to in the notices of schools in operation in the District, given in the previous pages. In 1861 
she was married to Mr. Carroll, and the work which she did in the cause of enlightening her 
race during the war was perhaps the most useful of her life. David Carroll was born a slave, 
owned by Charles Carroll, of CarroUtown, but was early put to a trade and manumitted. 

THE SCHOOLS, SCHOOL LOTS, AND SCHOOL-HOUSES. 

District No. ] — Tenallytovm. — At a meeting of the Board May 3, 1866, the commissioner 
of this district, R. W. Carter, a distinguished merchant of Washington, was instructed to 
hire a house at a rent not exceeding $5 per month. Nothing seems to have been further done, 
from the records, till April 4, 1867, when Mr. J. S. Lloyd was chosen teacher, whose first 
monthly report, June, 1867, shows six boys and seven girls on his list. He taught 13 months 
at $45 per month, and is now under the new schedule receiving $50. He is an efficient 
teacher, his school numbering about 40. with an average attendance of 24 scholar's. Mr. 
Carter first came into the Board in April, 1866, and was elected president of the Board in the 
ensuing July, a position which with great public spirit and efiiciency he still holds. He had 
recently purchased a country seat at Tenallytown, and entered into the objects of the Board 
with great interest, determined to secure for that commirnity what they had hitherto not 
enjoyed — free schools. The project required courage. Among the mass of the white com- 
munity there was no desire for schools of any kind, while the very few M'ho felt the need of 
educational facilities generally regarded it vain to attempt anything of the kind in that 
population. The result has been the establishment of two admirable schools, one white and 
the other colored. A colored Methodist clmrch has been formed, with a flourishing Sabbath 
school ; also, a Catholic church. The colored school-house was built in the summer of 1867, 
and Mr. Carter has watched the school in all its stages with a generous fidelity that has left 
nothing to be desired. Public sentiment, which, not frieiidly to white schools three years 
ago, was extremely hostile to the education of the colored people, has been revolutionized, 
and schools of both classes are now approved by all, the opposition being very limited and 
emanating mostly from a vulgar class. 

District No. 2. — It has already been stated that action was taken to buy a school lot in 
this district, which lies between district No. 1 and Kock Creek, at a meeting of the Board 
November 30, 1865. At a subsequent meeting, February l,186(i, it was voted to hire a 
house at a rent of $4 per month, and the connnissioner immediately opened a school, with 
Mary Bofiey as teacher, who commencing with six boys and three girls in March, 1860, soon 
had a room full. She continued in the school seven months at .$37 50 per month, and nine 
months at $45, the new building, costing $960 exclusive of fencing and stone, being com- 
pleted in this period. She was succeeded by the present efficient teacher, Mr. 13. M. Martin, 
who taught 13 months at $45 per month, which has been this year increased to $5!.' ; though 
itshauld be noted that in excluding the vacation this increase of the monthly pny is really a 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATIOX. 275 

reduction of the annual compensation. This school has averaged under the present teacher 
about 26 scholars, with 68 names on the roll. 

District No. 3. — In this district the first movement for a school originated in the meetin<? 
of the Board May 3, 1866, which authorized the commissioner of the district to hire a house 
for a colored school at a rent not exceeding $7 per month. Mr. Carpenter, the commissioner, 
immediattly rented a barrack building, and opened a school the week in which it wan author- 
ized. He employed Harvey Smith, who commenced in May with two boys and six girls, 
and taught four months at $37 50 a month, 22 months at $45, and has the regular pay of .■jji")!) 
this year. The school-house of the same plan and cost of that in district No. 2 was finished 
in the summer of 1866, and was well filled with scholars. At the present time the average 
attendance is about 30, as it was through last year, with 56 names on the roll. When the 
school was first organized there was the same prevailing hostility to the work in this as in the 
two districts west of Rock Creek. It was impossible to purchase a school lot of a white 
man in the district. The lot was purchased of a colored man. In this district the records 
of the Board show complaints from Francis Hamilton, a teacher of a colored school in June, 
1867, that the white scholars of that district were insolent and abusive to the iuoffending 
children of the colored scliool. There was also a complaint of the same character preferred 
to the Board at that meeting from J. H. Yoorhees, the teacher of the colored school of the 
adjoining district, No. 4, against the white school of his district. These disgraceful perse- 
cutions, however, have mostly ceased, and hi'gher, more generous, and enlightened ideas are 
prevailing. Mr. Carpenter has done much to inculcate correct views, and has given great 
satisfaction as a commissioner. 

District No. -1 — Soldiers^ Home. — At a meeting of the Board April 26, 186G, Henry Queen, 
then and irow the commissioner of the district, was authorized to hire a house at .$7 a month, 
provide benches, and employ a teacher for a colored school; and Mr. A. Bolton opened a 
school, numbering at first 10 scholars, five boys and five girls, May 1, 1866, teaching four 
months at $37 50 per month and one month at $45. He died in October, and was succeeded 
by J. H. Voorhees, who still is giving much satisfaction in the school. He taught 20 mouths 
at $45 and now receives $50. The school has numbered about 70 the last two years, with 
an average attendance of 23 scholars. The school-house, of same pattern and cost of those 
in districts 2 and 3, was built in 1867 on a lot purchased of Mary Walker in April of that 
year. It is located near the Soldiers' Home, and in the vicinity of the residence of C. H. 
Wiltberger, who was commissioner from 1862 to 1866, and who has devoted great attention 
to the schools, both white and colored, in his district and in the county. Public sentiment 
in this district was originally more enlightened and tolerant of education among the colored 
people than in the districts already noticed, and at the present time there seems to bo a spirit 
of kindness prevalent toward its colored school. Its progress is the cause of satisfaction and 
not of ofleuce to the white population. Mr. Wiltberger has been the secretary of the Board 
of commissioners from its organization in 1862 to the present tilne, and the facts in tliis 
chapter pertaining to the work which has been done under the operations of the successive 
school acts have been drawn in a very large measure from the remarkably careful and laborious 
record which he has preserved. Very rarely absent from a meeting of the Board, he has 
kept an account of every important transaction, the value of which to the cause of conunon 
schools in the county it is scarcely possible to overestimate. Nor is this all the valuable 
work he has donp. He has annually comjiiled i'rom the monthly returns of the teachers a 
careful summary of the facts communicated in those returns, and has preserved copies of 
them, while the original papers transmitted to the levy court are not to be found. "While a 
majority of the persons who have successively been appointed commissioners seem to have 
totally neglected the duties of the office, Mr. Wiltberger has been vigilant and unwearied in 
his exertions to awaken the people of his own school district to a just appreciation of the 
school system, and has given cordial support to the education of the colored people, although 
he originally tjissenled from the views of the levy court as to the meaning of the school act 
touching the distribution of the school funds. 

Disliict No. 5. — In this district no colored school has been established. The colored popu- 
lation is so scattered that the coannissioners have not deemed it discreet either to open a 



276 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

school or to build a house. At a meeting of the Board January 3, 1867, a committee, con- 
sisting of David Miller and John E. Chappel, was authorized to select a site for a house, 
but after looking the matter carefully over it is understood that they declined to proceed, 
doubting the expediency of building a house under the circumstances. In 1868 further 
action was taken, and at a meeting of the Board July 2, 1868, it was voted to condemn a 
certain lot which had been selected and could not be amicably purchased. This order, how- 
ever, was not carried out, mainly because of the violent hostility among the white residents 
of the district to colored schools, and therefore no lot has yet been selected. This district 
extends along the westerly side of the Eastern Branch. 

District Ao. 6.— The colored school which Avas established in 1861 in the limits of this 
district, which lies upon the easterly side of the Eastern Branch, has been fully sketched 
down to the period when it was assumed by the commissioner under the caption of " Charlotte 
Carroll's school." At a meeting of the Board January 18, 1866, the school at Jones's chapel 
was accepted as a public school, and the wages of the teacher, Frederick A. Lawton, fixed 
at $37 50 per month. At a previous meeting, January 4, 1866, it had been voted to pay Mr. 
liawton the above specified wages under the condition that the house should be furnished 
with no expense to the commissioners. The report of the school for that month showed an 
average attendance of 26 boys and 16 girls. The Board, October 4, 1866, authorized the 
purchase of a lot for a school-house in this district at the rate of |200 per acre, and the com- 
missioner purchased half an acre of Jacob Paine, a colored man owning a small farm in that 
district. The house was completed late in the autumn of 1866. Mr. Lawton taught eight 
months at $37 50 per month, and a year at $45. L. H. Smith, a son of the teacher in district 
No. 3, succeeded Mr. Lawton, teaching 10 months at $45, and is still in the school giving 
good satisfaction under the prescribed pay of the present year. The whole number of 
scholars enwlled the year ending July 15, 1868, was 103, with an average attendance through 
the year of 36. The school-house is 20 feet by 40 feet in dimensions. Mr. W. B. Lacey, 
the present commissioner, is an active and efficient officer. 

District 7, No. 1—Good Hope schools.— The second effort to start schools in the county for 
the colored people was made in the Good Hope church, on the east side of the Eastern Branch, 
a mile or more from the Navy Yard bridge. Mr. G. F. Needham, a clerk in the Post Office 
Department, went over there early in the spring of 1864 and aided Miss Eliza H. Stanton, 
of Virginia, who had been sent into this field as a teacher by the New York National Freed- 
men's Relief Association, in organizing a school in that chapel, a comfortable brick church 
built by the African Methodist people before the war. Miss Stanton had a large school, and 
managed it with energy and success, receiving for her services $30 per month, barely enough 
to pay her board and lodging. The opposition to the work at that time in that vicinity was 
exceedingly bittt-r. No white family would receive this refined woman into their house, and 
the colored people were too poor and shelterless in their condition to do so. She was com- 
pelled to walk into the city, which broke down her physical powers iu the course of the 
s-ummer, compelling her to disband her school. An illustration of the prevailing temper at 
that period is found in the following reply which was made to Miss Stanton's application for 
board by a family still living in that neighborhood: "If you are mean enough to teach 
niggers, you may eat and sleep with them." The family has learned wisdom since then, 
and would feel mortified now, as they should feel, to see their names in this connection. 

In the autumn of 1865, shortly after Miss Stanton relinquished her work, Mr. A. E. New- 
ton, the superintendent of the schools of the relief societies in the cities of Washington, 
Georgetown, and Alexandria, took measures to revive her school, employing Mr. Addison 
Wheeler, of Connecticut, as teacher, who began his labors in a night and day school in the 
winter of 1865-66. Mr. Wheeler at first found quarters with a lieutenant stationed at Fort 
Wagner, in the vicinity, and Mr. Newton secured an order from the War Office when the fort 
was abandoned which resulted in the transfer of the officers' small barrack building to the 
Good Hope church lot. It was turned over to the control of the Freedmen's Bureau, and the 
colored men each gave one day with all the teams they owned for its removal. The Bureau 
gave some assistance and Mr. Newton paid $20. In this house Mr. Wheeler lived alone for 
some time, cooking his own food, till he found good board at the table of a colored man by 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 



277 



the name of Payne in the neighborhood. The school was coiitinned by Mr. Wheeler, with 
some interruptions caused by ill-health, through the year, and when the present remarkably 
superior teacher, Eev. J. S. Dore, came upon the ground in the spring of J86G to engage 
with him in the work the school numbered about 60 scliolars. 

This new teacher has done his work with such extraordinary wisdom and energy, through 
evil report and through good, that his name merits a prominent place in this record. Mr. 
Dore, a native of Maine and a student in Waterville College in that State, at the opening of 
the war early embarked as a private soldier in the contest ; subsequently becoming chaplain 
of the 6th New Hampshire veteran volunteers, continuing in that capacity through the war. 
Sent into this educational work by the Freedmen's Relief Association of Portland, Mainfe, 
he reached Washington early in April, 1866, and at once commenced a new era at the Good 
Hope school. In less than one month after entering upon his duties the school was increased 
from 60 to 145, and the school district No. 7 had been canvassed by him, disclosing the fact 
that it contained upwards of 300 children of the lawful school age. A night school was at 
the same time opened, meeting five nights a week, and soon numbering 90 men and women. 
A very large Sabbath school was also organized, the first ever lield in the place, and is still 
with unabated efficiency maintained, with a Sabbath school library of several hundred vol- 
umes. At the close of the term, July 15, 1860, Mr. Wheeler retired, leaving the whole work 
in the hands of Mr. Dore. During the vacation of six weeks, Mr. Dore having entered into 
contract with the owner of an unfinished building to complete it for its use a year, vacated 
the small barrack building, which was fitted up for a school-room. Mr. Newton at the same 
time obtained permission of the W^ar Office to take possession of a hospital structure at Fort 
Baker, and the Bureau moved it to the Good Hope chapel lot near the other barrack building, 
and converted it into two coarse but comparatively comfortable school-rooms, provision being 
thus secured for the schools without resorting to the chapel. 

The first help from the School Commissioners is indicated by the following action of the 
Board at their regular meeting May 18, 1865 : " Commissioner John Fox, of the 7th district, 
submitted to the board a monthly report (April) of a colored school in the 7th district taught 
by Addison Wheeler, and asked that said school be recognized by this Board and money 
appropriated, payable out of the colored fund, for the support of said school ; when, on 
motion of Commissioner David Miller, (district No. 6,) it was resolved that the sum of §25 
per month be fixed as the pay of Mr. Addison Wheeler as teacher of the school for colored 
children in the 7th district, and that the sum of $50 per annum be appropriated for rent of 
house, (Good Hope chapel,) payable quarterly." Pursuant of this resolution, on the 2d day 
of November, the Board voted to pay the first half year's salary ($150) to Mr. Wheeler and 
$25 for rent of the chapel, constituting the first money voted by the Board for the support of 
colored schools. At the examination of Mr. Dore's school July 15, 1866, two of the com- 
missioners were present for the first time in any colored school, and the results so impressed 
them that at the next meeting of the Board, August 16, upon the representation of these 
members, Mr. Dore was elected teacher of the colored school in district No. 7 at a salary of 
$450, the same as was paid to the female teachers, while at that date the salary for male 
teachers m the white schools was $750. On the 1st of September, however, the Board raised 
the salary of male teachers of white schools to $900, and of female teachers in either white 
or colored to $540, male teachers of colored schools ranking in salary with the women. Mr. 
Dore was at this time oft'ered the white school at Unlontown, in the adjoining district. No. 6, 
at $900, but preferred to remain in the Good Hope school. The New York branch of the 
National Freedmen's Aid Commission made his salary up to $600. 

The Good Hope school opened September 1, 1866, with three teachers and three depart- 
ments. Miss Jennie S. Palmer, of Cooperstown, New York, and Miss Leah Wither, of 
Abbott, Maine, (now Mrs. J. S. Dore,) both supported by the New York branch of the 
National Freedmen's Aid Commission, being Mr. Dore's assistants. The.se teachers carried 
their schools, which were always full, through the year with a systematic intelligence and 
fidelity that commanded the respect of opponents and attracted the admiration of friends. 
In addition to the large and flourishing night and Sabbath schools, a sewing school was 
maintained through the year, the term closing with an examination of remarkable excellence 



278 SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 

July 15, 1867. At a meeting of the Board September 3, 1867, it was voted to raise the salary 
of Mr. Dore to $600, in consideration, as the resolution set forth, that his school was extra- 
ordinary in size, having numbered in the past season more than three hundred scholars. The 
next school year opened September 1, 1867, with Miss Flora A. Leland, of Ashland, Massa- 
chusetts, in place of Miss Jennie S. Palmer, resigned. Miss Leland, who proved to be a 
most superior teacher, as her school at Barry farm now abundantly testifies, was employed 
by the school commissioners at a salary of $450, and Mr. Dore's salary was increased to $900 
by a contribution of $300 from the New York branch of the Freedmen's Union Commission. 
Tlie Good Hope school took possession of the new two story school house, built for that 
purpose the past season, on the 22d of March, 1869. This house stands upon a spacious lot 
some fifty rods from the Good Hope chapel, and in one of the most commanding and delightful 
places in that region of the county. The house is about 26 by 38 feet on the ground, and is 
well finished inside and out. It is to be regretted that the commissioners allowed so good a 
house to be furnished with such very poorly shaped and made pine furniture. Such desks 
and seats are not evidence of enlightened ideas, and it is safe to say do not meet the full 
approbation of all tlie commissioners. The school rooms, about 25 feet square, are much too 
small for the number of desks placed in them, and it is unfortunate that at least one-third of 
the dozen feet used for ante-rooms was not embraced in the school rooms. The house, how- 
ever, is a credit to the district, and is probably the best that has been built by the commis- 
sioners. This school is intended to accommodate some of the scholars in district No. 6, who 
reside near it. It is but just to make special mention of Dr. W. W. Godding, of the Insane 
Asylum, who, as commissioner for district No. 7, has made the cause of the schools, both 
white and colored, a labor of love. In full sympathy with the teachers and all friends of the 
colored schools, he has for years been their wise acd enlightened counsellor and friend in all 
their trials and triumphs. The lot on which the house is built was sold to the commissioners 
by Mr. Dore, the teacher, near whose residence it stands. The school numbers about a hun- 
dred, nearly equally divided between Mr. Dore and Mrs. Dore,, the assistant, filling the two 
school rooms quite full. The work which has been done in this district by these teachers at 
Good Hope and at Barry farm is very marvellous. The people upon whom they have wrought, 
the ignorant and despised from the plantations, to a very large extent have been clothed with 
new life under their ministrations. When the Good Hope school was founded it was as rare 
to find a colored person in the region who could read as it is now to find one who cannot read. 
Nearly all the old people as well as the young have learned to read, at least enough to use 
the Testament. Industry prevails, and there are but two or three recipients of the public 
charity in the whole neighborhood at the present time. 

District!, No. 2 — Tlie Hoioard schools. — The Barry farm, comprising about 375 acres, 
adjoining the estate of the St. Elizabeth Insane Asylum, soirth of the Eastern Branch, was 
purchased in the early part of 1868, by the Freedmen's Bureau. It was divided into house 
lots of one acre each and offered to the freedmen at cost, the Bureau furnishing each lot owner 
a portion of the lumber for a house. The payment tor the lot was to be made within two 
years, and in equal monthly instalments, with an express stipulation that the lot is forfeited 
by failure to comply with these terms.. The estate was purchased with funds which the 
Freedmen's Bureau, in pursuance of an act of Congress, March 2, 1867, deposited in the 
hands of three trustees for that purpose. The object of establishing smih a fund was, as 
expressed in the special order of the Bureau, " to relieve the immediate necessities of a class 
of poor colored people in the District of Columbia by rental of land by sale, with deferred 
payments, or in such other way as their trustees judgment shall direct for this purpose, pro- 
vided all proceeds, interest, or moneys received from rental or sale over and above necessary 
expenses shall be annually transferred" to said institutions. 

The trustees are O. O. Howard, John R. Elvans, and S. C. Pomeroy, and they paid for 
the farm $52,000. The estate made 359 lots, of which 300 had been sold prior to October, 
1868, and 40 of these had been forfeit(id. The lumber for 185 houses had been at that date 
issued by the Bureau and the most of the dwellings built. The enterprise, designed to 
stimulate these poor people with courage and industrious habits, has proved eminently sue 
cessful. The Freedmen have entered with great ambition into the ilea of securing a home, 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 279 

and have formed on this farm an enterprising', industrious village. They have built a Bap- 
tist church, and have pirrchased the lot upon which they are about to build a Methodist 
church. They also bought one of the acre lots upon which the Bureau erected in the closing 
months of ]867, a large one story school house, at a cost of some $1,500, about 75 feet long 
and 25 wide, comprising two excellent school rooms and capable of accommodating sixty 
scholars, with the requisite ante-rvDoms. There is also a flourishing night school in operation, 
for some time under the instruction of Charles Douglass, a son of Frederick Douglass, The 
proceeds of this property are to go ultimately to the colored schools of the District, of Virginia, 
and of North Carolina, one third part to each. 

The Howard school at Barry farm, in Uniontown, or, as the place has been recently named, 
Anacostia, was opened January 1, 1868. Mr. i;)oie at this time consolidated his three schools 
at Good Hope into two, and leaving them in care of Mrs. Dore and Miss Lcland, went down 
to "Anacostia " and organized the Howard sckool in the new house, remaining there through 
the month. On the first of February Miss Lelaud took charge of the Howard school, which 
soon numbered some 90 scholars, and Mr. Dore resumed the care of his Good Hope schools. 
Good Hope and the Howard schools are perhaps a little more than a mile apart. Miss Leland 
is a most superior teacher. Her large room has always been full and her school is one of the 
best in the District of Columbia. The children, nearly all from the plantations a few years 
ago, are clad with care, many of them nicely dressed, and there is a neatness and order about 
the school which, combined with the brightness and correctness apparent in the recitations, 
makes it a school meriting this special notice. 

On the 20th of April, 1868, a primary school was organized in the other room of the 
Howard school-house, and Miss F. E. Hall employed as teacher by the Pennsylvania branch 
of the Freedmen's Relief Commission at $40 per month. Both the departments were crowded 
through the season. Miss Hall commenced with 40 and closed the school year July 30, 1868, 
with CO scholars. When the new school year opened in September, 1808, Miss Lelaud's 
room was at once filled, and as the Aid Society had withdrawn its assistance and the com- 
missioners could not assume another teacher, more than half the children at Barry farm were 
shut from the school room, which they would gladly fill. In this emergency, through the 
intervention of Rev.. John Kimball of the Bureaw, the Pennsylvania Relief Commission was 
induced to appropriate l|20 a month to this school for another year. Miss Hall, interested in 
the school and the industrial scheme of the Barry farm, on learning these facts came back 
from Auburn and re-opened the school December 21, 1868, and both these schools have thus 
been maintained through the winter. The colored population of this place is increasing, 
and it is a matter of serious consideration how their educational wants are to be met the 
ensuing year when the small foreign aid now received will be certainly withdrawn. The 
uniformity of attendance in both branches of this admirable school is remarkable, showing 
unmistakably the deep interest which these humble people indulge in their privileges. 

It has been seen that in all the districts except the fifth the colored people have been fur- 
nished respectable school privileges. The school-houses in the Ist^ 2d, 3d, and 4th districts 
are frame buildings, one stores about 24 by 30 feet in dimensions, well finished and alike. 
The house in the 6th district is 20 by 40 feet, and the Good Hope house in the 7th district, 
Las been stated, is 25 by 38 feet and two stories. The furniture in them all is of pine, manu- 
factured by a carpenter of the county. The school lots have been fenced in a respectable 
manner and outhouses built. Most well-informed Friends of these schools will regret that 
better houses have not been built, and certainly that better furniture has not been purchased. 

The Board paid the rent of Good Hope church, at $7 per month, for Addison Wheeler's 
school, commencing May 1, 1865, and continuing until November, when the houses from tho 
Bureau were ready, and this was all that was done in that school year towards providing 
school-houses for colored schools, except an appropriation of |i69 to plaster one of the rooms 
at Good Hope and §39 for furniture. The next action was at a meeting after the now school 
year opened, November 30, 1865, when it was voted to authorize "the commissioner of the 
2d district to purchase a lot of half an acre for the purpose of erecting a school-house thereon 
for a colored school, the sum to be paid for the lot not to exceed $80." In xxccordance with, 



280 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

this action a lot was bought of John Mayer January 4, 186G, and December 6, ensuing, 
$960 was voted for building the school-house. In this same district a lot comprising one 
acre was purchased for a white school, under a vote of the board August 20, 1865, for $150, 
and November 9 following $1,080 was appropriated for the house, and $216 80 April 5, 1866, 
for furniture, $600 being voted the next year to build a vestibule and $340 for fencing. This 
district seems to be a fair example of the discrimination between the two classes which pre- 
vails in the county pertaining to the school lots and houses. The rule has been to buy an 
acre for a white and half an acre for a colored school lot, and to expend several hundred 
dollars more for a white than for a colored school-house. In district No. 4 the house- for the 
colored school cost $960, but that for the white school cost $1,570, and this is about the ratio 
on which expenditures have generally been made. 

Rev. John Kimball was present at the meeting of the Board April 5, 1866, and in behalf 
of the Freedmen's Bureau proposed to aid the commissioners in securing some of the barrack 
buildings at the dismantled forts in the county for colored school-houses. The Board thank- 
fully accepted the proposition, and at once voted to use $125 for securing materials in this 
way for each district in which a house was needed. Mr. Kimball failed to secure the build- 
itigs, but offered to contribute $25 for each house that the commissioners would purchase at 
the auction sale of these government buildings. This suggestion was not adopted, though 
the purchase at least of one of the buildings at Fort Stevens was pressed upon them with 
much solicitude. Mr. Kimball, a native of New England, having served through the war 
as a chaplain, came to this District as superintendent of schools, at the establishment of the 
Freedmen's Bureau, for the territory comprising the District of Columbia, Maryland, and 
West "Virginia, the State of Delaware having been subsequently added. This responsible 
place he has filled with a vigor and sagacity that have commanded universal commendation. 
In Washington and Georgetown he was the cordial and wise colaborer of Mr. A. E. Newton 
in laying the foundations of the free schools, which are doing such a wonderful work for the 
colored people in those cities at the present time, and this brief tribute is the least that can 
be said of his beneficent labors in this incidental notice. 

COMPENSATION OF TEACHERS. 

It has been seen that in the first aid extended to the colored schools by the commissioners 
Addison Wheeler, a white man from Connecticut, Avas in 1865 paid $25 per month as a teacher. 
The commissioners, at a meeting January 4, 1^66, voted to authorize the commissioner in 
district No. 4 to pay a teacher $60 per month to instruct a white school and to pay $:57 50 to 
a teacher of a colored school, " provided the commissioner is satisfied of the competency of 
the teacher and that the use of a building be obtained without cost to the Board." If the 
competency of the teacher were to be estimated by the price fixed for his services, the Board 
might well have raised the doubt suggested in their proviso. April 5, 1866, on motion of 
R. W. Carter, the Board fixed the pay of all female teachers at $37 50. August 16, 1866, the 
pay of all female teachers and of all male teachers of colored schools was raised to $45 per ' 
month. September (i, 1866, the pay of male teachers of white schools was increased from 
$62 50 to $75 per month, commencing September 1, 1866. The pay of assistant teachers 
was fixed at $35 per month. This rate of compensation was continued through the school 
year ending in July, 1867. 

At a meeting of the Board August 1, 1867, B. D. Carpenter, the commissioner of district 
No. 3, presented a proposition, which was laid on the table, "to pay the male teachers of the 
colored schools the same salary as we pay the male teachers of the white schools ; " his reso- 
lution going on to affirm the very sensible idea that "while we require the same amount of 
labor and qualifications we feel " (or rather should feel, as the action of the Board upon the 
proposition shows that the majority did not, in fact, so feel,) " we cannot withhold this act of 
common justice." At the meeting of the Board October 3, 1667, Mr. Carpenter's resolution 
was taken up, and while under discussion Dr. W. W. Godding offered an amendment, 
fixing the pay of all male teachers at $65 per month. Henry Queen, commissioner of district 
ISo. 4, offei-ed also an amendment, providing for the exclusive employment of female teachers. 
Both motions to amend, together with the original resolution, were rejected. 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION". 281 

In the early months of 1868 the subject of systematizing the rates of teachers' pay was 
much discussed. January 2, 1868, Mr. Lacey introduced the followins^ resolution at the 
meeting of the board: " Resolved, That the wages of the teachers of white scliools shall be 
reduced to $i60 per month, to take effect 30 days from date." And at the next meeting the 
resolution was referred to a special committee, who were instructed to report a graded system 
of wages. This committee, consisting of W. B. Lacey, L. H. Whitney, and B. D. Carpenter, 
reported July 2, 1868, fixing the scale as follows: Male principal of white schools, $75; 
male principal of colored schools, $60 ; female teachers of white and colo'»?d schools, $50 ; 
assistant teachers, $35; school year, nine months, from September 15 to June 15; teachers 
to be paid by the month and for the time of actual service ouly. After the appropriation of 
$10,000 was made by Congress, July 20, 1868, for the aid of these schools, the proposition 
was introduced at a meeting of the Board August 6, 1868, to fix the vacation, as hitherto, at 
six weeks, commenciug July 15, and. to pay the above scale of wages 12 months in the year 
as had been the custom. The subject was referred to a select committee, who reported Sep- 
tember 3, 1868, to pay this scale for ten months in the year. At the meeting December 3, 
1868, a proposition was made to confer with the levy court, and to suggest $65, $60, $50, 
and $35 as the graded scale. These protracted efforts resulted in no definite action, and thp 
teachers were paid as in the previous year. The pay the current school year, 1868-'69, is as 
follows : Male teachers of white schools, 75 ; male teachers of colored schools, $50 ; female 
teachers, $50 ; assistants, $35. The colored school at Good Hope is an exception. The Board 
at a meeting September 3, 1868, voted that the pay of J. S. Dore should be "the same as in 
white schools for the current year." This action of the Board, however, is understood to bo 
based upon the extraordinary services of Mr. Dore, and in no sense a recognition of equality 
between the teachers of white and colored schools. It should be stated that hitherto the 
teachers have been paid for the whole year, 12 months, not deducting the usual vacations, 
but this year they are to be paid only for actual service. 

It is difficult to reconcile the discrimination in the remuneration of the teachers of the 
white and colored schools which is perceived in these details, though the present Board of 
commissioners in their action in many respects seem to be justly and generously disposed in 
the discharge of their duties towards the colored schools. It will not be disputed by any 
persons of enlightened views in regard to education that the colored schools demand as good 
qualifications and as much labor as the white of the same grade, and this is the principle 
affirmed in the resolution of Mr. Carpenter, which was rejected by the Board, as already 
stated, though it should be added, in justice to the Board, that at least three of the seven 
members were at that time, as they are now, in favor of Mr. Carpenter's proposition. In 
this connection, also, it is worthy to be stated to the credit of the Board that when Dr. God- 
ding, June 6, 1867, moved " to expend $200 in premiums for the schools, to be apportioned 
according to the number of scholars, and ihe ■prcmiuins to he in the white and colored schools 
aiike,''^ the proposition was adopted without dissent as to the mode of distribution. 

By action of the Board December 5, 1867, the teachers were allowed to dismiss their schools 
one day each month in order to attend the regular meetings of the Teachers' Institute. July 
2, 1868, the time was limited to one day each quarter. These meetings are held at room 13 in 
the old National Intelligencer Building, corner of Seventh and D streets, and the use of the 
room is given by the Board. The Institute is left entirely to the management of the teachers, 
but it is required to make a report of proceedings to the Board with the names of those 
attending. The application for the above privilege was made by Mr. J. S. Lloyd, teacher of 
colored school in district No. 1, and praise is due both to him and the Board for effecting an 
arrangement so conducive to the prosperity of so useful an organization as the Institute. 

THE COMMISSIONERS AND TRUSTEES. 

The present commissioners have done much in the last two years for the colored schools, 
and some have been exceedingly efficient throughout their service. The fact that the act of 
Congress allows them no compensation should, perhaps, be suggested, when it is said that in 
some cases they have done nothing. The trustees, of whom there are two in each district, in 
charge of the local matters of the individual districts, are represented to be, as a general rale, 



282 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 



exceedingly inefficient, and in the most of the districts it is almost impossible to find good men 
who will consent to serve. These remarks apply to the present as well as to the past. The 
following are the commissioners at the present time : District No. 1, E. W. Carter, president 
of the board ; district No. 2, B. T. Swart ; district No. 3, B. D. Carpenter ; district No. 4, 
Henry Queen ; district No. 5, L. H. Whitney ; district No. 6, W. B. Lacey ; district No. 7, 
W. W. Godding. Charles H. Wiltberger, who has been the cleik of the board from its organi- 
zation, receives a salary of $300 per annum, and Nicholas Callan, who, as the clerk of the levy 
court, is made by the act treasurer of the school fund, receives a salary of $100 per annum. 

SUMMAEY. 
Colored public schools in Washington County, January, 1869. 



« 


Teacher. 


Opened. 


Scholars. 


Average attendance. 


Total expenses. 




1866-'67. 


1867-68. 


1866-'67. 


1867-'68. 


1866-'67. 


1867-'68. 


# 


J. S. Lloyd 


June, 1867... 
March, 1866.. 
May, 1866... 
May, 1866... 

Aug., 1861... 
March, 1864.. 

Jan., 1868 ... 


40 
73 
87 
36 

117 
319 


40 
68 
56 
70 

103 
255 

169 


21 
18 
33 
13 

35 

106 


24 
26 
30 
23 

36 

88 

80 






o 


B. M. Martin 






3 








4 


J. H. Voorhees 






5 


No school. 

L. H. Smith 






7 


Rev. J. S. Dore, No. 1.. 

Mrs. J. S. Dore 

Miss F. A. Leland, No. 2. 
MissF. E.Hall 






7 








April 1868... 












672 


761 


226 


.306 


$9, 010 60 


$5, 7C9 93 



The school in district 6, and school No. 1, district 7, (the Good Hope school,) were not 
established by the Trustees, but the former passed into their hands January, 1866 ; the latter, 
May, 1865. All the teachers named above are white. 

School property of colored schools in Washington County, January, 1869. 



District 1. — Lot | acre, $174. Frame house, $1 

District 2.— Lot | acre, $95 50. Frame house, 

District 3. — Lot -J acre, $134 25. Frame house, \ 
Fencing, $235. 

District 4. — Lot f acre, $253 50. Frame house, $ 
Fencing, $285. 

District 5. — None. 

District 6. — Lot ^^y^^ acre, $104 75. Frame house, 
Fencing, $165. 

District 7, No. 1 .—Lot f acre, |300. House, $1,978 50. Furniture, $200. Fencing, $275. 

District 7, No. 2. — Lot owned by colored people, and building by Freedmen's Bureau. 

The above figures do not include certain improvements made since the buildings were 
completed and occupied. 



built 1867. Furniture, $78 50. 
built 1866. Furniture, $184. 
1 20 ; built 1866. Furniture, $52 75. 



1,101 20; built 1867. Furniture, 



1,164 ; built 1866, Furniture, $175 80. 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 283 



, 3. COLORED SCHOOLS OF ALEXANDRIA. 

EARLIEST SCHOOLS. 

The fact that the city of Alexandria, with the county in which it is situated, was for nearly 
half a century an important portion of this District, makes its history during that period 
important to the completion of this record. By act of Congress, Februarj' 27, 1801, it was 
provided that the laws of the State of Virginia as they existed at that date should "continue 
in force in that part of the District of Columbia which was ceded by the said State to the 
United States," and the same of that portion ceded in like manner by the State of Maryland. 
In neither of these States Avas there at that period any statute forbidding the instruction oj 
persons of color, ichether bond or free. It was not till nearly a third of a century after this 
period that the shocking laws utterly prohibiting the instruction of the colored classes were 
enacted in Virginia. It has been already remarked in other connections in these records 
that many of the most humane and enlightened men and women throughout the south, in the 
beginning of this century, like Mr. Jefferson, believed in the right of the colored people of 
all conditions to some education, and this affirmation finds exemplification in the history af 
Alexandria. 

Schools for colored children seem to have been established in that city about 1809, not far 
from the year in which such schools were first opened in Washington and Georgetown. 
Perhaps th« earliest was the one taught by Mrs. Cameron, a white Virginia lady, who had 
for some years a primary school for colored boys and girls on the corner of Duke and Fairfax 
streets, in the house now owned and occupied by Dr. Murphy. Mrs. Tutten, a white Vir- 
ginia lady, also had a school about that period in a house on the corner of Pitt and Prince 
streets. Both these schools were in operation some time prior to the opening of the war of 
1812. Immediately after this war 

A FREE COLORED SCHOOL 

was founded by an association of free colored people, who received cordial aid and encourage- 
ment from the enlightened and benevolent white people of the city. The school was held in 
the Washington Free School Building on Washington street, then not used for a white school, 
and was taught by Rev. James H. Hanson, white pastor of the Methodist Episcopal church, 
colored. It was conducted on the Lancaster system and averaged nearly three hundred 
scholars. The association was composed of the most substantial colored people of the city, 
and was maintaiioed with great determination and success for a considerable period. There 
are colored men and women of good education still living in Alexandria who attended this 
school. 

ALFRED H. PARRY. 

born a slave in Alexandria in 1805, went to Mr. Hanson's school, and when a mere boy began 
himself to teach in a small way. An attempt being made to separate the mother and child 
by sale, the parent seized her offspring in her desperation and threw it into the Potomac, 
from v^hich it was with difficulty rescued alive. The mother soon afterwards purchased both 
her own freedom and that of her child, the latter for $50. Mr. Parry taught many years 
in Alexandria. At first he had only a small night-school, which gradually increased so much 
as to attract the attention of the mayor, Bernard Hooe, in 1837, who called Parry before him 
and declared his school to be an "unlawful assembly.'' In Alexandria the schools were 
subjected to annoyance and restraints under the provisions of the city ordinance prohibiting 
all assemblages, day or night, "under the pretence or pretext of a religious meeting, or for 
any amusement." It was this provision that Mayor Hooe read to Parry when called before 
him. Parry plead for his school on the ground of his well-known good character, and the 
mayor replied that his assent to such a school would not be given though he knew the teacher 
to be "as pure as the angel Gabriel." Parry, however, persisted, hired a white man to be 
present at his night-school, and the mayor, without assenting, endured the institution. 
Parry soon opened a day-school, which was kept up through the severest period of the 



284 SCHOOLS OF THE COLOKED POPULATION. 

persecution which followed the Nat Turner insurrection in South Hampton county and the 
riots in Washington and other cities, from 1831 to 1835. Here he taught until he went to 
Washington, in 1843 — the school-house last used by him being between Duke and Wolf 
streets, on a hill, and known as "Mount Hope Academy." His scholars numbered from 
75 to 100, composed of both sexes. Many slave children attended his school under written 
permits from their owners; "I am willing that my servant, A. B., should attend the school 
of Alfred H. Parry," being substantially the form of the permission which met the requisitions 
of the law. The owners paid the tuition. The excitement in the times of the riots does not 
seem to have inflamed the people of Alexandria as it did in Washington, though the colored 
schools and churches were all closed for a time. Mr. Parry's wife was born at Eavensworth. 
Her mother, Kitty Jones, was one of the Mount Vernon servants, belonging to Washington, 
who made her free before the birth of the daughter, and she Avas brought up in the family of 
Jonathan Butcher, a good Quaker of Alexandria. Parry, now resides in Washington. 

OTHER SCHOOLS. 

Sylvia Morris, a colored woman, had a primary school for about twenty years on Wash- 
ington street, in her own house, near the Lancaster SQhool. It was at some periods quite 
large. She was teaching at the time of the Nat Turner insurrection, and continued her 
school up to the retrocession of Alexandria in 1846. 

Mr. Nuthall, an Englishman, had a flourishing school for two or three years, from 1833, in 
the First Baptist colored church, but the opposition was so strong at that time that he dis- 
continued it, and subsequently taught in Georgetown. 

A few years before this period, about the time when General Jackson was first elected 
President, a white man by the name of Sargent taught on Duke street and in several other 
localities. Also, Joseph Ferrell, a colored man of decided abilities, had a school for some 
years on an alley between Duke and Prince streets. He was a baker by trade and a leading 
spirit among the colored people, but was sent to the penitentiary for assisting some of his 
race in escaping from bondage. 

SABBATH SCHOOLS. 

The first colored Sabbath school in Alexandria was established about 1818, in the Second 
Presbyterian (white) church, the Friends opening a similar school about the same time. In 
these schools the scholars, old and young, were taught to read. The colored people had 
chapels in which they held their prayer and social evening worship, but in the regular Sab- 
bath ministrations they occupied the galleries in the white churches. Soon after the Sabbath 
schools were established in the white churches for the colored people they began to open them 
in their own chapels, the white people coming into them to assist. At the love feasts in 
the Methodist churches the white and colored communicants were accustomed to speak with- 
out discrimination ; also at confirmation in St. Paul's church, and it is believed in the other 
Episcopal churches, the bishop placed his hand alike upon the head of the black and the 
white communicant. At the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, however, the colored were not 
allowed to participate till the whites had communed, and this continues to be the custom in 
all the Protestant white churches. 

THE RETROCESSION AND THE RESULTS. 

When Alexandria city and county were retroceded to Virginia by act of Congress, July 9, 
1846, Sylvia Morris's long-established school was in a flourishing condition, and there were 
several smaller schools for little children taught in private houses. The hostility to the 
instruction of the colored people had become so strong that the children were obliged to con- 
ceal their school books on the street, and to dodge to and fro like the young partridges of 
the forest. But when the laws of Virginia took effect, by the ratification of the retrocession 
(1846) on the part of the State, matters became still worse, for the constables of the city 
•were at once ordered to disperse every colored school, whether taught by day or night, on 
the week-day or on the Sabbath, and the injunction was most zealously executed. Every 
humble negro cabin in which it was suspected that any of these dusky children Avere wont 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 285 

to meet for instruction was visited, and so stern and relentless ■vvas the rule that the free 
colored people dared only in a'covert manner to teach even their own children, a colored 
person not being allowed to read openly in the street so much as a paragraph iu a newspaper. 
Some used to meet in secluded places outside the city, and, with sentinels posted, hold their 
meetings for mutual instruction, those who could read and write a little teaching those less 
fortunate. In 1845 they organized a colored masonic lodge, the charter being received from 
the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania/* The city authorities, however, forbade their meetings 
within the limits of the city, and they were wont to meet beyond the city, with sentinels at 
outposts, as in the assemblages for learning to read and write. 

Thus all the education which they could give their children was such as was dispensed by 
stealth in dark corners, except those who were able to send their sons and daughters to 
Washington and elsewhere, as many, by the most extraordinary exertion, continued to do 
through the next 14 years. But imder the iron despotism of the "Virginia black code," 
as will be seen hereafter, those who sought their education abroad were expatriated, for the 
law strictly forbade such ever to return with their intelligence to their homes under penalty of 
fine or stripes. Many of the free colored people fled precipitately to Washington and to the 
north at the time of the retrocession, and those who remained courageously struggled und»r 
their ignominious burdens, praying day and night, as they now say, for the great deliverance, 
which the Lord, in his own good time, has brought them. 

Schools were established in Alexandria by the benevolent societies about the same period 
they were opened in Washington, and for the last five years the colored children of the city 
have had vastly better school privileges than the white — a turn in the wheel of fortune 
abundantly suggestive of philosophic reflection. 

THE FIRST SCHOOLS FOR CO^TRABANDS. 

The earliest schools for contrabands in the country were opened in Alexandria, and, to the 
honor of the colored people be it said, were established wholly by themselves. They were 
private, in part pay schools, and a very large majority of the scholars, from first to last, were 
contrabands. 

The colored schools of Alexandria under the old order of things were summarily terminated, 
it has been seen, when the retrocession was consummated, July 9, 1846, and henceforth, for 
15 years, the colored people in that city were, so far as stern municipal law and relentless 
public sentiment and public officers could compass the wretched purpose, shut up to ignorance. 
There were, however, in that city, as elsewhere in Virginia, those who held to the faith of 
the Virginians of an earlier day, and who gave tlieir servants some education. 

Among the few colored girls who had grown up under such training in Alexandria was 
Miss Mary Chase. The family retreating with the tide of the rebellion when the ill-fated 
Ellsworth so bravely planted there the standard of the Union, May 24, 18G1, she was left 
behind, and, quickly appreciating the nature of the wonderful events passing before her eyes, 
she courageously set to work for the good of her race. September I of that year (1861) she 
started a school called the " Columbia Street School," near Wolf street, and continued it, 
with much usefulness, down to 1866, when nearly all the pay schools were absorbed in the 
better organized free schools of the benevolent societies. Her school numbered 25 scholars 
June 30, 1865, and this was about her usual number, of whom quite two-thirds had been 
slaves. 

The second contraband school was the "St. Rose Institute," a day and evening school, ou 
West street, between King and Prince. It was established October 1, 1861, by Mrs. Jane 
A. Crouch and Miss Sarah A. Gray, both colored, and natives of Alexandria. It averaged 
about 40 scholars, nearly all having been slaves. Miss Gray was one of Miss Miner's 
scholars ; was also at the St. Frances Academy of the Baltimore convent, and is a superior 
scholar as well as teacher. She afterwards assisted Rev. Mr. Robinson in his school, but is 
at the present time teaching a flourishing private school of her own in Alexandria, num- 

* Note. —The first Grand Lodge among the colored people of this country was organized in Boston in 1784, 
under a charter received from the masons of England. 



28G SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

beviug from GO to 70 scholars. Her father is a well known and respected citizen of that place. 
Mrs. Crouch, also an excellent teacher, received a part of her education at the Baltimore 
convent. 

The third contraband school was organized January 1, 1862, by Rev. C. Robinson, an able 
colored Baptist clergyman, subsequently assisted by the American Free Baptist Mission 
Society of New York, and also by the American Baptist Home Missionary Society. The 
school was held in aroom connected with the "Second Baptist" or "Beulah" church, of which 
Mr. Robinson is the present pastor, and which he organized in 1863 ; then and now composed 
entirely of persons manumitted by the emancipation proclamation. Mr. Robinson was born 
in Brunswick, Virginia, but has no knowledge of either of his parents. He received his 
collegiate and theological education at the " Ashmun Institute," now the Lincoln University, 
(Oxford, Penn.;) was supported by "The New Jersey Baptist State Educational Society," 
and was ordained in the First Baptist church at Newark. At the opening of the war he was 
teaching at Philadelphia, as the laws of Virginia did not permit him to return, he having left 
it for the purpose of getting an education. When the war swept down that barrier he at 
once returned, and opened his school, which he called the "First Select Colored school." 
Tlie first teachers were, besides himself, Rev. G. W. Parker, Miss Amanda Borden, and Mrs. 
Robinson, all colored. The attendance was very large, and in 1862 the number registered 
was 715, though the average of regular scholars was much less. In December, 1864, the 
records show an average of 280. As the free schools were introduced the number necessarily 
diminished. In the autumn of 1865 the teachers were George H. Steemer, (colored,) Miss 
Martha J. Emerson, and Miss Louisa Avery, young ladies from New Hampshire and 
excellently fitted for their work. The next year it was made an entirely free school, and 
Miss Sarah A. Gray, already mentioned. Miss Lavinia Lane, and Miss Martha Winkfield 
were added to the corps of teachers, the average attendance being about 125. Before the 
close of that year the number of teachers was reduced to two. Miss Gray and Miss Clara 
Gowing, (colored,) Mi". Robinson not having at any time withdrawn his general superin- 
tendence of the school. In 1868 he resumed the direct charge. The number of scholars is 
now (January, 1869,) 100; average attendance, 90. Theological Department, 30; Normal 
Department, 30 ; Primary Department, 40. The teac"hers are A. Lewis, Rev. J. M. Dawson, 
Rev. J. Thomas, Rev. L. W. Brooks, and George H. Steemer, all colored. This school has 
for two years been under the auspices of a society afflicted with the pondei'ous title of "2%e 
Home and Foreign Educational Missionary and Commission Society," From the beginning 
the "Beulah Normal and Theological school" has constituted one of the departments, the 
public examinations of which are held every summer. In the two years ending July, 1868, 
the above-named society had contributed to the school |728 33. The supporters of the 
society are men of wealth in Philadelphia, New York, and Boston, of whom the most liberal 
have been Hon. Wm. E. Dodge, of New York ; the late J. P. Crozer, of Philadelphia; and 
A, H. Reese, of Chester, Pennsylvania. The society has educated eight missionaries, who 
are now teaching and preaching at the south, most of whom were ordained in the Beulah 
church. The following is a brief summary taken from the records of Mr. Robinson's school : 

1862, scholars registered. Primary Department 700 

Normal and Theological Departments 15 

1863, scholars registered, Primary Department 708 

Normal and Theological Departments 20 

1864, scholars registered, Primary Department - 558 

Normal and Theological Departments.-- 28 

1865, scholars registered, Primary Department --.- 400 

Normal and Theological Departments — 30 

1868, scholars registered, Primary Department 380 

Normal and Theological Departments 60 

1867, scholars registered, Primary Department 300 

Normal and Theological Departments SB 

1868, scholars registered. Primary Department 40 

Normal and Theological Departments - . 60 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 287 

It should be mentioned that a large evening school has also been kept up from the Oiigin 
of this enterprise. 

The fourth contraband school in Alexandria was started in November, 1862, by Leland 
Warring, himself a contraband, who has since become a preacher under the instruction aud 
by the assistance of Rev. E. Turney, D. D. At that time Warring could read and spell 
pretty well, and such limited knowledge as he possessed he was generously moved to impart 
to his brother contrabands less favored. It is an interesting fact that this school was opened 
in the Lancaster school-house, which was erected in Alexandria through the beneficence of 
Washington. This house was at the time filled with families of contrabands, and to Weaning 
it oftercd a good place for beginning his work. He soon had a prosperous school of over 
50 children, and continued the work in that place until the following February, 1S63, when 
the school came under the charge of the government " superintendent of contrabands," and 
was moved to the " Freedmen's Home," in the barrack buildings. 

The above-named four schools were wholly or in part pay schools, and started and con- 
ducted by colored persons. 

The first white icoman who went to Alexandria to labor for the contrabands was Miss Julia 
A. Wilbur, of Rochester, New York. She arrived in October, 18G2, and was sent by the 
Ladies^ Anti-slarery Society of t]}at city to assist the contrabands in whatever way seemed to 
her best. She immediately established sewing schools or working centres, and, being a 
woman of fortitude and sagacity, she accomplished in many ways an immense amount of 
good for the poor desolate beings to whom she gave her exertions. She was supplied with 
money and a large amount of useful contributions, and it is the testimony of all who have 
known her work that it has been done in a most judicious manner. She was constantly 
among the schools in Alexandria, and contributed a great deal by her fine intelligence and 
excellent sense in giving wise direction to the efforts of the many teachers of limited educa- 
tion. She still continues her labors for the colored people, mostly, for the last year or two, 
in Washington and Georgetown. Miss Wilbur Avas a teacher in Rochester at the time Miss 
Miner was teaching in a public school in that city, about 1846. 

SCHOOLS ORGANIZED IN 1863. 

The first free contraland school organized in Alexandria by tcMtcs and conducted by white 
teachers Avas "The First Free Colored Mission Day School" at the "Freedmen's Home," 
corner of Prince and Royal streets. As has been already stated, it was composed in part of 
the one opened in the autumn of 1862 by Leland Warring in the Lancaster school-house. 
In the Avinter of 1862-63 Rev. Albert Gladwin, of Connecticut, came to Alexandria under 
the direction of the '■'■American Baptist Free Mission Society^'' of New York. He was quite 
active among the contrabands in getting them into religious meetings and into schools, some 
of which he started. He was not himself a teacher, nor did he work in such a manner as to 
win the particular respect of those Avho were teachers. He was a man of very limited edu- 
cation, but understood very well how to appropriate to his purposes the intelligence of others. 
Soon after arriving he was appointed "Superintendent of Contrabands" by the military 
authorities, and this gave him large sway among this class of poor creatures, who Avere at 
this period congregated in great numbers in that city. The school Avas opened February 23, 
1863, and the teachers Avere at first Miss M. C. Owen, Miss Mary A. Collier, Miss Elmira 
Keltic, and Rev. Mr. Owen, all Avhitc. Mr. Gladwin was also accustomed to get the services 
of convalescent soldiers detailed as teachers ; among whom were Corporal A. Borten, colored, 
and T. McKenzie Axe, who Avas quite prominent as an assistant. Some of the soldiers so 
detailed were very ignorant and some very inhuman. The number of scholars in attendance 
December 31, 1864, Avas 139, all contrabands ; in June, 1865, it Avas 75; in March, 1866, it 
was 110, then in charge of Miss Owen and Lovejoy S. Owen. In April it Avas disbanded. 
Mr. Gladwin had been discharged in January, 1865. 

The female teachers of this school Avere excellent, and Miss Mary A. Collier, who entered 
the school Avhen it was started at the Freedmen's Home or Barracks, and continued till she 
died, in the midst of her Avork, in December, 1866, was a truly noble example of heroic 
Christian philanthropy. She Ava's the daughter of Dr. Collier, of Chi;lsea, Massachusetts, 



288 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

yyho was long the city raissionary of Boston. Possessed of rare talents and the best intel- 
lectual culture, an author of repute, and reared iu the tenderness of a refined home, she came 
into this work with all her heart, labored day and night, literally working herself to death. 
This is the uniform testimony of those who observed her incessant and self-saciificing devo- 
tion. Miss Collier was sent by the American Baptist Home Missionary Society. 

" Union Town school,''' corner of Union and Wolf streets, was organized May 2, 1863, 
under the instruction of Corporal L. A. Bearmor and Mrs. Nancy Williams, a colored woman. 
This was a free school. Number of scholars December 31, 1865, all contrabands, 80. In 
June, 1866, it was taught by Mrs. Christiana Eichards, numbering 35 scholars. 

The "-Primary school," day and evening, was started September 1, 1863, on Princess, 
between Pitt and St. Asaph streets, by Wm. K. Harris and Richard H. Lyles, both colored. 
The number of scholars, all contrabands, December 31, 1866, was 77. In January, 1866, it 
had been changed to a "select school," and averaged about 30 scholars. In June, 1865, 
the number was 60, with one teacher, R. H. Lyles. This was a pay school. 

" Neiotown school," day and evening, was started at the west end of Cameron street, partly 
free, November 2, 1863, by two colored teachers, Anna Bell Davis and Leannah Powell, and 
was continued in 1865 by Miss Davis, who commenced teaching while, as a contraband, she 
was sheltered at the slave-pen prison, a portion of whicii at the beginning of the war had 
been transformed into a rude home for the Virginia contrabands who flocked into the city. 
Having acquired a little education while a slave, Miss Davis boirght some books and opened 
a school in the prison, charging a'^uitiou fee of 50 cents a month. Mr. Hill, a colored man, 
had a school of 50 scholars during a part of that year. 

I'lie Sickles Barracks school, a Reformed Presbyterian (Xenia, Ohio) Mission school, was 
organized by Rev. N. K. Crow, from Illinois, November 16, 1863, in a Methodist church, 
corner of Princess and Patrick streets. This church, abandoned by its congregation at thfe 
opening of the war and for some time used for hospital purposes, was now, by order of Gen- 
eral Heintzelman, turned over to this mission for school purposes. It was subsequently 
jDurchased by the colored people for a church for $3,000. Mr. Crow opened his school with 
eight scholars, and five days afterwards it numbered 120. He immediately opened an even- 
ing school of young men and women, which numbered from 90 to 130. Mr. Henry Fish, 
of Massachusetts, and his niect., Miss Mary Cleveland, were his first assistants ; Rev. W. G. 
Scott, from New York, soon aiding him as teacher, and continuing in the school with great 
efficiency till 1868, being in charge of the operations for several years after Mr. Crow left 
Mr. Samuel Young, from Philadelphia, then a theological student and now a. clergyman, 
was one of the early teachers. He was succeeded iu 1864 by Mr. S. K. Stormont, who 
remained till June, 1866, when he and Miss Cleveland were succeeded by Miss Jemima Silli- 
man and Miss L. Alcorn, who still continue in the schools. Miss Maggie Sillinian, who 
came into the schools October, 1864, is also one of the admirable corps of teachers. Miss 
Jennette Darling, of New York city, was one of the excellent teachers in 1864 and 1835. At 
the close of 1884 the day school numbered about 150. The average attendance in December, 
1865, was 160; in December, 1866, it was 136, and 156 in March, 1867. 

June 1, 1863, a small school, day and evening, was opened at No. 81 Prince street by 
Charles Seals, colored, the day school numbering 20, all contrabands. 

October 1, 1863, Mrs. Mary Simms, colored, started an evening school on Duke street, 
which in December, 1864, numbered 17 scholars, all contrabands, and, like that of Mr. Seals, 
a pay school. 

SCHOOLS ORGANIZED IN 1864. 

January II, 1864. " The Jacobs Free School,^' corner of Pitt and Roanoke streets, supported 
by " The New England Freedmen's Aid Society." — Dr. J. R. Bigelow, surgeon iu charge of 
contrabands in Alexandria, in his round of duty one Sunday morning, in August, 1863, 
visiting that particular section of the city called "Petersburg," and observing a one-legged 
negro standing near one of the small shanties that had been quite recently built, found on 
entering into conversation with him that he was a contraband shoemaker, who had built the 
first house in that settlement at a cost of $3t). After a short colloquy he asked the dusky 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 289 

son of Crifjpin if he could sing. To wliich he replied with one of the grand old devotional 
bjuins, which was sung iu an inspiring manner. Others soon gathered, and joined as a 
chorus. When the singing was ended a large audience had congregated, and this homeless 
and almost houseless throng Dr. Bigelow addressed in a brief speech, promising to come the 
next Sunday and again speak to them. At the third of these singular Sunday meetings, held 
in the open air, a contribution to build a house for a school was proposed, when a contribution 
was taken up for the object, resulting in the collection of $200 on the spot, and all from 
contrabands. With this money they went immediately to work, and before winter had a 
large rouglily-finished bouse for their school and meetings, costing liJr>00, and known as the 
" Jaccbs school." It was so named in honor of Mrs. Harriet Jacobs and her daughter 
Louisa, who were sent from New York by the Society of Friends in that city in January, 

1863. This mother and daughter, born in slavery in Edenton, North Carolina, escaped from 
bondage some years before the war, and a book written by the mother, and edited by Mrs. 
Lydia M. Child, entitled "Linda," has made their history familiar to many. They made 
many friends in New York and other places at the north ; and among tliose whose cordial 
hospitality they enjoyed, were Mr. N. P. Willis and his family, with whom Mrs. .Jacobs 
visited Emope. She collected some funds to aid in building and furnishing the school-house. 
Miss Jacobs has just been placed in charge of a school in the Stevens school-house. The 
first teachers were Miss Louisa Jacobs and Miss S. V. Lawton, also colored. December 31, 

1864, it numbered 170 scholars, and June 30, 1885, the cumber was 13,"), nearlj- all contra- 
bands. In 18(55 the teachers were Mr. J. S. Baufield, (white,) Miss S. V. Lawton and her 
sister, MissE. M. Lawton; in 1866 Mr. Henry T. Aboru (white) and the Miss Lawtons; 
in 1867 Mrs. E. P. Smith and Miss Hattie K. Smith, buth while. The Miss Lawtons came 
from Cambridge, Massachusetts, and are well educated. 

January 18. ^^ Fretd men's Chapel,'^ an evening school, corner of Pitt and Roanoke 
streets. — The teachers were Rev. W. M. Scott, Mary A. Collier, and Elvira Keltie, all white. 
Average number through the year about 150. The two Scotts, Rev. W. M. Scott and Rev. 
W. G. Scott, already mentioned, were able, untiring, and unselfish laborers. 

April 4. Furt IViUiam scliool ; day and evening; Mrs. Elmira Dean, with colored assistant, 
Mr. J. Hodge. Day school averaged about 40. 

April 18. " First Nationul Frecdmen's school," itnder auspices of the "New York Freed- 
meu's Relief Association; day and evening; Mr. Henry Fish, Mrs. Melissa Fish, and Miss 
Harriet E. Mitchel, colored. Enoch Bath was subsequently added as a teacher. First 
located north of Cameron, between Payne and West streets, but in 1865 on corner of Queen 
and Payne. December 31, 1864, day school numbered 170 scholars; attendance averaging 
through 1865 about 125. This was "a part pay school." Nearly all contrabands. 

May 1. " St. Patrick's school; " St. Patrick street; Miss Harriet Byron Douglass, colored ; 
pay school ; about one-third contrabands. Number of scholars Deceaiber 31, 1864, 35 ; and 
June 30, I8.)5, 28. 

June 14. " Secojul Naiior.al Freed nien's school," on Wolf, between Pitt and Royal streets ; 
Rev. M. F. Sluby and Miss Laura Phenix, both colored. It was " a part pay school " under 
Mr. Sluby, but free under Miss Orton. In December, 1S64, this school had an average 
attendance ot about 70 scholars, very few contrabands, which continued at about that average 
through 1865. In 1866 it rose to 100 in some months, but at the close of that school year, 
in June, the average attendance for the month was but 41. At the beginning of the next 
school year the school was in charge of Mr. I. C. Blanchard and Miss Carrie S. Orton; the 
average attendance for December, 1866, being 70. -In January, le67, this was raised to the 
rank of a "high school," under the charge of Miss Orton, principal, and Miss Susan Dennis, 
assistant, and was from first to last a higher style of colored school than had been known in 
Alexandria. It had an average attendance, in January, 1867, of 40 boys and 28 girls. It 
was now supported by the North Shore and Portland, Midne, Aid Societies. The school 
increased iu numbers and in interest through the year. 

Sejiteuiber 5, 1864. " Piimunj school," on St. Asaph street, sauth of Gibbon. Teachers, 
Mi.K M. F. Simms and Miss M. M. Nickens, both colored. A small contr.iband pay school. 
On the same day tlit- " ll'asldnglon street scliool," No. 65 Washington street, v.as opened by 
19 



290 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

Miss L. V. Lewis and Miss A. M. Thompson, both colored ; a pay school, numbering 70 
scholars, and continuing throuarh the year, and all contrabands. June 30, lt<)5, it was taught 
by Miss A M. Thompson, colored, numbering 37 scholars. Kev. Leland Warring, colored, 
opened a small evening pay school, all contrabands, September 7, and September 20 Mr. G. 
S. Moll started the " Home evening school" a small pay school, mostly contrabands. Both 
schools held in barrack buildings. Mr. Mell subsequently started a small pay day school 
called the " Washington Square school.''' 

Eev. Chauncey Leonard, chaplain of L'Ouverture Military Hospital, had a flourishing 
.school there through the winter of ]884-'65. 

SCHOOLS ORGANIZED IN 1865 AND 1866. 

The Pennsylvania Freedmen'' s Rclinf Association organized its first school January 9, 1865, 
in Zion Wesley church, on Columbia near Wolf street, under the charge of Miss Caroline 
W. Moore, Miss R. S. Capron, and Miss Mary F. Nickens, the latter a colored teacher. 
Attendance Juno, 1865, was 150. The association thinking it best to concentrate its strength 
in Washington, withdrew from Alexandria in the latter part of the same year, leaving their 
operations in good hands. 

The Nexo York Fruedmcns Relief Association organized the " Third National Freedmen" s 
schooV November 20, i8ii.5, on Alfred street near Wilkes, utider Miss Emma E. Warren, 
^vho was succeeded in February, 18'o6, by Miss Cornelia Jones and Miss Mary S. Eowell, 
the latter going into another school soon and giving place to Miss Helen Vaughan. Average 
attendance under Miss Warren, about 50 ; under Ler successors, two schools, the attendance 
in each was nearlj'' 50. Miss Kovvell went into the '■'■Fourth National scAooZ," which -was 
organized November 25, 1885, on West between Prince and Duke streets. In June, 1866, 
the six departments had an average attendance of 246, with M20 on their combined rolls. 
The teachers were at tiiat date Helen Yaughan, Mary S. Eowell, Frances Munger, Emma 
E. Warren, and Kate A. Shepard. Miss H. N. W^ebster was in the school at its organization, 
and Charles A. Libhy was in charge in May, 1866. This school had at first four departments, 
with an average atteiidanc^e of about 200. 

The Fifth National school was opened December 1, 1865, near the corner of Union and 
Franklin streets, under Eev. Edward Barker and Mr. Enoch Bath. In June, 18o6, this 
school had been moved to Water street, aud the average attendance that month was 85. 

There was a large school started at Camp Distribution in 1865, aud continued down to 
1868. Julia Benedict and Frances Eouviere were the original teachers, continuing till 1887, 
when Thomas Corwin took the school, which averaged about 35 scholars. 

In the autumn of 1866 there were two schools opened at U Ouverture Hospital, one taught 
by Miss L. A. Hall and the other by Helen Eobertson ; also two in B'irruck buildings, one 
by Mary E. Fales, the other by Elmira S. Jones; another at Battery Rodgers by Emily J. 
Brown aud Emma E. Hawley, all white teachers. In February, 1867, Miss Haw ley's 
department was organized into a district school, and supported by the ^'Penn Yan, N. 
Y. Aid Hociety.^^ The above-named teachers were white, aud the schools weie supported 
in 1866-'67 by the New York branch of the Freedmeu's Aid Commission, with an average 
attendance of nearly 250 scholars. 

CHURCHES AND SABBATH SCHOOLS. 

As the war advanced the contraband hamlet called "Petersburg,'" and already mentioned, 
became populous, at one period numbering some 1,500 people, with several hundred houses. 
They soon formed a Baptist churcli, an<t Rev. G. W. Parker, colored, who was teaching 
with Rev. C. Robinson in the "Select Colored School," became. their pastor, and still con- 
tinues wiih them iu that relation. In due tiu:ie, as the church aud socie;y increased, the 
necessity for better accommodations became a)>parent, and a Methodist white church edifice, 
whicli had been left empty by the owners, many of whom had goue into the rebellio^, was 
pui chased tor the ve y small sum of $3,000, their pastor going north and coUeciing funds 
for this object. Up to that time the Jacob's school-house hud been used for rebgious meet- 
ings, as well as lor school piu'poses. Just as they were about to move into the cluircb 



SCHOOLS OF THE 00I.01?i:[) POPULATION. 291 

building tlicy had purchased the school-house was destroyed by a violent storm. This 
church, tlie Third Baptist, (colored,) is in a flourishiug' condition, and numbers GOO members. 
They are now preparing to enlarge the building. The Sabbath school is very large, and, 
under tlie care of some half a dozen white persons of Christian benevolence, is one of the 
most interesting and eftective educational institutions in Alexandria. The name of the place 
was changed when General Grant took command of the army from "Petersburg" to "Grant- 
viile," in honor of that event, the contrabands alleging that as Peter Grant, the founder of 
their settlement, was of the same name, in making the change they would be " killing two 
birds with one stone." 

Before the war there were but two colored churches in Alexandria, the "First Baptist" 
aud the "African Methodist Episcopal." They did not, however, have pastors of their own 
color, colored preachers being allowed to officiate only in the presence of a white minister or 
person detailed by him for that duty, and even in those cases the colored clergyman was 
not permitted to enter the pulpit. Eev. Philip Hamilton, a highly respected and well 
known local preacher of the Methodist church, was always subjected to this restraint. It 
was' when on his way from Washington to Alexandria to preach in that church that Rev. 
Frost PuUett was once arrested as a free negro, the laws of Virginia forbidding a free negro 
or mulatto coming into the State. 

There are now six churches of colored people in that city, the "African Methodist Epis- 
copal " and five Baptist churches. The " First Baptist church " was organized more than 40 
years ago, and the pastor is Rev. B. F. Madden. The "Second Baptist," or " Beulah 
church," was organized in 18t)3 by Rev. C. Robinson, the present pastor. This people 
bought a lot and started their house, the pastor, like Mr. Parker, going north and gather- 
ing funds to complete the building. This church is large and flourishing. Those two col- 
ored pastors, it has been seen, started the "Select Colored School," in January 1, 18fi2, and 
they taught together till the "Petersburg" church bought their new house. The "Fourth 
Baptist," or "Shiloh" church, was organized about 1^33, at "Newton" — L'Ouverture Hos- 
pital — the military hospital for colored soldiers, which was located in tiie yard of Price 
& Birch's old slave prison, used during the war as a prison for deserters. The ancient 
sign "Price, Birch & Co.," in dim characters, remained upon the front of the gloomy 
structure' through the war; the windows with their iron grates, the lofty brick enclosure, 
and every aspect of the three-story spacious structuie, suggesting the lacerated human hearts 
and bodies, the manacles, the chains, the auction-block, and all the manifold forms of 
anguish which such a shocking receptacle brings before every humane and reflecting mind. 
The pastor of the "Shiloh" church is Rev. Lelaud Warring, a colored man, who, like the 
others, was a teacher during the war. There is still another Baptist colored church, the 
" Zion Baptist," located in the vicinity of the railroad tunnel. These churches have each a 
flourishing Sabbath school, in which old and young unite in learning to read and iu the 
study of the Bible. 

It should have been previously stated that the Sisters of Charity, about 45 years ago, 
maintained for some j-ears a small but very excellent school for colored girls, at the same 
period in which they had a large boarding school for white girls, in the large brick build- 
ing then known as "The Old Brig," on the corner of Duke and Fairfax streets, in Alex- 
andria. These Sisters also maintained a very large Sunday-school for colored children, in 
which they were instructed in spelling, reading, and in Christian doctrine. At this period 
the Friends also sustained a large Sunday-school in their meeting-honse, in which refined 
women of prominent standing in the city were wont to teach the colored people, young and 
old, to spell and read and to write also, the last-mentioned branch being little tolerated 
in a colored school at any period iu Virginia. In the Episcopal and Presbyterian churches 
the colored people were taught the catechism, rarely if ever to read at all. 

SCHOOLS IX OPERATION JANUARY L 1809. 

There are two colored school-houses in the city, six rooms in each; the Pitt street house, 
finished in April, 1867, and the Alfred street house, finished in the following November. 
The lots upon which these houses stand were purchased by the colored people, in 1866. 



292 SCHOOLS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION. 

They held public meetings to rouse their people to the importance of the subject; concen 
trated their efforts, and raised the money in their poverty, paying $800 for the first lot, and 
about that sum for the other. The Freedmen's Bureau built the houses, which are very 
comfortable, and of a capacity each to seat 400 scholars; the estimated value of the Alfred 
street house and lot being $7,500; that of the other, $S,000. 

In the Alfied street building there are now (January, 1889) in operation five schools, under 
the following teachers: Miss E. D. Leonard, Massachusetts; Miss Maggie L. Silliman, Miss 
Jemima Silliman, and Miss Lydia Alcorn, Pennsylvania; and Miss Savira Wright, Massa- 
chusetts. The Misses Silliman and Miss Alcorn are supported by the Eeformed Presbyterian 
mission, and the others by the New York branch of the A. F. U. Commission. 

In the Pitt street building there are also five schools, with five teachers and an assistant 
teacher, as follows: Miss M. E. Stratton and Miss Faiinie A. Morgan, Connecticut; Miss 
Eosetfa A, Coit, New York; Miss Mary E. Perkins; Miss Laura V. Phenix and Miss Mary 
M. Nickens, the latter a colored teacher. These 10 schools have an average attendance of 
about 420 scholars, with 500 or more names on the rolls. In the two private schools tliere 
are 170 more, making 670 registered scholars. Eev. C. Eobinson's school numbers 100 ; 
Miss Sarah A. Gray's about 70. Miss Gray and the other colored female teachers mentioned 
ahove were born and brought up in Alexandria; the former, however, received her thorough 
education at the Baltimore Convent. 

Eev. Eichard Miles and his daughter have recently opened a school a few miles south of 
Alexandria, and about a mile from "Camp Distribution," a place well known during the 
years of the war, and where now there is a settlement of colored people, who are tiyiag to 
support themselves by renting and tilling small pieces of land, varjing in extent from five 
to 50 acres. Some of the scholars in Mr. Miles's school come a distance of three miles. 



SUMMARY 
Scholars. 
Scholars registered, September, 1861, 

to December 31, 1864 3,732 

Average attendance, December, 1864. 1 , 646 
Scholars registered, January to June, 

1865 - 1,643 

Average attendance, June, 1865 1,036 

Scholars registered, January, 1»66 .. 2,215 



Scholars. 

Average attendance, January, 1 866 . . 1 , 594 

Scholars registered, January, 1867 .. 975 

Average attendance; January, 1867.. 645 

Scholars registered, January, 1868 .. 1, 086 

Average attendance, January, 1868.. 835 

Scholars registered, January, 1869 .. 777 

Average attendance, January, 1869.. 6U8 



Colored population of Alexandria, 1865. 



Children 14 years old and under 2,635 

Children over 14 and under 20 1,1 44 

Total colored population .1 7, 763 

Number able to read 1 , 734 



Slaves before the war 5, 050 

Free before the war 2,713 

Mulattoes 3,831 

Blacks 3,932 



The above summary shows some falling off of numbers in the last two years. This is to be 
attributed in part to the improvement of the schools, the infeiior ones being absoibed in the 
larger and better, and also to the moving away of many contrabands, who at first crowded 
in great numbers to Alexandria from the northern part of the State. It must, however, be 
acknowledged that the indefatigable labors of the various relief societies in gathering the 
children into the schools are sadly missed, and that at present the average attendance should 
be larger, and the school accommodations much increased. The Freedmeu's Bureau has 
been and still is of great service, but this will soon be withdrawn; and with no public school 
system in the city or the State, and in the midst of a population where hardly a single resi- 
dent has the least sympathy with any work for the elevation of the colored race, and where 
most are strongly and even bitterly opposed to such efforts, the prospect for this unfoitiinate 
class is far from encouraging. 

The Friends in Alexandria who maintained their allegiance to the Union were among the 
most eflective Moikcrs in tlie cause of colored schools, joining hands heartily with their 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POrULATION. 293 

brethren from tbe north. It is, 'however, a remarkable fact that thQ only case in which the 
great body of the Friends connected witli any Friends' meeting in tbe country supported the 
rebellion, was that at Alexandria. Most of thein went south, and the meeting was broken 
up. This ■shows how extreme was the disloyalty which reigned in that city. 

Mr. Newton, already referred to as the etficit'nt superintendent in 1865-'C8 of the Wash- 
ington and Georgetown schools, under the caie of the New York and Pennsylvania frecd- 
men's relief societies, took, for a time, a general supervision of the schools at Alexandria, at 
the request of the different benevolent associations. At that time semi-montlil}- meetings ot 
all the teachers were held alternately in Washington and Alexandria, there ofien beiug as 
many as 125 present. These gatherings, or conferences, were productive of great good. 
This association of teachers was quite distinct from the "Volunteer association," so called, 
already noticed. 

Most of the teachers now employed have been in the arduous work for years, and it is 
■only those able to endure the severest toil who have not broken down under it. The very 
great number of young women who have come here with faiih, fortitude, and health, and 
broken down, is well known to those who have been familiar with these schools, and shows 
that it has been a self-sacrificing field of labor. It is certain, also, that abler, better- 
educated, and more refined young women never entered into any benevolent enterprise than 
those who have given such signal success to this great educational undertaking in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia and vicinity. The schools and teachers of Alexandria are substantially the 
same in character as those of Washington and Georgetown, and the remarks of a general 
nature already made apply equally to them. The scholars are about as well advanced and 
show the sauie aptitude and zeal in the one city as in the others. 

As has been stated, the first three schools organized in Alexandria for colored iiistruction, 
after the war opened, were taught by colored persons. Colored schools in an^' form were 
sufficiently odious to the mass of the old white residents of that city ; but when the northern 
white men and women entered upon the work the bitterness was very intense. When Rev. 
N. K. Crow with his band of associates went there to open their school, in November, 1863, 
no white family in tbe city would give them food or lodging. They found a home, however, 
with an excellent old colored man, H. II Arnold, now more than 80 years old, but smart as an 
ordinary man at 50, who had seen General Washington in 1799 at Christ church in that city, 
and was raised in the Scott family, in Dinwiddle county. Being of Indian extraction on his 
mother's side, he was free-born. Arnold was the body-servant of Lieutenant General Scott 
for thirty-seven years, from 1811 to the close of the Mexican war, and he describes many a 
rough-and-tumble scuffle they had toi;ether when boys on the family plantation. This 
reniiuds one of the story told of Richard Henry Lee, in the memoir by his grandson: 
"Knowing he was to be sent to England, [to be educated,] it was his custom to make a 
stout negro boy fight with him every day. To his angry father's question, 'What pleasure 
can you find in such rough sport?' the son replied: 'I shall shortly have to box with the 
English boys, and I do not wish to be beaten by them.' " Arnold being in New York city 
at the time of the riots of 1863, was protected in General Scott's house, and was the only 
colored man that followed the remains of this great soldier to their last resting place, 

Mr. Crow's school was persecuted, and the children often stoned by the white children; 
and every form of contempt was visited upon the refined and cultivated teachers by the white 
parents. This animosity has gradually abated, but still largely pervades the society, espe- 
cially in the ranks of the impoverished classes of the aristocracy, who are smarting under 
the loss of wealth in human fouls and bodies. In January, 18G5, Miss Caroline W. Moore 
could find no decent white family who would receive her, and the colored people were too 
poor to furni>h her proper accommodations; and she with her assistant. Miss R. S. Capron, 
were for some time compelled to board in Washington. It was her school that was com- 
plained of as a nuisance, though an exceedingly well-conducted institution. She prasented 
her case to the mayor in person, and he discreetly dismissed the complaint. 



294 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

THK AMERICAN TRACT SOCIETY AND LABORS OF DU. PIERSON. 

Since the main portion of this report was wiitten, fuller information has come to our 
hands in regard to the important initiatory and pioneer work among thefreedmen hj Eev. t)i\ 
H, W. PieisoD, acting as agent of the American Tract Society. The several schools organized 
by him were not only the foundation of all that was afterward accomplished, but the work 
was without precedent, the field an untried one, and formidable obstacles presented themselves 
at the outset, in the melancholy physical and mental condition of the freedmeu themselves, 
in a public sentiment, strong and fierce, opposed to their enlightenment, and in the black 
code of the District, at that time in full force and bristling with enactments in hostile array 
against such a benevolent and Christian work. 

The opening of the war at once drew the attention of the whole north to the I'apid release 
of the slaves from bondage, wherever our troops reached slave soil, and as quickly the great 
question arose. What shall be done for them ? At this juncture it was inevitable that many 
eyes should be turned to the Tract Society, with its complete organization and ample resources, 
and appeals were poured in on every side that it would move in this work. Dr. Pierson 
had resided mai;y years at the south, as the Tract Society's superintendent of colportage in 
Virginia, as agent of the American Bible Society in Kentucky, and as President of Cum- 
berland College, in that State. On graduating at the Union Theological Seminary in New 
York city, in ]848, Dr. Pierson was appointed by the American Board of Foreign Missions 
as missionary to Africa, but partial loss of health, owing to a disease of the lungs, pre- 
vented him from going. The following winter he went to Hayti as agent for the Bible Soci- 
ety. He may be truly called the life-long friend of the colored race, and in many other 
ways than those above referred to has he labored in their behalf in most of the southern 
States. To many Dr. Pierson is known as the author of a valuable work on the private life 
of Jefferson, the substance of which formed the subject of lectures delivered by him before 
the New York Historical Society and the Smithsonian Institute. On leaving Kentucky in 
1861, he was so impressed by the wonderful opening offered to philanthropic men and women 
for effectually reaching the poor slaves with the means of instruction, and was so convinced 
that it was the duty of the Tract Society to enter energetically upon the work, that he pro- 
ceeded to New York and communicated personally with the secretaries upon the subject. He 
then went to Washington, and was introduced to Hon. Salmon P. Chase, then Secretary 
of the Treasury, by Rev. J. C. Smith, of Washington, so well known for his devotion to the 
best interests of the colored population of the District, a devotion wisely directed and fear- 
lessly shown through those many years when obloquy, persecution, and danger attended it. 
Dr. Pierson was cordially received by Secretary Chase, and, after several interviews with 
him as to the best method of organizing a plan for educating and aiding the freedmen, he 
was introduced by him to Mr. E. L. Pierce, of Boston, who had already been sent south by 
tbe government to make investigations in regard to the condition of the colored people within 
our lines, and had just arrived in the city. Mr. Chase desired them to confer very fully on 
the'subject, and Dr. Pierson presented his plan of sending to the freedmen teaching colpor- 
teurs, which was cordially approved by Mr. Pisrce. In a letter written soon after. Dr. Pierson 
says: "I was very an.xious that tbe American Tract Society should embark in this work, 
as my former connection with the society made me fully aware of its great facilities for useful- 
ness in its buildings, presses, and organization. I had been so absorbed in my own labors 
that I had taken no part in the discussion and excitements that it had passed through on the 
slavery question, but I knew that its receipts bad fallen off about $100,000 on account of 
the withdrawal of those who had disapproved of its course on this subject. In my free con- 
versations with the secretaries, I told them that they could in no way secure the sympathy 
of the warm friends they had lost as by entering upon educational and religious labors among 
*he colored people." 

It may be stated here that early in the winter of l8Gl-'62, a plan was under consideration 
among many pro.nlnent and wealthy philanthropic and Christian men in New York to organ- 
ize a National Society who.se leading object it should be to establish schools among the 
freedmen, as no efficient society then existing seemed prepared to take up the work. One 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 295 

fcatWR' of this plan was to enlist, as far as possible, the services of tiic aviuy chapiaius and 
soldiers, at such points as was praclicable. 

February 6, lfiG2, Rev. Dr. Smith wrote Dr. Pierson as follows ; " Last eveniisg I had a 
talk with Secret.ary Chase at his house. I found him much interested about the contrabands 
and he wants to do somethins^effectiv-ely with and for them, and at once, soinelhiu|^ that will 
unite different denominations and benevolent mea in a society or a-sociation like to the Amer- 
ican Tract Society, with auxiliaries in other cities. The object will be to furnish teachers 
for the contrabands, have .schools, and in every way .seek to elevate them, 'for' said the 
Secretary, ' whatever may be the political results of our present troubles, these contrabands 
will be on another footing than heretofore.' He says immciliate steps ought to be taken, and 
he will co-op(>rate in every way possible in the enterprise. The heart of Mr. Chase is in the 
thing. I told him you were the man to execute the whole business, and he has read your 
two letters. There are no funds of the government that can be used, but the power of the 
government can be had, and will be, if the work can go on. We do not want books and 
tracts so much as we want men to go and be with the contrabands. Do see as many men 
as you cai!. The whole work is simple and ought to be pushed now. Secretary Chase 
attaches all importance to it, and vvil) give it his full and noble aid." 

Early in the winter the Tract Society as well as the Bible Society donated their publica- 
tions for the use of the freedmen, and the former society prepared several tracts Ibr their 
special needs. The Secretary, Mr. Eastman, wrote under date of February 8, 18t)2, to Rev. Dr. 
Smith, as follows : 

"Mv Ds-:ar Siri: Dr. Pierson has showed us your letter to him and we had an interview 
with him last evening. All I can say now is that we are deeply interested in the subject 
and are ready to do whatever we can to serve and promote the general object as we under- 
stand it. We have not, however, any plan fully matured, but will confer further on the 
subject. In the mean time I would say that in addition to ouv Tract Primer and Infant 
Primer, of which Avith other publications we have already sent the amount of 100,000 pages 
to Fortress Monroe and Port Royai especially for the colored people, we have now in press 
24 small tracts in large type, which we have got up on purpose for them. These will b? 
ready in a week. We shall add to the munber as the work goes ou. We cannot now tell 
all that we can do, but you will hoar from us again in a few days." 

Later in February Dr. Pierson addressed to the Tract Society the following letter : 

"New York, February 2:^, 1862. 
•' Gentlemkn : 1 enclose herewith a letter written b}' myself to Mr. Edward L. Pierce, 
special agent of the Treasury Department, and his reply. It has seemed to me that a great 
door and effectual is here opened for the beneficent labors of your society. I am aware that 
the labors required are somewhat ditferciit in character, though not in spirit, from th(jse tha*^ 
have been for years performed by your colporteurs in the moral wastes of every part of 
the country. 

"You are aware that the American Sabbath School Union has just published a 'Bible 
Reader,' composed exclusively of selections from the Bible, accompanied with a series of 
cards embracing the most recent and philosophical improvements in the work of imparting 
elementary instruction, and so arranged that groups of a hundred or more can be taught in. 
concert to read much more rapidly than by former systems. Dr. PaL-kard informs me 
that he thinks that, as a rule, adults can be taught to real the Bible by this system iu a 
month. Moreover, the Reader is so arranged that by the time it has been mastered the pupil 
will be thoroughly informed as to the essential truths of our holy religion. I desire you to 
bring this whole matter before your committee and inform me as to these two points : First, 
Can your society superadd to its work that of teaching the contrabands to read the word of 
God ? Second, Will you commission colporteurs for this work ? If you give me an affirm- 
ative answer to these questions I will communicate further with the government agents, to 
whom this work has been intrusted. Fr.om my extended travel in the southern States, and 
residence there for many years, I feel a very deep interest in their v/elfare. A great educa- 
tional and religious work, in the providence of God, is now thrown upon the great Christian 
heart of the country, and it seems to me that your society is called upon to enter upon it. 



296 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

but of tliat you must be the judge. Pardon me if, in my intense solicitude for these children 
of our common Father, so many thousauds of whom have heard from my lips the message 
of salvation, I charge you to consider this matter prayerfully and maturely, and that you 
act upon it in view of the account you must render to HijH who has said ' inasmuch as you 
have done it unto one of the least of these you have done it unto me.' " 

On the 28th of February Dr. Pierson was commissioned by the Tract Society to visit Wash- 
ington and other points for the purpose of establishing schools for the freedmen, and report 
to them further openings for similar operations. In a letter he thus briefly sketches his first 
experience after anivingin Washington : 

"I soon learned that most of the contrabands who had passed through our lines and 
reached the city were assembled at the navy yard and in a building iu Duff Green's row, 
near the Capitol. March 14, I visited Commodore Dahlgren, then in command at the navy 
yard, and presented a letter of introduction from Rev. J. C. Smith, stating my object and 
office. He received me most cordially, and indorsed my letter with these few but hearty 
words : ' The, commandant says certainly,'' He then directed Lieutenant Parker to send 
me whatever aid I desired. I told him I only wished to have the chapel opened and lighted, 
and all the contrabands in the yard notified to meet me there at 7 o'clock that evening. At 
the appointed hour I found a dusky group, such as I had seen on hundreds of plantations, 
awaiting my arrival and most anxious to enjoy the richest of all the privileges secured to 
them by their new-found freedom. It was a moment of indescribable interest — a pivotal 
point in their histc ry as well as my own. At any previous period of our history such a 
meeting on any of the plantations from which they had escaped would have been criminal 
in the highest degree. I had myself seen a poor Irishman in the hands of the sheriff, who 
told me his prisoner had been convicted of teaching negroes to read, and he was taking him 
to Richmond to serve out the years in the penitentiary, for which he had been sentenced. 
Now I had no fear of the penitentiary, nor they of 'stripes well laid on.' My method of 
teaching was very simple, and the same in all the schools subsequently established, and in- 
tended expressly for adults. I began with the first verse of the Bible, printed on a card in 
letters so large that all could easily see it, and hung upon the wall. Without attempting to 
teach or even name the letters, I began with the words, requiring them to repeat each in con- 
cert several times, until well distiiigirished from the others, and in this way a short verse was 
learned in half an hour. With this ' word method,' instruction in the letters and in spelling 
was afterwards combined. At the navy yard Master C. V. Morris and his wife and daughter 
took the deepest interest in my labors, and rendered valuable aid in teaching. I called also on 
Mrs. Attorney General Bates, Mrs. Senator Trumbull, Mrs. Senator Grimes, and many other 
ladies of like social position, and received from them all assurances of sympathy, and from 
many personal co-operation in the work. As the work assumed larger proportions and 
the old slave laws were unrepealed, I thought it best to secure military protection. On 
receiving Mr. Shearer's commission from the Tract Society, I called upon Biigadier General 
James S. Wadsworth, military governor of the District, accompanied by Rev. J. C. Smith. 
He received us most kindly, and listened with the deepest interest and sympathy to our expla- 
nations of the routine of the work. I then banded him Mr. Shearer's commission, and 
requested him to place upon it such military indorsement as he judged best. He took it 
and wrote, as nearly as I can remember, 'The bearer is authorized to visit, instruct, and 
advise the colored people in this District, under the military protection of the government.' 
This paper secured access to all prisons, jails, camps, &c., in the District, and was of the 
greatest value in the prosecution of the work. 

"On Sunday, March 30, I lectured in the Ebenezer church, (colored J Georgetown, ex- 
plained the nature of the work, and gave notice that I would meet them on an evening in 
the latter part of the week to organize a school. On Thursday, April 3, a statement ap- 
_peared in the Star, that, in consequence of a leport in circulation in Georgetown that a po- 
litical lecture would be delivered to the colored people in that church on Wednesday evening, 
'considerable excitement resulted, and thieats were made to lynch the lecturer,' and that on 
that evening a large crowd of whites had gathered in a menacing attitude about the church. 
Also learning from private sources that a large number of young men had organized to 



SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED TOPULATION. 297 

break up such a meeting, I applied to tlie mayor and directed his attention to the article. 
He bad seen it. I told him the nature of the work I was doing, and that I had called 
entirely out of regard to him and the foolish young men who had not comprehended the 
change that had taken place since the war began. I showed him the above paper indorsed 
by General Wadsworth, and assured him that if necessary I should call on the military for 
protection. I then made a similar visit to the chief of police. They both assured mo that I 
would not be molested, and I was not. 

" I ha%'e labored, as you know, not a little in the moral wastes of the land, and have seen 
many tears of gratitude and heard many thanks, but I have never seen anything that would 
be compared to the eagerness of these people to learn to read the word of God, or their grat- 
itude for my labors in their behalf. One gray-headed old woman said, 'I never expected 
to live to see this — to read the blessed Bible, God is as good as His word, sisters; God is 
as good as His word. Hain't He told us He would sanctify us by His spirit and His word ? 
We have felt His spirit right in here (laying her hand upon her heart) a long time, and now 
He has seat this man here to teach us, and ain't His word coming right along ?' " 

BANNEKER, THE ASTKONOMER. 

Benjamin Banneker, the celebrated black astronomer and mechanician, was born near the 
village of EllicoH's Mills, Maryland, in 1732. His father was a native African, and his 
mother the child of native Africans. His mother was free at her marriage, find soon pur- 
chased her husband's freedom. She was a Morton, a family noted for intelligence. Prior 
to J 809 free people of color voted in Maryland, and it was one of that family, Greenbury 
Morton, who, not knowing the law of that year restricting the right of voting to whites, 
made the famoits impassioned speech to the crowd at the polls when his vote was refused. 
Benjamin Banneker worked upon his father's farm. When nearly a man grown he went to 
an obscure and distant country school, learning to read and write and to cipher as far as 
Double Position. He had great inventive powers, and made a clock from the instruction he 
obtained from seeing a watch. He was also a profound and accurate observer of nature, 
men, and things. In 1787 George Ellicott, a gentleman of education, furnished him some 
works of the higher class on mathematics and astronomy, which he devoured with avidity, 
and which opened a new world to him. Astronomy was hencelbrth his absorbing study. 
He lived alone in the cabin upon the farm which his parents, who were dead, had left him, 
and was never married. In 1791 he made an almanac, which was published in Baltimore, 
and the publication being continued annually till he died in 1804, at 72 years of age. Ben- 
jamin H. Ellicott, of B:iltimore. took great interest in this remarkable man, and some quarter 
of a century ago gathered up the fragments of his history, which were embraced with other 
facts in regard to him in a memoir, prepared and read by John H. B. Latrobe, esq., 
before the Maryland Historical Society. Banneker sent the manuscript, in his own hand- 
writing, of his first almanac to Thomas .Jefferson in 1791, with a long ar.d manly letter, to 
which Mr. Jefferson made prompt and kind reply, thankmg him for the letter and almanac, 
and added " Nobo;ly wishes more than I do to see such proofs as you exhibit that nature has 
given to our black brethren talents equal to those of the other colors of men, and that the ap- 
pearance of a want of them is owing only to the degraded condition of their existence both 
in Africa and America," concluding as follows: "I have taken the liberty of sending your 
almanac to Monsieur de ConJorcet, secretary of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and mem- 
ber of the. Philanihropic Society, because I consider it a document to which your whole color 
had a right for their justifimtiun against lite doubts which liace been enlf.rtained of them." It 
is notf^vvorthy that Mr. Jeffdrson calls the, colored pe >ple "our black brethren ;" elsewhere iu 
his writings he calls them fellow-citizens. This almanac was exiensively circulated through 
the middle and southern Slates, and its calculations were so exact and thorough as to excito' 
the attention and al miration of the philosophic and scientific classes throughout Europe, 
especially Pitt, Fox, Wilbeiforce, and their coadjutors, who produced the work in the British 
Parliament as an argument in favor of the abolition of slavery and the cultivation of the blai'k 
race. Banneker was buried near EUicott's Mills, and a few years ago the colored p^"ople 
honored themselves in raising a monument there to the memory of his great genius and tine 
character. 



298 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

In the interesting debate in the Senate in March, 1864, on Mr. Sumner's amendment to 
the bill incorporating the Metropolitan railroad, (Washington city,) providing that there 
should be no exclusion of any person from the cars of said road, Mr. Eeverdy Johnson, in 
his reply to Senator Saulsbur3''s depreciation of the colored race, referred to Banneker in the 
following words : "Many of those born free have become superior men. One of them vi'as 
employed in Maryland in surveying several of our boundary lines — Mason and Dixon's 
particularly — and some of the calculations made on that occasion, astronomical as well as 
mathematical in the higher sense, were made by a black Maryland man who had been a 
slave." 

A SABBATH SCHOOL IN GEOUGETOWN. 

Since closing the earlier period of this history it has been discovered that a colored Sab- 
bath school was established in the old Lancaster school-house in Georgetown as early as 
1816, and was continued many years. Mr. Joseph Searle was the superintendent of the male 
department, and his sister, Miss Ann Searle, of the female, both being at that time teachers in 
a seminary in the city. The various Protestant churches sent teachers to aid in the humane 
work, and among those specially interested were Francis S. Key, Captain Thomas Brown, 
John McDaniel, Robert Ober, Daniel Kurtz, and a large number of excellent ladies. Francis 

S. Key not only taught in the school, but often made formal addresses to the scholars. 
t 

THE AFRICAN EDUCATION SOCIETY. 

A society under the above title Was organized December 28,1829, by friends of the colored 
race in Washington and Georgetown. In the words of the constitution, its object was "to 
afford to persons of color destined to Africa sirchan education in letters, agriculture, and the 
mechanic arts as may best qualify them for usefulness and influence in Africa." The inten- 
tion was'to establish an institution for the above purpose. A hpuse in Washington, near the 
Georgetown bridge, was rented, and a slaveholder in the vicinity offered the free use of a farm 
for practical instruction in agriculture, and for aiding in the support of the institution. Mr. 
Isaac Orr, a graduate of Yale College of the class of 1818, at that time connected with the 
Colonization Society, was appointed secretary, with authority to collect funds and organize 
the school. In the Columbia Gazette, published at Georgetown, and in the National Intel- 
ligencer of July 3, 1830, it was announced that the society would open their institution 
September 1 ; the sum of $500 being sufHcient to establish a scholarship. Among the man- 
agers were Rev. Walter Colton, chaplain in the navy, and Rev. R. R. Gurley, still a resident 
of Washington ; but notwithstanding the high character of those originating this organization, 
and notwithstanding its wise provisions which could not fail to meet the approval of practical 
and sensible men, such was the prevailing sentiment of that time — j;he gloomiest period for 
the colored people in all their history — that the society failed to obtain funds sufficient for a 
permanent basis of operations. The following extract from the address of the managers 
shows the character of the enterprise and certain phases of public opinion : " It is the de- 
si^-n of the society to train up the youth intrusted to them from childhood ; to subject them 
to a steady, mild, and salutary discipline ; to exercise toward them a kind and parental care, 
guarding them against the approach of every insidious and hurtful influence ; to give them 
an intimate acquaintance with agriculture or some one of the mechanic arts ; to endow them 
with virtuous, generous, and honorable sentiments ; in fine, to form the whole character and 
render it, as far as possible, such as will qualify them to become pioneers in the renovation 
of Africa. In most of the slave States it is a prevailing sentiment that it is not safe to fur- 
nish slaves with the means of instruction. Much as we lament the reasons of this sentiment 
and the apparent necessity of keeping a single fellow-creature in ignorance, we willingly 
leave to others the consideration and the remedy for this evil, in view of the overwhelming 
magnitude of the remaining objects before us. But it is well known that very many masters 
are desirous to liberate their slaves in such a way as to improve their condition, and we are 
confident that such masters will rejoice to find the means by which those slaves may be edu- 
cated by themselves without the danger of exerting an unfavorable influence around them ; and 
instead of creating disquiet in the country, may carry peace and joy to Africa," 



SCHOOLS OF thp: colored population. 20J> 

CONCLCSION. 

The iiivestifjatiou recorded in the foregoing documeut was undertaken with a most 
inadequate estimate of its magnitude, though the writer had for some years been uncommonly 
conversant with educational matters in the District, and deeply interested in the colored 
schools. The subject expanded in materials and in importance as the research was pursued, 
till what was expected at the beginning to fill but a few pages had swelled into a volume. 
The work was prosecuted in the belief that everything which the colored people have 
attempted and accomplished for themselves in mental and social improvement in this seat of 
empire was worth rescuing from oblivion, and that such a chapter would be a contribution 
to the educational history of the country, peculiarly instructive at this time. It is quite 
certain that the most of what is gathered into these pages from the iirst half century of the 
District would have never been rescued from the past under any other auspices, and from 
the original, novel, and instructive nature of its character, it has been deemed best to go 
with much minuteness into details. There is an almost tragic pathos running through the 
tale of the patient sufferings and sacritices which these humble and dutiful people have^ 
experienced, through so many years of oppres;sicn, in their struggles for knowUdge. 

The facts embraced in the foregoing report have been ga,thcred with an amount of labor 
that can be adequately estimated only by those who have toiled in a similar field of 
research. Prior to the rebellion the education of this proscribed and degraded race 
was held in scorn and derision by the controlling public sentiment of this District, as in tha 
country at large, and schools for the colored people rarely found the slightest record in the 
columns of the press. After a thorough examination of the various journals published in the 
District during the first half century of its history, the first reterence to any school that 
can be found is in an article on the city of Washington published in the National Intel- 
ligencer August 3, 18J6, in which it is stated that " a Sunday school for the blacks ha.s. 
been recently established, whiffh is well atteuded.and promises great benefit to this neglected 
part of our species, both in informing their minds and amending their morals." This journal 
was the only one of established chaiacter that alluded in any way to these schools, and a 
careful examination of its files from ISOU to 1850 has disclosed only the two or three notices 
already referred to. The remarkable advertisement found in the volume for 1818 of the free 
colored school on Capitol Hill was a striking fact in it.self considered, but was otherwise of 
the greatest value in this work, because the names of the seven colored men subscribed tu 
the documeut pointed to the sources from which was procured much of the authentic intoruui- 
tion pertaining to the first quarter of a century of the District. In this almost tctal absence 
of written information it was fortunate to find in the memories of the colored people a won- 
derful accuracy and completeness of riscollection of almost everything pertaining to their 
schools. Ill the intercourse with this population which these researches have occasioned, 
this fact has been a subject of perpetual observation. The aged men and women, (:veii 
though unable to read a syllable, have almost always been found to know somethino* 
concerning the colored schools and their teachers. The persecutions which perpetually 
asbailed their schools, and the sacrifices which they so devotedly made for them, seem tw 
have fastened the history of them, with astonishing clearness and precision, in their minds, 
such as is surely not found among the educated white population pertaining to the white 
schools of the same period. Another interesting fact is not inappropriate in this connection. 
There are undoubtedly more colored people of the District of the class free before the 
war, who own their homes, than are found in proportion to their nuuibers among the mid- 
dling classes of the white population. There are also to be found in a multitude of these 
humble colored homes the same refinements as are found in the comfortable and intelligent 
white family circles. These interesting developments disclosed in every direction in the 
preparation of this work have stimulated prolonged research, and made what had other 
wise been a wearisome task a most agreeable occupation. 

Statesmen and thoughtful public men will discover in these pages facts which put to tlighr 
a class of ethnological ideas that havebeen woven by philosophers into unnumbered volumes 
of vaiu theories. The great and imposing truth that the colored race has been for nearly 



300 SCHOOLS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

seventy years on a grand trial of their capacity to rise in the scale of human intelligence, 
such as lias not elsewhere in the history of the world hcen granted them, seems to have entirely 
escaped observation. If these records are, as they are confidently believed to be, substantially 
accurate in all their details, the capabilities of the colored race to rise to superior mental and 
social elevation, and that too under the most appalling disabilities and discouragements, is 
illustrated on a conspicuous theatre, and with a completeness that cannot be shaken by any 
cavil or conjecture. 

There is a colored woman in Washington, known and respected for her sterling goodness 
and remarkable sense, more than half a century a resident of the city, who relates that she 
used (iften to see Jefferson during his presidency, in the family of Monroe, in which she was 
brought up, near Charlottesville, Virginia ; that on one occasion, while attending the children 
in the hall, she heard Jefferson say to Monroe that " he believed the colored race had as much 
native sense as tlte whites, that they ought to be educated and freed at the age of 21, and that 
if some plan of this kind should not be adopted, they would in time become self-enlight- 
ened, in spite of every oppression assert their liberties, and deluge the south in blood;" 
to which Mr. Monroe, rising from his seat, with both hands uplifted, exclaimed, " My God, 
Mr. Jefferson, how can you believe such things?" This declaration imputed to Jefferson is 
well substantiated, as it not only comes from a truthful witness, but is in full accordance 
with the views that he has amply left on record in his writings. In his celebrated letter to 
Banneker, the black mathematician and astronomer of Maryland, in elevated and feeling 
language he expressed to this wonderful, self-taught negro his deep thankfulness for the 
indisputable evidence which the productions of his genius had furnished, ^' that nature has 
given to our black brethren talents equal to those of the other colors of men ;" and, in apology 
for the liberty he had taken in transmitting to the President of the French Academy of Sci- 
ences the manuscript copy of his first almanac he had sent to the philanthropic statesman 
as a testimony to the capabilities of his enslaved race, Jefferson went on to say that he had 
forwarded the remarkable production to that great representatfve body in the world of letters 
as an evidence of the intellectual powers of the black man, to which the whole colored race 
had " a light for their justification against the doubts which have been raised against them." 
With like ideas may this simple story of patient endurance and of triumph in calamities 
be submitted to the American people and mankind in vindication of the faith reposed by 
many good men in the capacity for self-government of a long down-trodden and despised 
portion of the human family. 

The history of these schools, subsequent to the breaking out of the rebellion, records the most 
remarkable efforts of disinterested contributions, both in money and in labor, which are to 
be found in the anuals of Christian and patriotic beneficence. The du;y of providing for the 
moral and intellectual enlightenment of a class of people who had been kept hitherto in pro- 
found ignorance, directly or indirectly, by the laws and prejudices of the country, pervaded 
the entire northern mind and heart. 

No pains have been spared to ascertain the fields of labor occupied by different associa- 
tions, and the schools taught by different individuals ; but no record can fully describe the 
self-sacrifice and zeal of that band of noble, refiued, and cultivated women who devoted 
themselves to the education nf this neglected class, many of whom fell, as truly martyrs to 
their patriotic labors as those who perished on the battle field ; and not a few of whom are 
still suffering in their own homes as great a deprivation from the loss of health in this ser- 
vice, as those who will bear to their graves bodies mutilated bj' t'le missiles of war. 

All of which, with many thanks for your personal and ofiicial co-operation in this inves- 
tigation, is respectfully submitted. 

M. B. GOODWIN. 

To Hon. Henry Barnard, 

Commissioner of Education. 

To this exhaustive nccount of the past rm-l present condition of schools for the colored people 
in the District of Cohimbia, by Mr. Goodwiu, we add a comprehensive survey of the legal status of 
this portion of the population in respect to schools and education in the several States. — H. B. 



PART II* 

LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION IK RESPECT TO 
SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION IN THE DIFFERENT STATES. 



PAET II. 



LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS 
AND EDUCATION IN THE DIFFERENT STATES. 

Page. 

District of ColuxMBia. 

Sources of the charters of Alexandria, Georgetown and Washington 305 

Plantation Laws of Maryland— 1705 and 1715 305 

Baptism no exemption from bondage in Virginia 305 

Case of Sir Thomas Grantham and "the monster" from India 306 

St. George Tucker— Dissertation on Slavery in 1796 306 

Killing a slave by correction no felony 306 

Prediction of Professor Tucker's Dissertation in 1860 307 

Virginia. 

Act to prevent negro insurrection, 1680 307 

Punishment of "unlawful assemblages " 307 

Revised Code of 1819 307 

Nat. Turner insurrection, 1831 307 

Act of April 17, 1831, relating to education of negroes 307 

Punishment of white persons for instructing blacks. Law modified in 1848 308 

Resolution declaring slavery abolished, 1864 30!; 

Maryland. 

Assembling of negroes restrained, 1695 308 

Act of 1723, to prevent " tumultuous assemblies " 308 

Penalty for violation — Modified in 1832 and 1833 309 

Insurrectionary publications forbidden, 1835 309 

Georgetoicn. 

Charter granted by Maryland, 1 789 309 

Amendments of charter by Congress 309 

Ordinances, 1795, 1796 309 

Whipping forbidden during market hours 309 

Act of 1831, forbidding night assemblages 309 

Possession or circulation of newspapers (Liberator) forbidden 309 

Penalties for holding meetings for instruction not religious 310 

Ordinance of 1845 not enforced against schools 3]0 

Persecution of colored school children 310 

Alezandria. 

Charter granted by Virginia — Amended by Congress, 1804, 1826 310 

Powers of the common council 310 

Ordinances — Penalties for violation of 31 1 

Case of Miss Mary Chase 311 

Her colloquy with the mayor, and her fine 311 

vSevere penalty' in another case 311 

Miss Julia A. Wilbur 311 

IVashingtori. 

Powers enumerated in charter 311 

Supplementary act, 1 8U6 31-2 

Amendment of charter, 1812 312 

Charter renewed, 1820 — Ordinances 312 

Ruling temper of all laws of the District 312 

First ordinance relating to colored people, 1808 312 

Sanctioned by Congress, 1820— Increased severity, 1821 313 

Title to freedom to be proved 313 

Parents to prove how any child became free 314 

Conditions for a license to live in the city 314 

Penalties for failure to comply , 314 

Children bound out to service 314 



302 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 



JVashington — Continued. 

Penalty for "idle, disorderly, or tumultuous assemblages" 314 

Penalty for going at large after 10 o'clock p. m 314 

Modification of ordinance, 1827..... 315 

Colored persons not.to frequent Capitol Square, 1829 315 

Case of Alexander Hays at the inauguration of President Taylor 315 

Restrictions increased, 1836 — Policemen bought off 315 

Case of Joseph Jefferson, 1 833 316 

Bonds required in 1850— Case of William Syphax, 1847 316 

Commentary on this legislation 316 

Seizure and couiinement of colored Freemasons 317 

The diseuthrallment inaugurated in 1861 317 

Speech of Senates Wilson in the Senate, 1862 318 

Speech of Senator Harlan 318 

Senator Hemphill of Texas, and R. M. Johnson of Kentucky 319 

Bill for the education of colored* children, 1862 319 

Amendment by Senator Wilson 319 

Negro testimony, 1 862 320 

Senator Sumner's amendment 320 

Supplementary bill, July, 1862 320 

Senator Sumner's amendment, 1864 320 

Rights of colored people in the cars 320 

Washington and Georgetown Railroad 321 

Separate cars for colored people 321 

Amendment by Senator Sumner, 1865 321 

Debates in Congress thereon .. i 321 

Colored mail carriers — Law of 1825 321 

History of legislation on this subject 32 1 

Action of Mr. Sumner in regard to it 322 

Report of Mr. Colfax, 1862 - 322 

Report of Mr. Collamer, 1864 322 

Act of March 18, 1869 322 

Alabama. 

Act of 1832 forbidding instruction of colored people 323 

Authority given to the mayor of Mobile, 1 833 323 

Constitution, 1865 — Revised Code, 1867 323 

Schools for freedmen — General Swayne 323 

Schools at Mobile, Montgomery, and.Huntsville 323 

Talladega Normal School 324 

Emerson Institute 324 

Swayne School 324 

Statistics of teachers, pupils, studies, &c 325 

Arkansas. 

First statute relating to slaves, 1806 325 

Act of 1838, permit to labor on Sunday 325 

Act of 1 843, forbidding free negroes to enter the State 325 

Constitution 1864, forbidding slavery 326 

Constitution 1868, no distinction in citizenship 326 

Act to establish common schools, 1868 326 

Schools for freedmen 326 

Friends' schools — Indiana yearly meeting 326 

First free schools at Little Rock 326 

Statistics of schools, teachers, &c 327 

California. 

Suffrage limited to "white male citizens " 328 

Revised school law, 1 866 328 

Connecticut. 

Constitution of 1818, limitations of suffrage 328 

Prudence Crandall and the Canterbury school 328 

Sarah Harris — Decision of Miss Crandall in regard to her 329 

Letter of sympathy from Rev. S. J. May 329 

Canterbury town meeting, resolutions, and speeches 329 

School opened in April, 1833 330 

Application of an obsolete law 330 

A special law demanded — The "black law" 330 

Satisfaction of the people of Canterbury — Arrest of Miss Crandall 331 

Refusal of her friends to give bonds 331 

Miss Crandall placed in a murderer's cell 332 

Release of Miss Crandall, bonds given 332 

First trial of Miss Crandall, 1833 332 



•LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 303 



Connecticut— Continued. 

Opinion of Juflj^e Eaton — Discharge of the jury 332 

Second trial — Ju(3g;e Dagj^ett 333 

Verdict against Miss Crandall 333 

Appeal taken — Decision of court of errors reserved 333 

Attempt to burn the house of Miss Crandall 333 

Determination to abandon the school 333 

Francis Gillette and the repeal of the law 333 

Schools for colored children in Hartford 334 

Letter of Rev. W. W. Turner— Act of 1868 334 

Dlir.AWAUE. 

Laws of 1739 and of 1 832 33.i 

Assemblages for instruction of colored people forbidden 335 

Organization of the Delaware Association, 18ti6 335 

Appeal of Rt. Rev. Alfred Lee in behalf of schools 333 

Normal schools established, 18G7 336 

Statistics of schools, teachers, &c 33S 

Florida. 

Immigration of free negroes forbidden 336 

Unlawful assemblies, 1 846 337 

Act to establish common schools, 1848 337 

Provision for a school fund 337 

Revision of the common school law, 1853 337 

Common schools for freedmen, 1866, 1869 337 

Agencies for educating freedmen 333 

Schools opened at Tallahassee and other places 338 

Statistics of schools, &e 338 

Remarks of State superintendent 339 

Georgia. 

Laws concerning meetings of slaves, &c 339 

Laws of 1829, in regard to teaching slaves, &c 339 

Consolidation of penal code, 1833 339 

Ordinance of the city of Savannah ,339 

Mr. F, C. Adams advocates education of slaves 33'J 

Schools for blacks since 1 865 31U 

Professor Vashon's account 330 

School of Miss Deveaux in Savannah since 1830 340 

Georgia Educational Association organized by negroes 340 

Opposition to the schools — Report of Mr. G. L. Eberhart 310 

Georgia University at Atlanta 341 

Beach Institute, Savannah ;;4I 

Lewis School, Macon 34 1 

Statistics of schools, teachers, pupils, &c lU'J 

Vlinois. 

Constitutional, legal, and social oppression of the negro 342 

Report of Newton Bateman, superintendent of schools '342 

\ Colored schools in Chicago 343 

0IANA. 

\ Hostile legislation to the negro 344 

^.Constitution of 1851 — Report of Professor Hoss, 1866 344 

_5Report of Mr. Hobbs, 1868 345 

^.qual privileges accorded to the negro — Statement of F. D. Wells 345 

-, he word " white " stricken from the constitution 345 

kistitution of 1861 345 

Aral educational advantages secured by act of 1867 345 

-^on of benevolent associations 346 

Q Waro High School 346 

IvENTL\y. 

Coi^itution of 1800 346 

^sgiation in regard to colored people 346 

^o l<ys forbidding instruction of slaves 346 

tecboAsystem established, 1830— Revised in 1864 347 

Law d 1867 for the benefit of colored schools 347 

School^ for freedmen since 1865 347 

Berea College 348 

Lly Normil School, Louisville 348 

I abJes— schools, teachers, pupils, and studies 349 



304 LEGAL STx^TaS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 

Page. 

Louisiana. 

Protection given by the treaty of Paris in 1803 341) 

Black code of 1806 and 1814 349 

Corps of militia composed of colored Creoles 350 

Penalty for publishing or distributing incendiary papers 350 

General Jackson's proclamation and address to the blacks in 1814 350 

Constitution of 1868, as to schools for colored children 350 

Freedmen's schools since 1 865 351 

First school established by Mrs., M. B. Brice in 1860 351 

Board of education established by General Banks in 1864 351 

Power to levy tax suspended in 1865 351 

Northern benevolent societies 351 

Tables — schools, teachers, pupils, studies 352 

Maine. 

Equal privileges to whites and blacks 3.52 

Maryland. 

Provision fur free public schools in 1864 352 

St. Frances Academy in Baltimore 352 

Benefaction of Nelson Wells and the Wells School 352 

Baltimore Association of the Society of Friends 353 

Pecommendation of State superintendent 353 

Statistics of schools for colored children for lB66-'t)7 355 

Normal school for teachers of colored schools 35.5 

Special legislation for colored schools in Baltimore 355 

Notices of public schools in the rural districts 356 

Tables — schools, teachers, pupils, and studies 356 

Massachusetts. 

Constitutional and legal equality of the colored citizen 357 

Separate schools for colored children 357 

Primus Hall — Elisha Sylvester — Prince Sanders 357 

Abiel Smith and the Smith School 357 

First public primary school for colored children 3r>7 

Act of 1855 discontinuing all separate schools 357 

Michigan. 

Equality of school privileges to all classes 357 

Mississippi. 

Emancipation and immigration of slaves prohibited 358 

Acts relating to burial of slaves, testimony, education • 358 

Freedmen's schools, teachers, scholars 359 

Missouri. 

Legislation as a Territory and a State 359 

Schools for colored children, scholars, teachers 360 

New York. 

Constitution of 1777, 1821, 1846, 18.50, 1864 361 

School for negro slaves of Elias Nean in 1704 361 

Vesey — Huddlestone — Charlton — Barclay 361 

Hugh Neill— Dr. Smith— Bishop Gibson 362 

Oglethorpe^Parliamentary action in 1735 363 

Rev. Thomas Bacon — Bishop Williams — Bishop Butler 363 

Archbishop Seeker — Dr. Bearcroft — Bishop Warburton 363 

Bishops Lowth, Porteus, Wilson, Fleetwood 364 

Manumission Society, and New York African free school 364 

Visit of La Fayette to the African school 365 

Public schools for colored children 365 

Organization, teachers, pupils, in 1868 367 

Gerritt Smith's school at Peterboro 367 

North Carolina. 

Earliest legislation— schools tolerated till 1835 368 

Freedmen's schools in 1863 368 

Schools, teachers, pupils, in 1868 369 

St. Augustine Normal School 369 

Biddle Normal Institute 370 

System of free public schools in 1868 370 

Ohio. 

Sutf rage denied to the negro 370 

Earliest school for colored children in 1820 370 

Cincinriati High School established by Rev. H. S. Oilman 370 



LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 305 <^ 

Public schools for colored scbolars o71 

Wilbert'orce University 372 

Oberlin College 374 

Prnnsylvaxia 374 

Population — colored population 374 

Historical development of colored sclioc^ls 374 

Eev. George Whitefield 374 

Anthony Benezet — educational labors and views— extracts from the will of 374 

Schools for black people by the Society of t'riends 37G 

George Fox in 1672— Moses Patterson in 1770 376 

Joseph Clark — David Barclay — Thomas Shirley 377 

Women Friends — John Pemberton '>' ' 

Charity, benevolent, and reformatory schools 378 

Schools of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society 379 

Public schools for colored children 379 

Institute for colored youth 379 

Richard Humphrey — association to establish institute 380 

Rev. Charles Avery 382 

Avery College in Allegheny City 380 

Ashmun Institirte — Lincoln University 382 

Endowments of $80,000 383 

Rhode Island - 383 

Population — separate schools abolished 383 

South Carolina 383 

Population — early legislation - 383 

Law against instructing slaves to write in 1740 — Act of 1800 and 1834 383 

Schools for the freedmen since 1861 384 

Rev. Solomon Peck— Edward L. Pierce— Rev. M. French 385 

Associations of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia 384 

James Redpath — public schools in 1 865 385 

Schools in Charleston in 1868 385 

Avery Institute at Charleston 386 

Statistics of colored schools, 1865 to 1868 387 

Tennessee 387 

Population — early legislation respecting slaves 387 

School legislation in 1838, 1840, 1862, 1867 387 

St&tistics of colored schools, 1866 to 1868 388 

Texas 388 

Population 388 

Early legislation respecting schools 389 

Constitution of 1866 389 

Legislation reepecting schools 389 

Statistics of colored schools, 1 865 to 1868 390 

VmoiMA 390 

Population — early introduction of slaves 390 

Rev. Morgan Godwyn, and early laborers for the slave 390 

Pamphlet published in London in 1680 391 

Catholic and English church — Virginia and New England 392 

Rev. Jonathan Boucher's sermon in 1763 392 

Schools for the colored people in Norfolk and Richmond 393 

Rev. John T. Raymond — Mrs. Margaret Douglas 394 

Schools for freedmen at Fortress Monroe, September, 1861 395 

Educational work of the Freed men's Bureau 395 

American Missionary Association 396 

Number of schools, teachers, and pupils, 1868 396 

Richmond normal and high school 397 

Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute 397 

Report by President Hopkins and others in 1869 398 

West Virginia 399 

Act of 1863 and 1866 ., 399 

Freedmeu's schools in 1868 399 

Wisconsin 4C0 

Population — equality of all before the law 400 

Vermont 400 

Early constitutional and legal protection of the negro 400 

New Hampshire 400 

New Jersey , 400 






LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION IN PvESPECT 
TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCxVTION. 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 

Tlie only authority to restrain and limit the conduct and privileges of any class of the 
population in the Distiict is to be fcumd in the charters granted to the municipal corporations 
and the laws of Maryland and Virginia. Alexandria received its charter originally from 
Virginia, and Georgetown from Maryland, while Washington was originally incorporated by 
Congress. The act of Congress of Julj' 16, ITUO, establishing the seat of goveruuient in this 
District, provided "that the operation of the laws of the State within such District shall not be 
aflected by this acceptance until the time fixed for the removal of the seat of government, and 
until Congress shall otherwise bj' law provide;" and under the act of February 27, 1801, the 
laws of Virginia and Maryland, as they existed at that date, were continued in full force and 
effect. In order to understand the condition in which the colored classes were lawfully held 
in the District durir'g the existence of slavery, or for any period, it is necessary to know the 
powers existing in the charters of those cities under the State laws at the date last specified, 
and also the additional enlargements and curtailments of powers subsequently enacted by 
Congress. Some account of these codes, so tar as they pertain especially to education, is 
also essential to a just estimate of the fortitude with which the colored people have struggled 
through the long period of darkness over which this history extends 

The first settlers of both Maryland and Virginia evidently entertained the idea that a 
Christian could not bo a slave. In "Plantation Laws, Loudon, 1705," a law of 1692 in 
Maryland is cited as follows: 

" Where any negro cr slave, being in bondage, is or shall become a Christian and receive 
the sacrament of baptism, the same shall not, nor ought to be, deemed, adjud^red, or con- 
strued to be a manumission or freeing of any such negro or slave, or his or lier issue, from 
their servitude or bondage, but that, notwithstaiKling, they shall at all times hereafter be and 
remain in servittidc and bondage as the}- were before baptism, an}' opinion or matter to the can- 
traiy liotwittistanding." 

In 1715 the provisiou was embodied in a new act with a preamble, and this is the first act 
(ound in full in Bacon's Laws, the titles only of the previous laws being given. The act of 
the Maryland assembly of 1715 declares: 

" Skc. "2:5. And forasmuch as many people have neglected to baptize tli«ir negroes, or 
suffer them to be baptized, in a vain apprehension that negroes by receiving the sacrament 
of baptism are manumitted and set free: Be it hcrchij further declared itnd enacted by and with 
the authority, advice, and consent aforesaid, That no negro or negroes by receiving the holy 
sacran:ent of baptism is hereby manumitted or set free, nor hath any right or title to fi'eedoin 
or manumission more than he or they had before, any law or usage or custom to the contrary 
notwithstanding." 

In section 'i'6, acts of the Virginia assembly of 1705-, is the following clause: "And also 
it is hereby enacted and declared that baptism of slaves doth not exempt them from bondage." 
And in 1733 the law was re-enacted in this explicit language: 

"Whereas some doubts have arisen whether children that are slaves by birth, and, by the 
charity and piety of their owners, made partakers of the blessed sacrament of baptisme, 
shoula by vertue of their baptisme be made Ifree: It is enacted and declared by this grand 
assembly and the uuthuritv thereof, That the conferring of ba])tisme doth not alter the condition 
of the person as to his bondage or ffreedom ; that diverse masters, ffreed from this doubt, 
may more carefully endeavour the propagation of Christianity by permitting children, though 
slaves, or those of greater growth, if capable, to be admitted to the sacrament," 

In South Carolina there was a law enacted to the same effect in 1712, in which it is 
curiously declared "lawful for a negro or Indian slave, or any other slave or slaves what- 
soever, to receive and profess the Christian faith, and to be therein baptized,"' and that thereby 
no slave should be deemed mauumitted. 

The origin of this singular legislation in Virginia must have arisen from a prevailing 
apprehension in the public mind upon the subject at that time, 1667 ; but the enactments of 
Maryland and South Carolina undoubtedly had, as their immediate producing cause, two 
20 305 



306 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION 

judicial iuvestigations which occurred in England in lGSG-'87, a short time prior to these 
enactments. One of these cases, reported iti 3 Modern Reports, 120-1, is thus stated : 

"Sir Thomas Grantham bought a monster in the Indies, which was a man of tliat country, 
wlio had the perfect shape of a child growing out of his breast, as an cxcrescency, all but the 
head. This man he brought hither (to England) and exposed to the sight of the people for 
profit. The Indian turns Christian and was baptized, and was detained from his master, who 
brought a hominc rcplequiando, (a writ by which his title to retain the man as property might 
be legally tested.") 

How tills case w-as ultimately disposed of does not appear. In 1696 tlie question whether 
the baptism of a negro slave, without the permit or consent of his master, emancipated the 
slave, was argued with great rij.search and learning before the King's Bench. Jn this instance 
a misconception of the form of action required prevented any decision upon the merits of the 
case, the matter being thus in both actions left in doubt. The argument of the counsel for 
the defendant in this latter case is ingenious and curious : 

" Being baptized according to the use of the church," says the counsel, " he, the slave, is 
thereby niaJe a Christian, and Chvisiianity is inconsistent with slavery. And this was allowed 
even in the time when the popish religion was established, as appears by Littleton ; for in 
those days if a villain had entered into religion, and was professed, as they called it, the 
lord could not seize him, and the I'eason there given is, because he was dead in law, and if 
the lord might take him out of his cloister, then he could not live according to his religion. 
The like reason may now be given for baptism being incorporated into the laws of the land ; 
if the duties which arise thereby cannot be performed in a state of servitude, the baptism 
must be a manumission. That such duties cannot be performed is plain, for the persons 
baptized are to be confirmed by the diocesan when they can give an account of their faith, 
and are enjoined by several acts of Parliament to covne to church. But if the lord hath still 
an absolute property over him, then he might send hiul far enough from the performance of 
those duties, viz., into Turkey or any other countrj'- of infidels, where they neither can nor 
will be suffered to exercise the Christian religion. '^ * * It is observed among the Turks 
that they do not make slaves of those of their own religion, though taken in war, and if a 
Christian be taken, yet if he renounce Christianity and turn Mahometan, he doth thereby obtain 
his freedom. And if this be a custom allowed among infidels, then baptism in a Christian 
ration, as this is, should be an immediate enfranchisement to them, as they should thereby 
acquiie the privileges and immunities enjoyed by those of the same religion and be entitled 
to the laws of England." — 5 Modern Reports, Chamberline vs. Hervey. 

St. George Tucker, in 1796, while professor of law in the University of William and Mary 
and one of the judges of the general court of Virginia, delivered in the university and sub- 
sequently published a remarkable " Dissertation on slavery, with a proposal for its abolition in 
the State of Virginia," and in quoting from the act of the Virginia assembly in 1705, above 
referred to, is provoked to remark that " it would have been happy for this unfortunate race 
if the same tender regaixl for their bodies had always manifested itself in our laws as is shown 
for their souls in this act. But this was not the case, for two years after we meet with an act 
declaring: 'That if any slave resist his master, or others by his master's orders, correcting 
liira, and by the extremity of the correction should chance to die, such death should not be 
accounted felony;'" and Professor Tucker adds: "This cruel and tyrannical act, at three 
different periods enacted with very little alteration, was not finally repealed till 1788, about 
a century after it had first disgraced our code." 

What would this illustrious man now say were he to rise from the dead, and, standing in 
that university, discourse upon the blacli code of Virginia as it was in all its atrocious vigor 
in full force in 1880? 

It required a hundred years for the long descent from that first step of barbarism, embodied 
in the above early statutes, respecting the relation of slaves to Christian profession and bap- 
tism, down to that immeasurable infamy which shut with iron bars the gates of knowledge 
from the whole race, both bond and free, reducing them to the condition of the brute. 

And here again the "Dissertation," to which allusion has here been made, is so forcibly 
suggested that another passage from it cannot be withheld. After depicting " the rigors of the 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. d^) i 

police in regard to tliis unhappy race," and affirming that it ouglit to be softened, this great 
and far-sighted Virginia jurist goes on to inquire if with but 300,000 slaves such thirigs weie 
deemed necessary, what ninst bo the situation of the State wiien instead of that number 
there should be more than 2,000,000 in Virginia, concluding with this lofty and prophetic 
language: "This must happen," he says, in allusion to the increase of the slave population, 
"within a century, if wo do not set about the abolition of slavery. Will not our posterity 
curse the days of their nativity with all the anguish of Job ? Will they not execrate the 
memory of those ancestors, who, having it in their power to avert the evil, have, like their 
first parents, entailed a curse upon all future generations ? Jl'c knoic that the rigor of the 
lairs respecting slaves unavoidably must increase with their number;. What a blood-stained 
code must (hat be which is calculated fur the restraint of millions held in bondage. Such must 
our unhappy country exhibit within a century unless ice are both wise and just enough to avirt 
f om posterity the calamity and reproach which are otherwise unavoidable.^' 

VIRGINIA. 

When the act of Congress approved February 27, 1801, orgauizing the District of Colum- 
bia, and providing that the laws of VMrgiaia and Maryland, as those laws at thnt date existed, 
should continue in force in the jjortious ceded by those States respectively, became a law, 
there was no express restriction of the education of the colored race upon the statute-books 
of either State. The earliest legislation aiming at such restrictions are all embraced in the 
enactments pertaining to gatherings of "slaves, negroes, and mulattoes,'' denominated in 
the Maryland statutes " tumultuous meetings," and in the Virginia statutes " unlaicful assem- 
blies," the definition, in common law, of such an assembly being "the meeting of three or 
more [lersous to do an unlawful act." 

In Virginia, as early as 1G80, an act was passed for preventing negro insurrections, 
declaring that "the frequent meeting of considerable numbers of negroes, under pretence of 
feasts and burials, is judged of dangerous consequence," and such meetings were forbidden 
under penalty oi' thirty l<(shes. 

In January, 1804, an act was passed declaring "all assemblages of slaves, under what- 
ever pretext, at any meeting-house, or any other place in the night-time," to be an "unlaw- 
ful assembly,"' the offenders to be punished with lashes not exceeding twenty. An act 
explaining and amending the act of January was passed in June, 1805, in which it is pro- 
vided that nothing in such act shall "prevent masters taking their slaves to places of reli- 
gious worship conducted by a regularly ordained or licensed white minister." 

This act also forbid the overseers of the poor "to require black orphans, bound out, to be 
taught reading, writing, and arithmetic," showing that hitherto they had required this 
instruction to be given. 

Up to that time slaves only were restricted, but in the Revised Code of 1819 all meetings 
of free negroes or mulattoes, associating with slaves in such places, including assemblages at 
" any school-house or schools for teaching reading or writing, either in tho day or night," 
are embraced in the same interdiction and penalty. The same code also provides that "any 
icltite person, free negro, mulatto, or Indian, found in such unlawful assembly," is punish- 
able by fine of three dollars and costs, and on failure of present payment, "is to receive 
ticenly lashes on his or her bare back, well laid on." 

There was no further legisjatiou in the Virjiinia assembly bearing specially on this matter 
till the passage of the act of April 17, 1831. The Nat. Turner insurrection, in South Hamp- 
ton county, occurred in the same year, but not until August, showing that the law was 
inspired by no special alarm arising from the massacre. The following are the se.-tions 
relating to education of the colored people : 

"Sec. 4. Be it further enacted. That all meetings of free negroes or mulattoes, at any 
school house, church, or meeting-house, or other place, for teaching them reading or writing, 
either in the day or night, under whatsoever pretext, shall be deemed and considered as an 
'unlawful assembly;' and any justice of the county or corporation wherein such assemblage 
shall be, either from his own knowledge or on the iuforaiatiou of others, of such unlawful 
assemblage or meeting, shall issue his warrant, directed to any s^vorn officer or ofificers, 
authorizing him or the2:i to enter the house or houses where such unlawful assemblage or 



308 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

meeting may be, for tlio purpose of apprehendiof^ or dispersing such free negroes or mulat- 
toes, and to inflict, coiporal punishment ou the offender or offenders, at the discretion of any 
justice of the peace, not exceeding twenty laslies. 

" Sec. 5. Bs it fnrllicr tnti.r.ud, That if any white person or persons assemble with free 
negroes or mu^iattoes, at any bchool-house, church, meeting-house, or other place, for the 
purpose of instructing such free negroes or mulattoes to read or write, such person or persons 
shall, on conviction thereof, be fined in a sum not exceeding fifty dollars, and moreover may 
be imprisoned, at the discretion of a jury, not exceeding two months. 

"Sk.c. 6. Be it further enacted, That if any white person, for pay or compensation, shall 
assemble with any slaves for the purpose of teaching, and shall teach any slave to read or 
write, such person, or any white person or persons contracting with such teacher so to act, 
who shall offend as aforesaid, shall for each offence be fined, at the discretion of a jury, in a 
sum not less than ten nor exceeding one hundred dollars, to be recovered on an information 
or indictment." 

These were the exactions put upon the terrified colored people of Alexandria when the 
retrocession took effect. The only material change in the law of 1831 was made in 1848, 
when the act reducing to one the general acts concerning crimes and punishments was enacted, 
the maximum number of lashes being then increased to 39. 

The constitutional convention of Virginia, which met at Alexandria, in 1864, passed a reso- 
lution, March 10, declaring slavery to be forever abolished. 

MARYLAND. 

In Maryland the assembly, in 1095, passed an act "restraining the frequent assembling of 
negroes within the province." 

In 1723 an act v.-as passed to prevent "tumultuous meetings of negroes and other slaves" 
on Sabbath and other holidays, requiring the appointment of constables to visit monthly all 
suspected places, and when " negroes or other slaves " are found upon premises to which 
they did not belong, to break up the "tumultuous assembly," and whip the offenders with 
lashes upon the bare back, not exceeding 39. A quarter of a century later, in 1748, the 
assembly of the same State enacted that all persons entertaining any servants or "slaves 
upon their premises " during the space of one hour or longer should be fined 100 pounds of 
tobacco for each hand, and, in default of payment, to receive not exceeding 39 lashes on 
the bare back. Thoug'h this act specifies its purpose to be the prevention of embezzling 
provisions for such entertainments, and of " many grievous disorders," it is evident that the 
intelligence awakened by such gatherings was the result mainly deprecated. The provisions 
of tlie act are extended, m 1807, to embrace /ree negroes in the prohibition as well as slaves, 
the constable being required to repres.-J "tumultuous meetings of mulattoes, negroes, and 
slaves," the penalty to the offending free negro being fine and imprisonment, and to the 
slave the usual "lashes." In 1831, when Virginia completed its climax of obloquy and 
turpitude, in shutting up all its colored classes to total ignorance, Maryland, to its honor, did 
not allow one syllable against the edixcation of either its free or its slave population to find 
place in its statutes. The policy of her State vi'as at this time to prepare the way for free- 
dom, and a law was in this same year enacted forbidding the introduction of slaves into its 
territory, and a most liberal and enlightened enterprise organized to encourage the manu- 
mission of slaves and their emigration to Liberia. The act of 1831, upon "tumultuous 
assemblies," provided: 

" That it shall not be lawful for any free negro or negroes, slave or slaves, to assemble or 
attend any meetings for religious purposes unless conducted by a white licensed or ordained 
preacher, or some respectable white person of the neighborhood, as may be duly authorized 
by such licensed or ordained preacher, during the continuance of such meeting," and unless 
conducted in accordance with these provisions all such assemblages were declared to be 
"tumultuous meetings." It was, however, provided that meetings of slaves or servants 
upon the premises where they belonged should not be embraced in the prohibitions of the 
act, and that within the limits of Baltimore city and Annapolis city religious meetings of 
slaves, free negroes, and mulattoes, held in accordance with the written permission of a 
white licensed (or) ordained preacher, and dismissed before 10 o'clock at night, should be 
lawful. It was also provided that the free negroes and mulattoes, for any offence for which 



IN EESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 309 

slaves were then punishable, should "be subject to the same punishment, and be liable in 
every respect to the sanle treatment and penalty as slaves thus offending," the punishment 
for this oflfence being not exceeding 39 lashes upon the bare back. 

Tie restrictive policy of 133i, which totally prohibited the introduction of slaves into the 
State, was modified in J832, in special cases, and in 1833 every barrier to the introduction 
of slaves for residence was withdrawn. In ]d.j5 was enacted the law against the publication 
and circulation of documents tending to inflame discontent and insurrection among the col- 
ored population— a law Avhich, everywhere enacted in the slave States, was an instrument 
of terror and oppression, disheartening to the cause of education. The literature of the 
country was so largely pervaded with denunciations of slavery at that period, that it was 
dangerous for a colored man, or a friend of the colored race in a slave State, to have in his 
possession any of the publications of the day — an old newspaper, used for wrapping pur- 
poses in a trunk, often visiting upon its possessor the severest troubles. 

THE CHARTER OF GEORGETOWN. 

The original act incorporating Georgetown, passed by the general assembly of Mary- 
land 35th December, 178D, contains nothing in the enumeration of the created powers 
restraining the colored in distinction from the white population, and in the amending act of 
the assemblj', passed January 20, 1798, the only allusion to the colored people distinctively 
is in the preamble, in which is set forth the want of proper powers in the corporation to 
restrain by wholesome laws "vagrants, loose and disorderly persons, //-cc negroes, and per- 
sons having no visible means of support." In the powers conferred by the act which follows 
the preamble, however, tLero is no allusion whatever to the colored race; nor is there any 
distinctive reference of the kind in the amendatory act of Congress of March 3, 18(J5, the 
only clause important to note being that which provided that "the said corporation shall 
have, possess, and enjoy all the lights, immunities, privileges, and powers heretofore enjoyed 
by them." In IHU9 the charter received from Congress another amendment, in which it was 
declared "that all the lights, powers, and privileges heretofore granted by the general 
assembly of Maryland, and b}' the act to which this is a supplement, and which are at this 
time claimed and exercised by them, shall remain in full force and effect," 

GEORGETOWN ORDINANCES. 

The first ordinance in Georgetown restiictiug the assembling of colored people was passed 
by the councils August 4, J795, in which were prohibited all ''irregular and disorderly 
meetings of indented servants and slaves," and also "the meeting of servants or slaves 
exceeding six" on any occasion, with a penalty not exceeding thiity-nine lashes; and in 
case of interference to prevent the whipping on the part of "master or mistress," a fine for 
the interference not exceeding £5. October 10, 179(5, another ordinance to repress "riotous 
and disorderly meetings of indented servants and slaves " was enacted, with a special injunc- 
tion upon the constables to particularly examine all persons of color as to their title to free- 
dom. In this act "the fighting of game-cocks and dunghill fowls " by colored people was 
specifically prohibited as among disorderly assemblages. 

Tlie punishment of whipping was so eagerly and promptly executed by the constable that 
the councils passed a special ordinance forbidding whipping during market hours. 

On the 8th of October, 1831, that year of sorrows to the colored people throughout the slave 
States, and of shame and infamy to their oppressors, the councils enacted : 

"That from this time Ibrth all night assemblages of black or colored persons within the 
limits of this town, except for religious instruction, conducted by white men of good char- 
acter, and terminated or dispersed at or before the hour of half past nine o'clock p. in., be 
and the same are hereby prohibited," the penalty for slaves not more than 39 stripes, and for 
free colored people not more than 30 days at hard labor in the workhouse. 

The same ordinance also prohibits "any negro or mulatto person living in this town from 
rcs^eiving through tlie post ofiice, or any other mode, or after lapse of ten days from the pa^^-;- 
age of this act to have in his possession, or to circulate, any newspaper or publication of a 



310 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

seditious and evil cljaracter, calculated to excite iusurrection or insubordination among the 
slaves." 

"Subscribers to or receivers of a newspaper called ' The Liberator,' published in Boston," 
are emphatically proscribed; and every free negro or mulatto in any w^ay concerned in the 
infrino-ement of the act was to be ' ' deemed and adjudged a disorderly person, and a dangerous - 
and unsafe citizen." White persons aiding in the infraction of this law were punished wi h 
a line not exceeding $20, or imprisonment not more than 30 days ; free negroes and mulat- 
toes failing to pay fine and prison fees were liable to be sold to service not exceeding four 
months. This section against the free circulation of knowledge was the most oppressive 
restraint ever imposed upon the colored people. It almost absolutely shut them up from all 
reading, as they were afraid to have any book m their possession, scarcely even the Bible. 
On the 25th of August, 1845, the councils passed an ordinance declaring that — 
" From this time forth all assemblages, day or night, of black or colored persons within 
the limits of this town, except meetings for religious instruction, conducted by white men 
appointed by either or any of the established churches of the town, and terminated at or before 
the hour of nine and a half o'clock p. m., and except such other meetings as shall be espe- 
cially allowed by the mayor, be and the same are hereby prohibited." 

The penalty attached to the violation of this ordinance was, in case of a slave, stripes not 
exceeding 39, and in case of a free negro the punishment was confinement to hard labor at 
the workhouse not exceeding 30 daj-s, or a fine not exceeding $30 ; Congress having by act 
of March 2, 1831, prohibited corporal punishment upon a free man in the District, imprison- 
ment in the county jail for a period not exceeding six months being substituted therefor. 

This ordinance of 1845 had no sanction either in the laws of Congress or in those of Mary- 
land. If its provisions had been enforced, colored schools would have been placed at the 
mercy of the mayor, who, in the case of at least one mayor in the memory of the older resi- 
dents of the District, would have had no mercy on them, though of this tyranical class Henry 
Addison, ever a friend of the oppressed, stands forth a very noble exception. These ordi- 
' nances were never enforced against the schools, though they stood there as an oppressive 
intimidation, necessarily engendering a spirit of disdain and contempt for the humiliated 
classes on the part of those, both young and old, whom the enactments made their masters. 
This was manifested in the persecutions which continually fell upon the colored children on 
the way to school and returning, it being a common custom for crowds of white boys to con- 
gregate at the colored school-houses for the purpose of pelting with stones and maltreating 
the inoffensive and unresisting children as they would flee towards their humble homes. 
There were no ordinances in any city of the District to shield these children from such out- 
rages, though the insolent and inhuman practices were always well known to the city 
authorities. 

THE CKAllTER OF ALEXANDRIA. 

The original charter of Alexandria enacted by the general assembly of Virginia, like that 
of Georgetown, confers no power exclusively applied to the colored people. The corporate 
authorities were invested with power " to make by-laws and ordinances for the regulation 
and good government of said town: Provided, such by-laws or ordinances shall not be repug- 
nant to or inconsistent with the laws and constitution of this commonwealth;" and in 
amending the charter in 1804 Congress conferred upon the city the power "to make all laws 
which they shall conceive requisite for the regulation of the morals and police of the said 
town, and to enforce the observance of said laws." In an act still further amending tho 
charter, approved May 13, 1826, substantially the same power is conferred as was embraced 
in the act amendatory of the charter of Washington, approved May 4, 1812. It enacts that 
the common council of Alexandria "shall have power to restrain and prohibit the nightly 
and other disorderly meetings of slaves, free negroes, or mulattoes, and to punish such slaves 
by whipping, not exceeding 40 stripes, or, at the option of the owner of such slave, by fine 
or confinement to labor, not exceeding three mouths for everyone offence; and to punish 
such free negroes or mulattoes for such offences by fixed penalties, not exceeding $20 for one 
offence ; and in case of the failure of such free negro or mulatto to pay and satisfy such pen- 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AXD EDUCATION. 311 

v.Uy and costs, to cause sucli free negro or mulatto to be confiued to labor for any lime not 
exceeding six monihs for any one offence." 

ALEXANDRIA OIJDIXAXCES. 

It was under tlie sanction of the above amending clause that the common council, October 
29, ISII, passed an ordinance providing '-that all meetings or assemblages of free negroes 
and mulattces, or of slaves, free negroes and miilattoes, at any meeting or other house, either 
in the day or night, under the pretence or pretext of attending a religious meeting, or for any 
amusement, shall be and the same are hereby prohibited, and any such meeting cr assembly 
shall be considered an unlawful assembly; this act not to be construed to prohibit any slave, 
free negro, or mulatto from attending any class or other like meeting authorized and lequiied 
by the present government and discipline of any religious society in the limits of this corpo- 
lation, for leiigious services, or at any place of public worship, when and where a white 
member of the said society, duly authorized by the resident minister of the said religious 
society to officiate at such meeting; which said meeting is to close, and the persons present 
to depart to their homes, at or before 10 o'clock: Protit/cd, That nothing h^ein contained 
shall prohibit any slave, free negro, or mulatto from attending, either day or night, any of 
the usual places of public worship, when and where a duly authorized white minister shall 
officiate ; but no separate place of worship shall be peimitted for slaves, free negroes, or 
mulattoes." 

The ordinance further specifies that nothing in it "shall prohibit any slave, or free appren- 
ticed negro or mulatto meeting on any other lawful occasion, by license in writing from the 
owner or employer of such slave, or master or mistress of such apprentice, providing such 
meeting be in the day-time, or if after sunset the same shall not be continued longer than 
10 o'clock; nor shall any free negro or mulatto attend any meeting without the written per- 
mit of the mayor authorizing such meeting, which meeting is to be under the same limitation 
as relates to slaves and apprentices." 

Section 13 provides '' that if any free negro or mulatto person living in this town shall be 
a subscriber to or receive through the post office, or in any other mode shall, after the lapse 
of 10 days after the passage of this law, have in possession or circulate any newspaper or 
other publication, or any written or printed paper, or book, of a seditious and evil character, 
calculated to excite insurrection or insubordination among slaves or colored people, such free 
negro or mulatto shall be fined any sum not exceeding $20, or be committed to the work- 
house for not less than 30 days, and pay the amount of work-house fees and costs, and give 
security for his or her good behavior for 12 months, in a sum not exceeding $100, before he 
or she shall be discharged." In case the fine was imposed, and the offender was unable to 
pay the amount, he was committed to the work-house, to remain until it was paid. 

In February, ]dG4, Miss Mary Chabe, of Alexandria, an excellent colored teacher already 
mentioned, struck a white boy with a broom-stick because he called her vulgar names as 
she was sweeping the snow from her door-steps. She was arrested and taken to the mayor's 
office, and was about to receive sentence without a hearing. She resolutely insisted upou 
the right to state her case, and was allowed to speak. Her speech closed with these words: 
" It the boy calls me such names again, I will strike him again ; and I will strike anybody 
else who calls me such names." The mayor replied: "Mary, you had better not talk so;" 
to which she reiterated her determination; whereupon she was fined "one dollar for costs 
and fifty cents for the lick." 

In the summer of the same year a young woman, for some offence against a white man, 
was sentenced in Alexandria to receive 39 lashes and be imprisoned 30 days in the county 
jail. The sentence was rigidly executed ; and Miss Julia A. Wilbur often visited her and 
supplied her with useful employment, and when released furnished her a good h.ome. 

THE CHAR'J'ER OF WASHINGTON. 

in the original charter of Washington, approved May 3, 1802, the enumeration of powers 
conferred upon the corporation embraces nothing, either expressly or by implication, spe- 
cifically directed towards the colored people, nor is there any such power given in the .sup- 



812 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

plementary act of J80G. In the act further to amend the charter, approved May 4, 1812, 
there is, however, a clause to the point, giving the authority " to restrain and prohibit the 
nightly and other disorderly meetings of slaves, free negroes, and niulattoes, and to punish 
such slaves by whipping, not exceeding 40 stripes, or by imptisonment not exceeding six 
calendar months, for anyone offence; and to punish such free negroes and niulattoes for 
such offences by fixed penalties, not exceeding $20 -for any one ofl'ence;" and in default of 
paying fine and costs, imprisonment not exceeding six calendar months. In 1820 the origi- 
nal charter, expiring by limitation, was renewed, and the above clause was inserted without 
alteration. 

WASHINGTON ORDINANCES. 

The same remarks arc applicable to the corporation laws of Washington which have else- 
where been made in regard to those of Georgetown and Alexandria. Every imaginable form 
of humiliating restriction upon the personal freedom of the colored people, both bond and 
free, pervades these laws, almost from the first year of its corporate existence. It seems to 
have been assumed that these humble and patient beings were ready for riot, insurrection, 
and every spefies of insubordination and wickedness. They were subjected to the severest 
penal enactments; and without the slightest legal protection from the abuse of the white 
race, were at the mercy of inhuman and villainous white people, in their little brief author- 
ity, both in and out of corporation office. No white man can do a wrong to a colored man, 
and no colored man willingly does rigid to anybody, is the ruling temper of all the laws in 
regard to "slaves, free colored, and mulatto persons," as long as slavery existed in the 
District. 

The first ordinance of the corporation of Washington pertaining to the colored people bears 
date December 6, ]808, and declares "that no black person, or person of color, or loose, 
idle, disorderly person shall be allowed to walk about or assemble at any tippling or other 
house after 10 o'clock at night;" thus classing the whole body of the colored people with 
the dregs of society; "and any such person being found offending against this law, or at 
any time engaged in dancing, tippling, quarrelling, or in playing at any game of hazard or 
ball, or making a noise or disturbance, or in assembling in a disorderly or tumultuous man- 
ner, shall pay the sum of five dollars for each offence." 

Section 9 of this act declares " that it shall not be lawful for any person to entertain a 
slave or slaves after 10 o'clock p. m.; and for every slave found in the house or dwelling of 
another after 10 o'clock p. m., the person so entertaining shall forfeit and pay five dollars," 
unless the slave is found to have been sent on a message by the master or mistress. The 
fine in every case in this ordinance is to go one-half to the complainant or apprehender, and 
the other half to the city; one of the most unmerciful features of this law. A striking pro- 
vision in this ordinance was that in which was legally fixed the value of a constable's ser- 
vices for whipping a negro. The fee, like the duty, was contemptible; yet there is no case 
on record in which the officerfailed,under any ordinance, promptly to administer the "stripes 
on the bare back, well laid on," and were as impatient to do their brutal business as they 
were in Georgetown, where the councils were compelled to pass a special ordinance forbid- 
ding whipping during market hours. The section fixing the value of the service at half a 
dollar for each whipping was as follows : 

" Sec. 6. Be it further enacted. That if any slave shall be convicted under this law the owner 
of such slave shall be liable for the same, and judgment may bo rendered against such owner 
by any justice of the peace upon the '.'onviction of the slave, but it shall be optional with 
the owner of such slave to have the whole remitted except fifty cents, on condition he or she 
give directions to have the offending slave whipt according to the judgment of the magistrate, 
who is hereby directed to remit so much thereof, the residue to go to the person who inflicts 
the punishment." 

The enumerated powers of the original charter of the city, under which this ordinance was 
enacted, furnishes no authority for the above provisions of the law of 1808, and it was only 
by the most unjust wrenchings of that instrument that any shadow of authority could have 
been extorted ; yet these provisions were under the same charter of 1802 re-enacted December 
16, 1812, with aggravated malignancy, in the following barbarous terms : 

"Sec. 4. And be it further enacted, That it shall not be lawful for any slave, free black. 



■ TN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 313 

or mulatto person or persons to assemble iu any house, street, or other place, by day or by 
night, in a disorderly or tumultuous manner, so as to disturb the peace or repose of the citizens.' 
Penalty: A slave to "receive any number of stripes on his or her bare back not exceeding 
twenty, and a free black or mulatto to be fined not exceeding $20 and costs, and failing to 
pay which to go to the work-house not exceeding 90 days." 

"Sec. 8. If any free black or mulatto person or slave shall have a dance, ball, or assembly 
at his, her, or their house without first obtaining a permit from the mayor, or other justice of 
the peace, he, she, or they shall each pay a fine of $20, or be sentenced to confinement and 
labor for a time not exceeding 30 days ; in case of inability or refusal to pay such fine a slave 
shall receive any number of lashes on the bare back not exceeding ten." 

Section 9 provided " that no slave or free black or mulatto person should be allowed to go 
at large through the streets, or other parts of the said city, at a later hour than 10 o'clock at 
night from April 1 to October 1, or than 9 o'clock at night from October 1 to April 1, except 
a slave who had a written permission from his or her master, mistress, or employer." Penalty : 
slave, not exceeding 39 stripes on his or her bare back ; free black or mulatto, fine not 
exceeding $20 and costs, and failing to pay, not exceeding 90 days at hard labor. The fines 
in this, as in the law of 1808, went half to the informer or apprehender. 

The question is perpetually recurring, while running through these restraining enactments, 
why the colored people are made the constant and exclusive victims. Why were not white 
persons prohibited from disturbing the peace and repose of colored persons ? 

The first sanction given by Congress to this barbarism was when in amending the charter. 
May 15, 1820, it gave the corporation power "to restrain and prohibit the nightly and other 
disorderly meetings of slaves, tree negroes, ana mulattoes, and to punish such slaves by 
whipping, not exceeding forty stripes, or by imprisonment, not exceeding six calendar 
months for any one offence." Why the maximum stripes were increased from 39 to 40 it is 
difficult to conjecture, unless it was to show that barbarism was magnifying itself. The fact 
that this power was introduced into this amendment of the charter is significant of the fact 
that the city had been hitherto transcending its authority in the inhuman restraints which 
had in this regard been enforced by their ordinances 

Emboldened by the firmer grasp upon the victims which the enlarged powers of tlie charter 
under the amendment of 1820 gave them, the city authorities, April 14, 1821^ took a double 
turn of the screw. In the ordinance of 1812 the free colored people were required simply to 
exhibit satisfactoiy evidence of their freedom to the register, who was thereupon to give them 
license to reside within the limits of the city, the penalty being a fino of $6 or 10 days in the 
work-house ; but the special intent of the ordinance of 1821 was to amplify and make more 
stringent the whole registry or license system. A thorough examination of the city was 
ordered, "the city commissioners to make, each in his own ward, diligent inquiry and search 
for all free persons of color who may then reside or be found in the city," every one to be 
notified to appear within thirty days at the council chamber " to present for inspection their 
papers or other evidence of freedom, and shall then subscribe a statement of his or her trade 
or occupation and means of subsistence." But, in addition to satisfactory proofs of their 
right to freedom, they were obliged to bring "a certificate satisfactory to the mayor from at 
least three respectable white inhabitants, householders, setting forth that they are personally 
acquainted with such negro, and that he or she live peaceable and quiet lives; " specifying 
also "their trade or occupation, whether she or he keep an orderly and decent house, and 
whether they arc industrious and honest, and not likely to become chargeable to the cor- 
poration." 

The ordinance went still further. Every free male person of color residing iu the city was 
required to satisfy the mayor of his title to freedom, and to ^'entf.r into bond icitli onn good 
and responsible, free white citizen "—a phraseology suggesting that there were white citizens 
not free — "as surety, in the penalty of $20, conditioned for the good, sober, and orderly 
conduct of such person or persons of color and his or her family, for the term of one year 
following the date of such bond; and that such person or persons, his or her family, nor any 
part thereof, shall not during the said term of one year become chargeable to the corporation 
iu any manner whatsoever, and that they will not become beggars about the streets.'' 



314 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATIOX • 

Parents were also required to give a statement, in writing, showing the name, age, resi- 
dence, and occupation of each child, and how said child became free ; and the mayor could 
require, "i« his discretion " of such parents to give additional security for the quiet, peace- 
able, and orderly behavior of such child, in a sum not exceeding yf/Cj/ dollars, and when any 
security may, in the opinion of the mayor, become insufScient, he may require additional 
security." 

After all these conditions were complied with, and " the license to reside within the city" 
granted and duly signed by the mayor, countersigned by the register, recorded, and sealed 
with the seal of the corporation, the ordinance required that it should be renewed, together 
with the bonds, every year. In case of failure to produce evidence of freedom satisfactory 
to the mayor, the negro was committed to the county jail and dealt with as "an absconding 
slave." In case of failure to furnish the required sureties and bonds within the 30 days, the 
penalty was a fine of |5 for the first week, and if still found residing in the city, the man, 
together with his wife, was committed to the work-house for three months, from which they 
could be discharged, on satisfying the mayor that they would "forthwith depart the city." 
An additional provision was one of greatest cruelty, viz : that "the children of such persons 
committed to the work-house shall be bound out to service for such term as the guardians of 
the poor may think reasonable, not exceeding a period at which the males will arrive at the 
age of 21, the females at the age of 16 " 

" Sec. 8. It shall be unlawful for any free person of color to receive, entertain, harbor, or 
conceal any slave, or hire, buy from, sell to, bargain, or in any way trade or barter with any 
slave, unless by written consent of the owner. Penalty for first offence, line of $10; for 
second offence, two months in the work-houee." 

" Sec. 11. When any free negro shall desire to change his residence from one part of the 
city to another, he shall make known such intention to the register, and produce his license, 
on which the register shall endorse such int-euded residence and record the same." 

" Sec. lo. It shall be lawful for any person, at any time, to demand to see the license of any 
free negro or mulatto, and if within 24 hours he shall not produce such licence, or an official 
copy thereof, such negro may, in the discretion of any justice of the peace, be fined in any 
sum not exceeding $5." 

The determination to prevent, if possible, the increase of the free colored population from 
Avithout is shown in section 7, which enacted that "all free negroes coming to Washington 
to reside should not only be subject to all the provisions, terms, and conditions applicable to 
such persons already residents, but the bond to be given by them shall be in the penalty of 
five hundred dollars, with two good and responsible free white citizens as sureties.''^ 

Under this ordinance of 1821 the provisions relating to " holding dances, balls, or assem- 
blies," and "all nightly and disorderly meetings of free negroes," were made more strin- 
gent, the penalty being extended to every one present at such gatherings, and for the second 
offence the " license to reside in the city" was forfeited. 

The colored people humbly and dutifully rendered obedience to these oppressive enact- 
ments, which stood unchanged for the ensuing half a dozen years. On the 31 st of May, 
1827, an ordinance was enacted which contained all the cruelties embraced in the legislation 
of the previous quarter of a century, but devised and established additional ones. 

The penalty affixed to " idle, disorderly, or tumultuous assemblages," was, in the case of 
f;ee negroes and mulattoes, the same as in the law of 1812, viz., fine of $20; but failure to 
pay the fine was punished with six months in the work-house, in the place of 90 days, and 
sureties required to be given for good behavior. For a slave the penalty was increased 
from 20 to " 39 stripes on the bare back;'' the option, however, being given him "to have 
the whipping commuted for the payment of the fine which would be imposed in such cases 
on free persons of color." This last provision is a notable one, and reveals a dawning con- 
viction, on the part of the law-makers, of the barbarism of the slave code. 

The fine of $20 affixed, in 1812, as the penalty for free negroes and mulattoes for "having" 
a dance, ball, or assembly," was reduced to $10; but the penalty for non-payment was 
extended from 90 days in the work-house to six months ; for a slave the number of stripes 
was increased from 10 to 39, and commutation of punishment as above was allowed. 

A similar change was made in the ordinance prohibiting the "going at large after 10 
o'clock at night without a permit," viz : the fine reduced from $20 to $10, and work-house 



* IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 315 

time doubled ; but the penalty in case of a slave remained unchanged, it being 31) stripes in 
1812 as well as 1827. 

The ordinance relating to "having a dance, ball, or assembly," required a permit from 
the mayor, in which must be mentiond the place, time of meeting, number of guests, and 
hour of breaking up ; and a violation of any one of the conditions embodied in the permit 
exposed the offending party to the full penalty. 

In the ordinance of 1827 the provisions touching the registry and "residence license" 
were not essentially different from those of 1821, except in the penalty. Failure to pay the 
fine imposed lor not complying with the provisions necessary to a license was made punish- 
able with six months in the work-house, instead of three ; and in the case of new comers 
who failed to present the required two "freehold sureties in the penalty of Jive hundred dollars 
for his good and orderly conduct," no fine was imposed, but they were "to depart the city 
forthwith," or be sent to the work-house for twelve months instead of three. 

In 1829 an ordinance was passed containing the provision that colored persons should not 
frequent the Capitol square, the penalty being a fine not exceeding $20, or 30 days in the 
work-house. This enactment was peculiarly oppressive, because it was so tot'illy destitute 
of decent pretext. Its operation is illustrated in the case of Alexander Hays, the colored 
schoolmaster and teacher of music. He had a great anxiety to hear the music of the marine 
band in the Capitol grounds, and venturing, with a colored friend, to step a few yards inside 
the gate, was seized violently by a brutal officer upon the grounds, led at arm's length to 
the gate, and, with a thrust, directed to " be off." In the same year, 18^9, the same man 
Eittempted to gvt near enough on the occasion ta hear General Taylor, at the inauguration 
services. He crept up under the steps in a concealed place, and when General Taylor was 
about taking the oath was again grasped by the rough hand of a policeman, and dragged 
like a dog through the crowd and bid "begone," These incidents are given on the author- 
ity of Mr. Hays, who is known in this city as an upright and useful man. 

These enactments, however, did not grind these poor people to the entire satisfaction of 
their torturers, for nine years later some of the exactions were greatly increased, and even 
doubled. In an ordinance supplementary to that of 1827, dated October 29, 183i), the climax 
of infamous legislation was reached. The following selections from the act contain the 
leading features : 

" Section 1. Every free negro or mulatto, whether male or female, and every colored per- 
son who may be manumitted or made free in any manner, shall forthwith exhibit to the 
mayor satisfactory evidence of his or her title to freedom, and shall enter into bond, with^ce 
good and sufficient freehold sureties, in the penalty of one thousand dollars, conditioned for 
his or her good and orderly conduct, and that of every member of his or her family, and 
that they, or either of them, do not become chargeable to this corporation, which bond shall 
be renewed every year ; and on failure to comply with the provisions of this section, shall 
pay a sum not excei-diug twenty dollars, and shall be ordered by the mayor to depart /orZ/i- 
xcith from the city, and on failure to do so shall be committed to the work-house until such 
conditions shall be complied with, not exceeding six mouths." 

" Sec. 3. It shall not he lawful for the mayor to grant a license for any purpose v.'hatso- 
ever to any free negro or mulatto, or to any person acting as agent or in behalf of any free 
negro or mulatto, except licenses to drive carls, drays, hackney carriages, or wagons ; nor 
shall it be lawful to grant a license /or any purpose whatsoever to any free negro or mulatto 
who shall not, before the passage of this act, be a resident of this city, and be registered as 
such. 

"Sec. 4. Nor shall anj- free negro or mulatto, nor any person acting for any free negro 
or mulatto, keep any tavern, ordinary, shop, porter-cellar, refectory, or eating-house of any 
kind, ibr profit or gain," &c., the penalty affixed being a fine of ticenty dollars. 

"Sec !). All secret or private meetings or assemblies whatsoever, and all meetings for 
religious worship beyond the hour of lU o'clock at night, of free negroes, mulattoes, or 
slaves, shall be unlawful; and any colored person found at such unlawful assemblages or 
itieetings, or who mayconiiuue at any religious meeting after lU o'clock at night, shall pay 
the sum oi Jive didlars; and, in the event of any such meeting or assemblage, it shall be the 
duty cf any police constable to use and employ all lawful and necessary means immediately 
to disperse the same, and in case any police constable, after full notice and knowledge of 
such meetings, shall neglect or refuse to execute the duty hereby enjoined, he shall pay the 
sum of Jifiy dollars.'^ 

But in spite of this latter provision the policemen were not unfrequently bought off, and 
many a colored resident can witness to having paid and seen paid sundry dollars and larger 



316 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION* 

sums to sundry policemen, when returning home, a few minutes after 10 o'cloct, from an 
evening meeting or party — an hour when those officials were sure to be awake and on time. 
These perquisites were, quite probably, of more value than the fees for whipping. 

There is also a most interesting petition in the files of the city councils illustrating the 
bearing of this particular feature of this inhuman legislation in Washington. 

In 1833 Joseph Jefferson, the illustrious comedian and the father of the eminent living 
comedian of that name, was, in connection with another gentleman, the lessee of the Wash- 
ington Theatre, and all the citizens of Washington, who remember that day and appreciiite 
what is greatest in the dramatic art, liave vivid and delightful recollections of that theatre. 
On the ll'ith day of July, 1833, Jeft'drson and Mackenzie, as the lessees, addressed the foUow- 
iag appeal to the city councils : 

"Dear Sir: Permit us to tdko the liberty of representing to you a burden that oppresses 
us most heavily, and of requesting your kind endeavors so to represent the case before the 
mayor and council that we may obtain all the relief that it is in their power to grant. 

" You must be aware that we pay nightly to the city a tax of $6 for permission to per- 
form in the theatre; in the year 1832 this amounted to nearly $1,400 in the aggregate; we 
pay this tax cheerfully, and all we ask in return is a liberal protection and support from the 
city authorities. 

"There is at present a law in force which authorizes the constables of the citj'- to arrest 
the colored people if on the street after 9 o'clock without a pass. A great proportion of our 
audience consists of persons of this caste, and they are consequently deterred from giving 
us that support that they would otherwise do. 

•'Can there be any modification of that law suggested, or will the mayor and council 
authorize us to give passes to those colored persons who leave the theatre for the purpose ot 
proceeding directly to their homes? 

"In the city of Baltimore, where we haTO a theatre, and pay a sm%,ller license than we do 
here, the law, as regards the colored people, is not acted upon when they are coming or 
going to the theatre. 

"In a pecuniary point of view, we look upon this law as a detriment to us of .§10 nightly, 
and we have great reason to hope that a law that rests so heavily upon us alone may meet 
■with the kind consideration of the mayor and council, and be so modified as to relieve us 
from the heavy loss that it causes us at present to incur. 

"We have the honor to be, dear sir, your obedient servants, 

"JEFFERSON & MACKENZIE, 
'^ Managers of the Washington Theatre." 

From 1838 there was no further legislation of consequence upon this subject for 14 years. 
On the 13th of December, 1850, the infamous requirement of the bond demanding "Jive 
good and sufficient freehold sureties in the penalty ti/"! 1,000," in the ordinance of 1836, had 
been so thoroughly exposed in its odiousness that a relaxation of its unexampled rigor was 
enacted, by which " one good and sufficient freehold surety " in the penalty of $50 only was 
demanded. It v/as, liov/ever,, demanded that every head of a family should give "a like 
bond and surety for each and every member of his or her family between the ages of 12 and 
21 years." This tenderness, however, was more than neutralized in section third of the 
same act, which required, after its passage, that every free negro or mulatto, whether male 
or female, within five days after arriving in the city, and on the tenth day of December there- 
after annually, to "record his or her name and the names of every member of his or her 
family on the books of this corporation, and at the same time pay for himself, herself, and 
every member of his or her family the sum of fifty dollars, upon which registration and 
payment the mayor is authorized to grant a permit of residence; and' on failure to comply 
with the provisions of this section shall pay a sum not less than ten dollars nor exceeding 
twenty dollars, and shall be ordered to depart forthwith from this city." 

These enactments as a general rule were inexorably enforced. Especially was this the case 
while the ordinances gave to the police officers — "the hounds," as they were called by the 
poor victims whom they hunted down — one-half the fine for their detestable work. The 
councils seem also to have been perpetually vigilant, re-enacting almost every year some 
resolution looking to the enforcement of the requirements portaiuiug to the bond. As an 
illustration of this official fidelity the case of Mr. William Syphax, now chairman of tho 
board of trustees of colored schools, is in point. After a residence in the city for 12 years, 
with a character as unblemished as that of any man in the District, he was sutnmoned in 
1847 before a magistrate by one of these vigilant "hounds," and, as a non-resident, fmed 



# IN EESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 317 

$10 and compelled to enter into the bond under the law of 183G, " with five good and sufifi- 
cient freehold sureties in the penalty of $l,OUO." Mr. Seaton, editor of the National Intel- 
ligencer, was one of his bondsmen. 

There is a curious and significant commentary on this legislation to be found in the files 
of the corporation of Washington. In 1839 this restriction began to make labor scarce in 
the city — returning with its atrocities to plague the inventors. A petition was therefore sent 
to the city councils, signed by some hundred of the prominent business men of the city, 
Avho were wont to employ colored labor, setting forth that the colored people of the city 
who had given their thousand-duUnr bond had apparently combined to control the pi ice 
of labor by informing on all colored laborers who came into the city without giving bonds, 
thus preventing competition. The petition prays, therefore, that the law may be modified ; 
not that the grasp of the brutal policemen may be removed from their humble, inoffensive 
victims, but that the white capitalists of 'the city may have power to grind them the more 
effectually in tlich- wages, which at best was but a pittance. The names upon this petition, 
if inserted in this connection, would make many living men ashamed. 

One of the most oppressive of the restraints introduced into the ordinance of 183G was 
that which proliibited the mayor from issuing a license to a free negro or mulatto to do any 
business except "to drive carts, drays, hackney carriages, or wagons," and expressly for- 
bidding iiny license to an agent of any colored person. 

The prohibition of "all secret or private meetings or assemblages whatsoever" beyond 
the hour of 10 o'clock p. m. was peculiarly oppressive and also inhuman, because directed 
against the various charitable and self-improving associations, including the Masonic, Odd- 
Fellow, and Sons of Temperance brotherhoods which the colored people had organized, and 
the meetings of which, to be dispersed before 10 o'clock, could be of but comparatively little 
benefit to the members These societies in those years were more or less educational in 
character, and an important means of self-improvement to these inoffensive people, and those 
who made enactments were fully sensible of that fact. These restrictions were, moreover, 
rigorously enforced, and it was but a few years before the war that a company of the most 
1 cspectabie colored men of the District, on their return from the Masonic lodge a few minutes 
of 10 o'clock, were seized by the scrupulous police, retained at the watch-liouse till morning, 
and fined. 

The prohibition forbidding a colored person to be abroad after 10 o'clock at night without a 
pass, under a penalty of "a fine, "confinement to hard labor," or "stripes upon the bare back," 
well laid on," must at a glance impress every candid mind with surprise, and yet Id is only 
upon considerate reflection that its atrociousness is revealed. A poor colored man finds a 
member of his family in a dying condition at midnight, and on his way for a doctor is seized 
bj' a wretch in the garb of a policeman, carried to a watch-house, and, without friends or 
money, is sent next day-^o the work-house. A colored man has a store containing a heavy 
stock of goods ; it takes fire in the night, and his sons start for the rescue of their property, 
are seized by a relentless officer, and held, as in the other case, till morning at police head- 
quarters. These are not imaginary cases, and yet this was a mild restraint compared with 
many others found in the corporation ordinances of all three cities. 

It will, however, be seen that the ordinances of Washington were less stringent in their 
restraints upon the assembling of colored people than those of Alexandria and Georgetown, 
and that they were less severe in Alexandria while that city was in the District than in 
Georgetown. This is peculiarly surprising from the fact that while the laws of Virginia 
were absolutely prohibitory of education to every class of its colored population, the statutes 
cf Maryland contain not a word of positive prohibition even against teaching slaves. 

THE DISENTIIRALMENT. 

Thus stood this barbarous, execrable system of tyrannical legislation in the District when 
the Moloch of slavery marshalled its forces to overthrow the best governnicnt that human 
wisdom had ever devised.'' Under the operation of these hateful and inhuman enactments 
the liberty of a free colored person was but a delusion. "A free colored or mulatto person" 
was jiot a free individual, neither in the spirit nor in the phraseology of this legislation, and 



318 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATIO% 

the change which the mere abolition of shivery in the District wrought in the condition of 
the bondmen v/as scarcely less than an aggravation of their jniseries, while to those who were 
not slaves it brought no relief at all. General Henry Wilson, of Massachusetts, who had 
carefully studied the history of this vile legislation, and with pain and indignant emotions 
witnessed the deplorable condition of its victims, v/as the foremost to engage in the work of 
emancipation. The earliest movement looking to the repealing and annulling of the black 
codes of the District after the rebellion opened was the introduction into the Senate, by Mr. 
Wilson, of a resolution "that all laws in force relating to the arrest of fugitives from service, 
and nil laws concerning persons of color within the District, be referred to the Committee on 
the District of Columbia, and that the committee be instructed to consider the expediency of 
flboli.shiug slavery in the District." The chairman of the committee was Mr. Grimes. On 
the ICih of December, 18S1, twelve days after this resolution was offered, Mr. Wilson, 
apparently impatient with the delay of the committee, introduced a bill to abolish slavery in 
the District, and on the 24th of February, 1832, brought in a bill to abrogate and annul the 
black codes, which he very appropriately affirmed to be only a measure following up the bill 
abolishing slavery in the District. 

When these two measures were under discussion in the Senate, in March, 1862, General 
Wilson, on the 25th of that month, addressed that body in an elaborate and powerful speech 
in their favor, revievfing the black codes with indignant and impressive eloquence. After 
declaring that these infamous codes had outraged the moral sense of the American people ; 
that the fame of the nation had been soiled and dimmed by the deeds of cruelty perpetrated 
in the interests of slavery in its capital, he breaks forth in language forcible, feehng, and 
ji;ct, as follows: 

•'In what age of the world, in what land under the whole heavens, can you find any 
enactment of equal atrocity to this iniquitous and profligate statute; this legal presumption 
that color is evidence that a man made in the image of God is an absconding slave? This 
monstrous doctrine, a,bhorrt;nt to every manly impulse of the heart, to every Christian sen- 
timent of the soul, to every deduction of human reason, which the refined and Christian 
people of America have upheld for two generations, which the corporation of Washington 
enacted into an imperative ordinance, has borne its legitimate fruits of injustice and inhu- 
manity, of dishonor and .'shame." In relation to the fact that "the oath of the black man 
afforded no protection whatever to his property, to the fruits of his toil, to the personal rights 
of himself, his wife, his children, or his race,'' he said: "Althougli the black man is thus 
mute and dumb before the judicial tribunals of the capital of Christian America, his wrongs 
we have not righted here will go up to a higher tribunal, where the oath of the proscribed 
negro is heard, and his story registered by the pen of the recording angel. * -^ * These 
colonial statutes of Maryland, reaffirmed by Congress in 1801; these ordinances of Wash- 
ington and Georgetown, sanctioned in advance by the authority ot the federal government, 
stand this day unrepealed. Such laws and ordinances should not be permitted longer to 
insult the reason, pervert the moral sense, or oJfend the taste of the people of America. Any 
people mindful of the decencies of life would not longer permit such enactments to linger 
before the eye of civilized man." 

The denunciation of these measures by members who had been familiar with slavery all 
their lives was exceedingly violent, and to the coarse exclam.ation of one of these senators, 
"Why do you not go out into this city and hunt up the blackest, greasiest, fattest old 
negro wench you can find, and lead her to the altar of Hymen?'' Senator Harlan was 
provoked to reply in these words : 

"I regret very mucti that senators depart so far from the proprieties, as I consider it, of 
this chamber, as to make the allusions they do. It is done merely to stimulate a prejudice 
which exists against a race already trampled under foot. I refer to the allusions to white 
people embracing colored people as their brethren, and the invitations by senators to white 
i!;en and white women to marry colored people. Now, sir, if we \vere to descend into an 
investigation of the facts on that subject, it would bring the blush to the cheeks of some of 
these gentlemen. I once had occasion to direct the attention of the Senate to an illus- 
trious example from the State of the senator who inquired if 'any of us would marry a 



• IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 319 

grcas}' old wench.' It is history tluit an ilhistrions citizen of liis State, -vvlio once occupied 
officially the chair that you, sir, now sit in, lived notoriously and publicly with a negro 
wench, and raised children by her. * * « i refer to a {gentleman who held the secor.d 
office in the gift of the American people; and I never yet have heard a senator on this floor 
denounce the conduct and the association of that illustrious citizen of our country. I 
hiiow of a fanyly of colored or mulatto childieu— the children, too, of a gentleman who very 
recently occupied a seat on the other side of the chamber— who are now at school in Ohio; 
yes, sir, the children of a senator who very recently (not to exceed a year) occupied a seat 
on this floor, a senator from a slave State." 

The allusion in the first of these cases was to Richard M. Johnson, who, it is well known, 
brought a colored woman with him when he came here as senator from Kentucky. It is 
due Mr. Johnson to say tliat he acknowledged his children, educated them, and left them 
free. The senator from Delaware might also have been reminded of a decision made in 1S33 
by the highest legal tribunal of his State, declaring that a futhcr cannot hold his child as a 
slaic. "We ought not," says the court in Tindal vs. Hudson, (1838, 2d Harrington, 441,) 
'•to recognize the right of a father to hold his own children in slavery. Humanity forbids 
it. 'I he natural rights and obligations of a father are paramount to the acquired rights of 
the master." The second allusion made by Mr. Harlan was to Senator Hempiiill, of Texas, 
and the school referred to was the Wilberforce University, at Xenia, Ohio, founded by the 
Cincinnati conference of the Methodist Episcopal church "for the special benefit of colored 
youth;" but in 18(53 transfcired to the African Meihodist Episcopal church, and Bishop D. 
A. Payne made president. "While under the care of the Cincinnati coufeience it was 
suppoi ted," the annual report says, "mainly by southern slaveholders, who cctU their children 
there to be educated." The following brief statement was recently made by an officer of 
that institution: 

"Senator Hemphill came to Wilberforce University late in the autumn of IS,")!), having 
with him three children, a lad of about 18, and two girls, of about 12 and 10 years of age. 
The lad, who was evidently iiis son, he look to Washington. His two daughters, Theodora 
a d Heniietta, remained with us until 1862, when the pressure of the civil war constrained 
tl;e iiustees to suspend the operations of the institution, and tdcy went to Cincinnati, where 
Henrietta (the younger) cicd of ccnsuniptiou. Theodora was, at the lust time we heard of 
her, living in Cincinnati. The young ladies v.'cre both beautiful. Their complexion pro- 
claimed their mother to have been a black woman. She died before they were brought to 
Wilberforce. They were well supported by Senator Hemphill, who kept up his correspond- 
ence with them, both by letters and presents, till he left Washington ta perform his part in 
tiie drama of the rebellion. The last time we heard from their brother ho wrote to me from 
Calil'ornia touching the condition and wants of his sisters." 

The recital of the black laws of this Diotrict wiiich has been made in these pages fur- 
nishes ample reason for the solicitude which was manifested by "the slaves, free negroes, 
and mulatto persuns," when the above bills were under discussion, and when the bill 
abolishing slavery in the Distiict became a law, April IG, 1862, all classes of the colored 
people, bond and free, gave expression to their sense ( f gratitude by assembling in their 
chia-ches and ofi'eiing up homage to Gcd for the great deliverance; and when the black 
codes were, thirfy-fivc days subsequently, swept into the leceptacle of the wretched things 
that were, the feeling of relief and thankfulness was hardly less deep and universal. The 
mode in which this measure was accomplished was interesting. 

On the 2yth of April, 18G2, Mr. Giimes introduced into the Senate a bill providing for the 
education of coloied childieu in the city of Washington ; and on the 3Dth of the same month, 
when the subject was under discussion in the Senate, General Wilson moved to amend the 
bill by adding the following section: 

"Sec. 4. A7td be it further encclcd, That all persons of color in the District of Columbia, 
or in the corporate limits of the cities of Washington and Georgetown, shall be subject and 
amenable to the same laws and ordinances to which free white persons arc or may be subject 
or amenable; that they shall be tried for any offenc.-s agair.st the laws in the same manner 
as tree whites arc, or may bi; tried for the same ctfences ; and ihat upon being legally convicted 
of any ciin.e or oiience against any law or ordinance, such persons of coloi' shall be liable io 



320 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION* 

the same penalty or punishment, and no other, as would be imposed or inflicted upon free 
white persons for the same crime or offence; and all acts or parts of acts inconsistent with 
the provisions of this act are hereby repealed." 

The object of the bill, which was simply to secure to the colored people of the District 
the exclusive use of the tax levied upon their property, for the education of their children, 
failed, as has been seen in a previous part of this history, by reason of the fact that the 
municipal authorities, in whose hands the execution of the law was reposed, wfere hostile to its 
humane and just designs. This amendment, however, did its work promptly and effectually 
in all particulars. In support of his amendment, after alluding to the odious old laws of 
Maryland and of Washington and Georgetown, which were admitted by everybody to be 
very oppressive to the colored people, he said: "As we are now dealing with their educa- 
tional interests, I think we may as v/ell at the same time relieve them of these oppressive 
laws, and put them, so far as crime is concerned, and so far as offences against the laws are 
concerned, upon the same footing, and have them tried in the same manner and subject them 
to the same punishment as the rest of our people." The bill, as amended, passed the Ssnate 
May 9, and, reported by E. H. Eollins, of New Hampshire, from the House District Com- 
mittee, passed that body and received the approval of the President May 21, 1862, as already 
stated.- The colored people of this District, who are sensible of the great practical service 
which Mr. Wilson has in many ways done them here and in the country at large, have 
repeatedly, on public occasions, since this bill became a law, signified their profound grati 
tude for this release, by specially designating this measure in connection with the author's 
name. 

There was a singular fitness, as has been intimated, in the mode by which this great 
deliverance was consummated. It had been the chief and essential idea of all this odious 
and barbarous legislation to shut its unhappy victims out from every highway and by-way 
of learning, to put out the eye of the understanding, and to doom a whole race, made in the 
image of God and endowed with immortal longings for knowledge, to brutal and besotted 
ignorance. It was, therefore, a just and signal providence which made the very cause of 
education, against which these infamous enactments had been formed, the avenging instru- 
ment in the destruction of the accursed system. The circumstance that this was the first 
measure for the education of the colored race over enacted by Congress renders this provi- 
dential coincidence still more striking. 

Negro testimony. — The original bill for the abolition of slavery, which, introduced into the 
Senate December 16, ISGI, became a law May IG, 1862, contained a provision securing to 
the person claimed to owe service or labor the right to testify before the commissioners who 
were to be appointed under the lav. This provision was expanded by an amendment incor- 
porated into the bill on motion of Mr. Sumner, April 3, 1862, which empowered the commis- 
sioners to take testimony " without the exclusion of witnesses on account of color;" "to assess 
the sum to be paid for each slave claimed to owe service or labor ; to examine and take the 
testimony, in the pending cases, of colored tcitncsscs, free or slave.''' These were the initial 
steps which resulted, in July following, in the full recognition of the rights of the colored 
people in the matter of their testimony before the legal tribunals of the District. On the 7th 
of Julj' Senator Wilson's supplementary bill for the release of certain persons held to labor 
or service in the District of Columbia was passed, and approved on the 12th, having been 
amended, on motion of Mr. Sumner, by adding as a new section : " That in all judicial pro- 
ceedings in the District of Columbia there shall he no exclusion of any loitness on account of color.'" 
This just measure was followed up by Mr. Sumner, who, on the 25th of June, 1864, moved 
an amendment to the civil appropriation bill, by adding "that iu the courts of the United 
States there shall be no exclusion of any witness on account of color." On the 2d of July, 
1834) this bill, thus amended, became a law, and since then no distinction on account of 
color has been recognized in the federal courts. It remains for the just people of the Ameri- 
can nation, by constitutional amendment, to extend this principle to every State tribunal of 
the land. 

Paghts of colored people in the cars.— Mr. Sumner persistently followed up his efforts to 
secure to the colored people the privileges in the District which reason and humanity alike 



IN KESPECT TO SCHOOLS AXD EDUCATION. 321 

ilictatcd as their due. In the Senate, Febrnary 27, 18fi3, on his motion, an amendment to 
the House bill to extend the charter of the Washington and Alexandria Railroad Company 
was added, providing " that no person shall be excluded from the cars on account of color," 
and this became a law March 3, 18(53. On the 16th of March, 1864, Mr. Sumner moved an 
amendment to the bill, then before the Senate, incorporating the Metropolitan Railroad Com- 
pany : " That there shall be no regulation excluding any persons from any car on account of 
color," and this bill, with the amendment, was passed and approved July 1, 18C4. 

But the Washington and Georgetown railroad was not yet reached. This road was char- 
tered May 17, 1862, and not being able to exclude colored people from the cars, had set aside 
certain cars, so designated by a sign on the outside, for such persons. It was in one of these 
placarded cars that the writer had the pleasure, in the autumn of 1863, of seeing Charles 
Sumner and Henry W. Longfellow riding up the avenue. In June, 1864, a bill being before 
the Senate to amend the bill incorporating the above-named railroad, Mr. Sumner moved to 
add a provision corresponding to the one in the original charter of the Metropolitan railroad, 
viz: "That there shall be no exclusion of any person from any car on account of color." 
The amendment was carried in the Senate June 21 by the close vote of 17 to 16, but was lost 
in the controversy between the two branches of Congress; but February 4, 1865, a similar 
provision, though of still wider application, was moved by Mr. Sumner in committee of the 
whole as a separate section, to be added to a bill amendatory of the charter of the Metropolitan 
railroad. The motion was lost, 20 to 19. The bill, with certain other amendments, was 
then passed, and thus coming before the Senate, Mr. Sumner, with his wonted promptness 
and parliamentary skill, renewed his niDtion, and two days after the vote was reached and 
the amendment adopted— yeas 26, noes 10. The section reads as follows, and went into effect 
March 3, 1865: 

" Sec. 5. And be it further enndeti, That the provision prohibiting any exclusion from any 
car on account of color, already applicable to the Metropolitan railroad, is hereby extended 
to every other railroad in the District of Columbia." Approved Marcti 3, 186.'). 

These amendiiionts produced animated debates in both houses, espt^cially whtm before them 
March 17, lfe64. Mr. Saulsbury, Mr. Powell, Mr. Hendricks, and Mr. Willey, in the Senate, 
being very determined and bitter in their opposition, while Mr. Sumner, Mr. Wilson, Mr. 
Morrill, of Maine, and Mr. Grimes supported them with rare force of argument. Mr. Mor- 
rill's speech was elaborate in discussion and eloquent in language. Mr. Eeverdy Johnson, 
like Mr. Trumbull and some others, though in favor of the object of the amendment, at first 
voted against it as unnecessarj-, maintaining in a speech of much power the right of a colored 
person, under the legal guarantees already secured, to ride in any railroad car in the District, 
and in that speech he also replied to Senator Saulsbury in a defence of the colored race in 
character and mental ability. He finally gave his vote for the amendment. Mr. Conness, 
of California, also objected to the provision as unnecessary, it beiug included, as he said, in 
a bill already before the Senate. Mr. Sumner replied, " I am in favor of getting what I can 
as soon as I can, and not postponing to an indefinite future." 

Colored mail cariiers. — The law prohibiting persons of color from carrying the mails was 
passed and approved March 3, 1825, and, as Mr. Wickliife stated iu the discussion on the 
motion for its repeal, "was originally enacted to exclude some men in the south who were 
in the habit of obtaining mail contracts and employing their negroes to drive their stages and 
carry the mails." The act reads as follows: 

"That no other than a free white person shall be employed in conveying the mail, and any 
contractor who shall employ or permit any other than a free white man to convey the mail 
shall for every offence incur a penalty of $20." 

The following facts as to the origin of this offensive legislation make the subject appro- 
priate to this history. When Gideon Granger was Postmaster General, in 1802, he wrote a 
letter to James Jackson, senator from Georgia, iu which, after stating that "an objection 
exists against employing negroes or people of color iu trauspoiting the public mails of a 
nature too delicate to engraft into a report which may become public," he proceeds to explain 
as follows : 

"The most active and intelligent negroes are employed as post riders. These are the 
21 



322 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

most ready to leavn and tlie most able to execate. By travelliiig' from day to Hay and lioiirly 
mixing they must, they will, acquire information. They icill learn that a man's rwhJs do nut 
depend on his color. They will in time become teachers to their brethren. They become 
acquainted with each other on the line. Whenever the body or a portion of them wish to act 
they are an organized corps., circulating our intelligence openly, their own privately." 

The words placed in italics assert ii. fact which it was the purpose of every black law and 
ordinance to subvert, the law under consideration being peculiarly of that nature. On the 
JSth of March, ]862, Mr. Sumner introduced a bill in the Senate providing " that from and 
after its passage no person by reason of color should be disqualified from employment in car- 
rying the mails." It was referred to the Committee on Post Offices and Post Eoads, and on 
March 27, lb62, it was reported back by Mr. Collamer without amendment, passing the 
Senate April 10 by a very large majority, but was defeated in the House by an equally 
decided vote. Mr. Colfax, May 20, 1862, reported it from the House Post Of&ce Committee, 
with the recommendation that it do not pass. In assigning reasons for the action of the 
committee, he said: "It will throw open the business of mail contracting, and of thus 
becoming officers of the Post Office Department, not only to blacks, but also to the Indian 
tribes, civilized and uncivilized, and to the Chinese, who have come in such large numbers 
to the Pacific coast." 

This argument, the best that could be urged, was sufficient — astonishing now to contem- 
plate — to carry the House two to one against the bill. On the 18th of January, 1864, how- 
ever, Mr. Sumner again introduced the subject to the Senate, and Mr. Collamer reported the 
old bill with an amendment, providing " that in the courts of the United States there shall 
be no exclusion of any icitness on account of color, it being necessary for the protection of 
the mail service that all mail carriers should be allowed to testify in the federal courts. The 
bill met with bitter opposition from the pro-slavery party, opposed also by some of the true 
friends of freedom, but passed and was approved March 3, 1865, and henceforth color is no 
disqualification in carrying the malls. 

To secure, still more thoroughly, to the colored population of the District full political 
rights, the present Congress passed the following act, which was approved by President 
Grant March 18, 1869: 

AN ACT for the further security of equal rights in the District of Columbia. 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in 
Congress assembled, That the word "white," wherever it occurs in the laws relating to the 
District of Colnmbia, or in the charterx)r ordinances of the cities of Washington oi George- 
town, and operates as a limitation on the right of any elector of such District, or of either of 
the cities, to hold any office or to be selected and to serve as a juror, be, and the same is 
hereby, repealed, and it shall be unlawful for any person or officer to enforce or attempt to 
enforce such limitation alter the passage of this act. 

This bill had twice before passed both houses, first in July, 1867, and again in December 
of the same year ; but in both cases failed to receive President Johnson's signature. 

Thus was consummated by bold and faithful statesmen the series of measures Avhich 
have cleared away the manifold disabilities and execrable exactions of the black codes 
that for more than sixty years had, disgraced this District and shed infamy upon the whole 
country. 



IX RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 323 

ALABAMA. 

With the exception of a small portion of her territory, which belonjijecl to Florida, Alabama 
^vas originally within the jurisdiction of Georgia, but became a part of the territory of 
Mississippi in 1800, and an independent State in 1620, her constitution haviug been adopted 
in 1810, by the pro%'isious of which tlie privileges of citizenship and education were confined to 
the white population only. Prior to the organization of the State government, the territorial 
legislation of Mississippi respecting the unlawful meeting of slaves, and trading with or by 
them, included Alabama. 

There was little State legislation relating to the colored people previous to the act of 1832, 
which provided that "Any person or persons who shall attempt to teach any free person 
of color or slave to spell, read, or write, shall, upon conviction thereof by indictment, be 
fined in a sum not less than $230, nor more than $500." This act also prohibited with 
severe penalties, by flogging, "any free negro or nerson of color" from being in company 
with any slaves without written permission from the owner or overseer of such slaves ; it 
also prohibited the assembling of more than live male slaves at any place off the plantation to 
which they belonged ; but nothing in the act was to be considered as forbidding attendance 
at places of public worship held by white persons. No slave or free person of color was 
permitted to "preach, exhort, or harangue any slave or slaves or free persons of color, except 
iu the presence of fiverespectable slave-holders," or unless the person preaching was licensed 
by some regular body of professing Christians in the neighborhood, to whose society or 
church the negroes addressed properly belonged. 

In 1833, the mayor and aldermen of the city of Mobile were authorized by law to grant 
licenses to such persons as they might deem suitable, to instruct for limited periods the free 
colored creoie children within the city and in the counties of Mobile and Baldwin, who 
were the descendants of colored Creoles residing in said city and counties in April 
1803; provided, that said children first received permission to be taught from the mayor and 
aldermen, and had their names recorded in a book kept for that purpose. This was done, 
as set forth in the preamble to the law, because there were many colored Creoles there whose 
ancestors, under the treaty between France and the United States, in 1803, had the rio-hts 
and privileges of citizens of the United States secured to them; and because these Creoles 
had conducted with uniform propriety, and were anxious that their children should bo 
educated. 

The constitution adopted September 30, 18C5, provides that the general assembly shall, 
from tiuie to time, make necessary and proper laws for the encouragement of schools and 
education ; take proper measures to prcEcrve from waste or damage any lands granted by 
the United States for the use of schools, and apply the funds derived from them to that 
object ; place the school fund under the control and management of a superintendent of 
education, requiring such a superint(:ndent to be appointed for the whole State; provide for 
a county superintendent of free public schools in each county, and for the appointment ot 
three trustees of free public schools in each township. 

In accordance with the provisions of the constitution, the revised code, adopted February 
19, 18G7, provides that " every child botvvcan the ages of six and twenty years shall be 
entitled to admission into and instruction in any of the free public schools of the township in 
which he or she resides, or to any school in any adjacent township." Color is not men- 
tioned in the chapter relating to the public school system. 

SCHOOLS FOU THE FREEDMEN SIN'CE J 864. 

Under the auspices of the assistant commissioner for the Freedmen's Bureau, for the Stato 
of Alabania, (General Swayue,) a great amount of local good feeling was enlisted in that 
Stato towards establishing schools for the colored population. School buildings were pro- 
vided and kept in repair at the expense of the Freedmen's Bureau. By a bill introduced into 
the legislature in 18G7, to establish a common school ^ystem, it was provided that the 
board of directors of each township iu the State should " establish separate schools for the 



324, LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

education of negvo and mulatto children, and persons of African descent between the ages of 
six and twenty-one years, whenever as many as thirty pupils in sufficient proximity for 
school purposes claim the privilege of public instruction, and the fund for that purpose is 
sufficient to support a school for four months in the year." This movement, on the part of the 
citizens and legislature of Alabama, Avas seconded by northern societies, and schools were 
opened particularly at Mobile, Montgonery, Huntsvilleand other places, in the northern part 
of the State. Among the societies thus giving aid may be mentioned the American Missionary 
Association, the Freedinen's Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, and- the Ameri- 
can Freedmen's Union Commission, operating through its Pennsylvania, Cleveland, western 
and northwestern branches, the latter of which had 11 teachers in its employment in 1866. 
In order to train their beneficiaries up to a system of self-reliance and support, all of these 
schools in Alabama, while closing their doors to none, enforced the principle of requiring a 
small tuition fee from such as might be able to pay. 

In this educational work the importa!)»t duty of providing far the training of teachers has 
, not been overlooked, and two normal schools have been established, one at Talladega and 
the other at Mobile. 

THE TALLADEGA NORMAL SCHOOL. 

This institution was opened m 1837, commencing its first session with 140 pupils, under 
the superintendence of Rev. H. E. Brown. By the aid of the government, a fine piece of 
property was procurred, consisting of 34 acres of land and a handsome three-story brick 
building, 100 feet long by 60 feet in width. This building was erected before the war for 
college purposes, at a cost of $23,000. 

EMERSON INSTITUTE AT MOBILE. 

The Emerson Institute is the name of the other school, which occupies a large brick 
edifice, with four acres of land, fronting upon Government street, in Mobile. This property- 
was procured by the aid of the Freedmen's Bureau and the liberality of two gentlemen of 
Kockford, Illinois, in compliment to one of whom it received its name. The property was 
formerly the seat of the " Blue College," and is estimated to be worth more than $60,000. 
The institute is now conducted by a corps of able instructors, having under their charge 
more than 500 pupils, in rooms amply supplied with furniture of approved modern construc- 
tion, and with a complete equipment of chemical and philosophical apparatus. 

^ SWAYNE SCHOOL. 

The Swayne school. Montgomery, so named in honor of General Svvayne, w^as erected 
under the auspices of the American Missio-nary Association, and was dedicated April 21, 
18S9. This is a handsome edifice, three-stories in height, built by Henry Duncan in a 
thorough and workmanlike manner, and provided with convenient and ample means for 
ventilatidn by Isaac Frazier, both of whom are skillful colored mechanics. There are six 
recitation rooms, with modern seats, desks, and blackboards; and by the liberality of 
friends at the north an ample supply of outline map-!, tablets, and other educational appli- 
ances have been provided, as well as an organ, costing |-200. Here, in this neat and com- 
fortable edifice the freed children of Montgomery find an agreeable change fiom " Fritz & 
Frazer's Trade House," where, within a few years past, they conned their lessons; or in 
:arlior and .darker days many of them may have been put up as merchandise for sale. 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 



325 



The following tables, compiled by Professor Yashou, exhibits the progress and couditiou 
of the schools for the colored population ia Alabama from 1865 to 1863 : 

Number of schools, teachers, and scholars, 1865 to 1863. 





Xumber of schools. 


Number of teachers. 


Number of scholars. 


-a 

a 

"S 

Is 

< 




Year. 


a 


.a 
be 


"a 
o 


o 
la 


S 


o 


.2 
"3 


"a 

a 


"3 

o 


a 


1865 




13 

28 
175 
84 






15 
31 

1.50 
109 






817 
3,338 
9,799 
4,315 






1866 












3,065 
8,123 
3,297 


HI 


ieC7 


122 53 

62 55! 


126 

77 


24 
32 


4,373 
2,055 


5,42G 
2,260 


82 


1868 


76 















Studies and expenditures, 1867 and 18/38. 





Number of scholars iu different studies pursued. 


Expenditures in support 
of schools. 


Year. 


J3 


tJ3 




ti 


>> 

"E 

be 


S 

rf3 


'Z a 


p 

a 

'a 
1 


5 










































>-, 


>i 


o 




< 


H 


< 


^ 


O 


<; 


K 


n 


W 


H 


1867 


3,390 
519 


4,385 2,314 
2, 873 2. 202 


3,4i7 

1,698 


1 782 


2 888 


813 


$2, 974 
4,207 


§14 801 


$17,775 
8 889 


1868 


1,197 


1,861 


390 


4, 682 











ARKANSAS. 



The province ceded by France in 1803, under the general designation of Louisiana, was in 
in 1804 organized by Congress into two parts — the Territory of Orleans and the district of 
Louisiana. The latter embraced the country out of which was constituted in 1805 the Ter- 
ritory of Louisiana, which was again reorganized in 1812 into the Territory of Missouri, 
the southern part of which erected into a distinct jurisdiction as Arkansas Territory in 1819, 
and as a State in 1836, and another portion into the State of Missouri in 1821. The laws 
governing the colored population were nearly the same in both States. The first statute 
relating to them was passed by the governor and judges of the district of Indiana Territory 
in 1806, and provided that no slave should go from the plantation of his master, or other 
person witli whom he lived, without a pass, under penalty of "stripes at the discretion of 
the justice of the peace;" and if found on any other plantation without leave in writin"- 
from his owner, it was lawful for the owner or overseer "to give or order such slave 10 
lashes on his or her bare back for every such otfence." It forbid the master, uiistress or 
overseer to suffer meetings of f?laves alone for more than four hours at any one time, or to go 
abroad to trade, on penalty of $3 for each olfence. All trading with slaves or allowino- 
slaves to trade was furbidden under severe penalties. All assemblages of the slaves of dif- 
ferent estates in the night or on Sunday, except at the church ot white people, were for- 
bidden. 

The first act relating to slaves after Arkansas became a State was passed in 1833, in 
which their owners were authorized to permit slaves "to labor for themselves on Sunday,' if 
such labor is done voluntarily by such slaves and without the coercion of the master, and 
for the sole use of the slave." As this was the only day allowed for such religious instruc- 
tion as the slave could receive, this provision cannot be regarded as being beneficent. This 
act forbids any white persons, or free negro, being found in company of slaves at any unlaw- 
ful meeting, on severe penalty for each offense. In 1843 all migration of free negroes and 
mulattoes into the State was forbidden ; but no law is found on the statute book directly pro- 
hibiting teaching slaves or persons of African descent. 



326 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION 

In the constitution adopted in ]83o, all the privileges of citizenship were confined to the 
whites. In the constitution adopted in 18G4, it is provided that " neither slavery nor invol- 
untary servitude shall hereafter exist in this State," and " that no act of the legislatm-e pro- 
hibiting' the education of any class of the inhabitants thereof shall have the force of law." 
In the constitution adopted by the people of the State, March 13, IS63, the language of that 
instrument recognizes no distinction in citizenship ou account of color. The first section of 
article IX, relating to education, reads as follows : 

"A general diffusion of knowledge and intelligence among all classes being essential to 
the preservation of the rights and liberties of the people, the general assembly shall establish 
and maintain a system of free schools for the gratuitous instruction of all persons in this 
State between the ages of five and twenty-one years." * # * 

In the "Act to establish and maintain a system of free common schools for the State of Ar- 
kansas," approved July, 23, 1868, the State board of education, (composed of the State 
'and circuit superintendents) is directed "to make the necessary provisions for establishing 
separate schools for white and colored children and youth," and to adopt such other meas- 
ures as shall be deemed expedient for carrying the system into effectual and nniforra opera- 
tion, and provide as nearly as possible for the education of every youth. 

EDUCATION AND SCHOOLS FOR THE FREEDMEN SINCE 1864. 

For reasons that will be apparent from the remarks that follow, fewer schools for colored 
persons have been established in Arkansas since 18G4 than in any other of the formerly 
slave-holding States. Yet the educational work was commenced there while the war for the 
Union was still raging t and, from its commencement, it has been prosecuted in such a spirit 
as promises the most satisfactory results in the future. In the third year of the rebellion, 
several thousands of persons liberated by President Lincoln's proclamation of freedom had 
sought protection within the military lines of the government, and were congregated in 
camps at Helena, Pine Bluff, Little Rock, and other points within the limits of this State. 
Destitute of all the comforts and necessaries of life, they immediately aroused the sympathy 
of benevolent individuals throughout the northwestern portion of the country. Associa- 
tions for the relief of their physical wants were speedily formed ; but thase soon discovered 
that the mental and moral needs of these unhappy creatures were fully as pressing as their 
hunger and nakedness. To break through the barriers raised by legislation in the interest 
of the slave pov.'er, and carry food to those starving souls as well as to their bodies, was an 
evident duty. In its performance, schools were established at those different cam ps ; and 
self-denying men and women, braving the manifold perils of those unsettled times, willingly 
assumed their charge. Prominent among the philanthropists who labored in this section of 
the country were the Friends, constituting what is known as the Indiana Yearly Meeting. 
First to enter upon this Christian work, they have at no time since relaxed their generous 
exertions ; and they now have the satisfaction of seeing them rewarded by the establishment 
at Little Rock and elsewhere of several graded schools, which, in their appointments and in 
the improvement made by their pupils, will compare favorably with those of any other locali- 
ties. 

At the outset, these schools were, as might naturally be expected, very deficient in every- 
thing needful for the pleasant pursuit of learning. Within the rudely-constructed shanty 
which served as the school-room, the only books usually found were a few tattered primers, 
spelling-books, and Testaments, which had already done good service for other children in 
far happier circumstances. But for this dearth of facilities in the acquisition of knowledge 
the patient assiduity of teacher and the earnest application of pupils made ample amends ; 
so that, in spite of all obstacles, an astonishing progress in the piimary studies was a fre- 
quent, indeed an ordinary, result. It was not long, however, before the kindness of northern 
friends supplied the wants of those humble establishments ; and, by the time that these 
eager scholars were ready for the use of slates, maps, and appropriate books in the differ- 
ent branches of learning, these articles were fitrnished to them quite liberally. The number 
of these schools, too, was increased by a timely measure on the part of the government. In 
ts efforts to restore the industrial interests of the south, and to regulate the relations between 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 



327 



pmploj'cvs and the emancipated laborers, it established a system by wLicii abandoned plan- 
tations were leased out upon certain conditions, one of which required, for every lot of 500 
acres so kased, the employment of at least one teacher for the freedmen who cultivated 
them. 

The colored people thus benefited showed themselves deserving of the interest taken in 
their behalf by the willingness which they manifested to do everytlyug in their power for 
the support of these schools. Indeed it will be remembered to their credit that they estab- 
lished the first free schools that ever were in Arkansas. This they did at Little Rock, where, 
after paying tuition for a short time, they formed themselves into an educational association, 
paid by subscription the salaries of the teachers, and made their schools free. 

Notwithstanding (his willingness on the part of the freed people of Arkansas to co-operate 
with those desirous of educating them, (hat State has fared somewhat indifferently in the matter 
of schools, from the fact that it has no important commercial centers, and that, from a want 
of good roads, its interior is diflScult of access. These circumstances rendi-r it an uninviting- 
field for teachers. Still, quite a number of these have seconded the efforts made by theedu- 
cadonal officers of the Freedmen's Bureau to establish schools, and have cheerfully endured 
the dangers and fatigues of travel, in going even as far as the Red River coun(ry in the extreme 
southwestern part of the State, by almost impassable roads r.nd in the rudest conveyances, 
to enter upon their duties. The planters of Arkansas, too, have quite generally exhibited 
a commendable friendliness towards any movements touching the instruction of their laborino- 
Lands, by inviting the establishment of schools in their localities, and engaging to provide 
board and suitable accommodations for teachers v/ho might come among them. Lender these 
favorable circumstances, and through the aid of the congressional appropriation for buildin"- 
schools, nearly !ji30,0(;0 of which was allotted to Arkansas, quite an increased activity marked 
educational affairs there during 18(j7 and 1868. Thit; was in some measure checked by politi- 
cal disturbances, and by the privations incident to a succession of scanty harvests ; but it 
is to be hoped that with the prevalence of good order, and the return of prosperity, the 
schools for colored people in Arkansas will again begin to increase in number and to improve 
in condition. 

The following tables, prepared by Prof. Vashon, exhibit the progress of the schools from 
186G to 1868: 



Numhcr of schools, teachers, and scholars, 1833 to J 863. 





Nufciber of x 


ehools. 


Numb 


■'r of toacbers. 


Kumber of Bcholars. 


■3 




Year. 










,_• 








^ 




























a 




ri 


> 






S 


cz 




> 




lefifi 


"2.j i"'io' 


30 23 
3.J :j:i 


? 


28 
4) 






1,584 
1,(1!)2 


1,2:!) 
1,6Q5 




]eG7 


OfiO 


1, 042 


"'pi 


Ifelig 


22 i 5 


Ul 31 


12 


43 


715 


8Q2 


1,537 


l,2i5 


79 



Distribution of studies and expenditures. 





Number of scholar.s in difforcnt studies pursued. 


Expenilitures in. support 
of scliooln. 


Year. 


.5 


is 

t ! II 
^ 1 >2 

a 1 <'^ 


a 


"5, 


d 


6 
< 


3 







^• 


1PR7 


34 

201 


1,197 494 
811 1 573 


629 

787 


347 
38u 




$2, 987 
3,4!5 


$7, 982 
7, 232 


$in, 9no 
10, (;47 


18G8 


78.) 


ii'> 



328 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

CALIFORNIA. 

By ihe census of ISCO the population of California was 579,994, of which number 4,086 
■were free colored. 

In the constitution of California, adopted in 1849, prior to its admission into the Union as 
a State in IS.IO, the right of suffrage is limited to white male citizens, but the establishment 
of slavery or involuntary servitude, except for crime, is prohibited. 

In the revised school law, approved March 24, 1866, the following sections apply to colored 
children : 

Sec. 57. Children of African or Mongolian descent, and Indian children notliving under the 
care of white persons, shall not be admitted into public schools, except as provided iu this 
act : Provided, That, upon the written application of the parents or guardians of at least 
10 such children to any Ijoard of trustees or board of education, a sepaiate school shall be 
established for the education of such children, and the education of a less number may be 
provided for by the trustees in any other manner. 

Sec. 58. When there shall be in any district any number of children, other than white chil- 
dren, whose education can be provided for in no other way, the trustees, by a majoritj' vote, 
may permit such children to attend school for white children : Provided, That a majority of 
the parents of the children attending such school make no objection, in writing, to be filed 
with the board of trustees. 

Sec. 59. The same laws, rules, and regulations which apply to schools for white children 
shall apply to schools for colored children. 

The superintendent of public instruction, Hon. John Swett, in his annual report for 1867, 
reports as follows: 

Number of negro children in the State between 5 and 10 years of age 709 

Number of separate schools 16 

Number of pupils in attendance - 400 

" The people of the State are decidedly in favor of separate schools for colored children." 

CONNECTICUT. 

In 1860 the free colored population of Connecticut was 8,6.27, out of a total of 460,147 
inhabitants. 

The constitution of 1818 limits the privilege of the elector to white male citizens, but the 
public schools of the State have never been restricted to any class on account of color, 
although in the city of Hartford, in 1830, a separate school was established under legis- 
lative permission granted on application made by the school committee at the request of the 
colored people of the city. 

This example was followed in two or three towns, but the system of separate schools, 
under special legislation or the action of school committees, was broken up by the legisla- 
ture in 1868, and the old practice of "schools good enough for all" revived and established 
by law. 

The legislature in 1833, under the lead of a few influential m.en, passed a law which 
illustrated the extent to which the prejudices of the community could be enlisted against 
•■lie colored people, but this law was repealed in 1838, having accomplished its object in a 
manner no way creditable to the State. 

PRUDENCE CRAKDALL AND THE CANTERBUIIY SCHOOL. 

The following account of the efforts made by Miss Prudence Crandall, in the town of 
Canterbury, to establish a boarding and day school for young women of African descent, is 
abridged from the "Recollections of the Anti-Slaverj^ Conflict," by Rev. Samuel J. May : 

In the summer of 1832, Miss Prudence Crandall, an excellent, well-educated Quaker 
young lady, who had gained considerable reputation as a feuLhtr iu the neighboring town 
of Plainfield, purchased, at the solicitation of a number of families in the village of Can- 
terbury, Connecticut, a commodious house in that village, for the purpose of establishing a 
boarding and day school for young ladies, in order that they might receive instniction in 
higher branches than were taught iu the public district school. Her school was well con- 



liSr RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 329 

(luctetl, but was iuterrupted early in 1833, in Ibis wise: Not far from tbe village a w-ortby 
colored man was living, by tbe name of Harris, tbc owner of a ^ood farm, and in comfort- 
able circumstances. His dnngbter Sarab, a bright girl, 17 years of age, bad passed with 
credit tbrougli tbe public school of tbe district in which she lived, and was anxious to acquire 
a better education, to qualify herself to become a teacher of the colored people. She applied 
■<o Miss Crandall for admission to her school. Miss Crandall hesitated, for prudential rea- 
.«ous, to admit a colored person among her pupils; but Sarah was a young lady of pleasing 
tippearanco and manners, well known to njany of Miss Crandall's present pupils, having 
been their classmate in the district school, and was, moreover, a virtuous, pious girl, and 
a member of the church in Canterbury. No objection could be made to her admission 
except on account of her complexion, and Miss Crandall decided to receive her as a pupil. 
No objcctitm was made by the other pupils, but in a few days the parents of some of them 
called on Miss Craudall and remonstrated ; and although Miss Crandall pressed upon their 
consideration the eager desire of Sarab for knowledge and culture and the good use she 
wishel to malie of her education, her excellent character, and her being an accepted mem- 
ber of Ihe same Christian church to which they belonged, they were too much prejudiced to 
listen to any arguments— "Ihey Avould not have it said that their daughters went to school 
with a nigger girl." It was urged that if Sarah was not dismissed, the white pupils would 
be withdrawn; but althou::^h the fond hopes of success for an institution which she had 
established at the risk of all her propeity, and by incurring a debt of several hundred dol- 
lars, .seemed to be doomed to disappointment, she decided not to yield to the demand for the 
dismissal of Sarah; and on the 2d day of March, 183.3, she advertised in the Liberator that 
on the lirst Monday in April her school would be open fur "young ladies and little misses 
of color." Her determination having become known, a fierce indignation was kindled and 
fanned by prominent people of the village, and pervaded tbe town. In this juncture, the 
IJev. Samuel J. May, of the neighboring town of Brooklyn, addressed her a letter of sym- 
pathy, expressing his readiness to assist her to the extent of bis power, and was present at 
the town meeting held on the 9tb of March, called for the express purpose of devisiu"- and 
adopting such measin-es as "would effectually av ert the nuisance or speedily abate it if 
it should be brought into the village." 

The friends of Miss Crandall were authorized by her to state to the moderator of the town 
meeting that she would give up her house, which was one of tbe most conspicuous in the 
village, and not wholly paid for, if those who were opposed to her school beiun- there would 
take the property off her hands at tbe price for which she had purchased it, and which was 
deemed a reasonable one, and allow her time to procure another house in a more retired part 
of the town. % 

The town meeting was held in the meeting-house, which, though capable of holdino- a 
thousand people, was crowded throughout to its utmost capacity. After the warnino- for the 
meeting had been read, resolutions were introduced in which were set forth the disgrace and 
damage that would be brought upon the town if a school for colored girls should be set up 
there, protesting emphatically against the impending evil, and appointing the civil authority 
and selectmen a committee to wait upon "the person contemplating the establishment of 
said school and persuade her, if possible, to abandon the project." 

The resolutions were advocated by Rufus Adams, esq., and Hon. Andrew T. Judson, 
who was then tbe most prominent man of the town, and a leading politician in the State and 
much talked of as the democratic candidate for governor ; and was a representative in Con- 
gress from 1835 to 1839, when he was elected judge of the United States district court, which 
position he held until bis death in 1853, adjudicating, among other causes, the libel of the 
Amistad and the 54 Africans on board. After bis address on this occasion, Mr. May, in 
company with Mr. Arnold Buflfum, a lecturing agent of the New England Anti-Slavery 
Society, applied for permission to speak in behalf of Miss Crandall but their application was 
violently o|;posed, and the resolutions being adopted, the meeting was declared, by tbe mod- 
erator, adJDurned. 

Mr. May at once stepped upon tbe seat where he had been sitting and rapidly vindicated 
Jliss Crandall, replying to some of the misstatements as to her purposes and the character of her 



330 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

expected pupils, when he gave way to Mr. Buffum, who had spoken scarcely five minutes 
before the trustees of the church ordered the house to be vacated and the doors to be shut. 
There was then no alternative but to jield. 

Two days afterwards Mr. Judson called on Mr. May, with whom he had been on terms 
of a pleasant acquaintance, not to say of friendship, and expi^essed regret that he had applied 
certain epithets to him ; and went on to speak of the disastrous effect on the village from 
the establishment of " a school for nigger girls." Mr. May replied that his purpose was, 
if he had been allowed to do so, to state at the town m.eeting Miss Crandall's proposition to 
sell her house in the village at its fair valuation, and retire to some other part of the town. 
To this Mr. Judson responded: " Mr. May, we are not merely opposed to the establishment 
of that school in Canterbury, we mean there shall not be such a school set up anywhere in 
the State." 

Mr. Judson continued, declaring that the colored people could never rise from their menial 
condition in our country, and ought not to be permitt^ed to rise here ; that they were an 
inferior race and should not be recognized as the equals of the whites ; that they should be 
sent back to Africa, and improve themselves there, and civilize and christianize the natives. 
To this Mr. May replied that there never would be fewer colored people in this country than 
there were then ; that it was unjust to drive them out of the country ; that we must accord 
to them their rights or incur the loss of our own ; that education was the primal, fundamental 
right of all the children of men; and that Connecticut was the last place where this should 
be denied. 

The conversation was continued in a similar strain, in the course of which Mr. Judson 
declared with warmth: "That nigger school shall never be allowed in Canterbury, nor in 
any town of thjs State ;" and he avowed his determination to secure the passage of a law by 
the legislature then in session, forbidding the institution of such a school in any part of the 
State. 

Undismayed by the opposition and the threatened violence of her neighbors, Miss Crandall 
received early in April 15 or 20 colored young ladies and misses from Philadelphia, New 
York, Providence, and Boston ; and the annoyances of her persecutors at once commerced; 
all accommodations at the stores in Canterbury being denied her, her pupils being insulted 
whenever they appeared on the streets, the doors and doorsteps of her house being besmeared, 
and her well filled with filth ; under all cf which, both she and her pupils remained firm. 
Among other means used to intimidate, an atteaipt was made to drive away those innocent 
girls by a process under the obsolete vagrant law, which provided that the selectmen of any 
town might warn any person, not an inhabitant of the State, to depart forthwith, demanding 
^1 67 for every week he or she remained after receiving such warnftg ; and in case the fine 
was not paid and the person did not depart before the expiration of tea days after being- 
sentenced, then he orsftc, should be whipped on the naked body not exceeding ten stripes. 

A warrant to that effect was actually served upon Eliza Ann Hammond, a fine girl from 
Providence, aged 17 years ; but it was finally abandoned, and another method was resorted 
to, most disgraceful to the State as well as the town. Foiled in their attempts to frighten 
awfy Miss Crandall's pupils by their proceedings under the obsolete " pauper and vagrant 
law," Mr. Judson and those who acted with him pressed upon the legislature, then in 
' session, a demand for the enactment of a law which should enable them to accomplish their 
purpose ; and in that bad purpose they succeeded, by securing the following enactment, on 
the 24th of May, 1833, known as the ''black laic.'" 

" Whereas attempts have been made to establish literary institutions in this State for the 
instruction of colored persons belonging to other States and countries, which would tend to 
the great increase of the colored population of the State, and thereby to the injury of the 
people : Therefore, 

"Be it enacted, Sfc, That no person shall set up or estabhsh in this State any school, 
academy, or other literary institution for the instruction or education of colored persons, who 
are not inhabitants of this State, or harbor or board, for the purpose of attending orbeiiig 
taught or instructed in any such school, academy, or literary institution, any colored person 
who is not an inhabitant of any town in this State, without the consent in writing, first 
obtained, of a majority of the civil authority, and also of the selectmen of the town in which 
such school, academy, or litCirary institution is situated, &c. 



IX EESPECT TO SCHOOLS AXD EDUCATION. 331 

" Ancl ciU'li aud every person who shall kuowhigly do auy act forbidden as aforesaid, or 
shall be aidiuf^ or assisting therein, shall for the first offense forfeit and pay to the treasurer 
of this State a line of $100, and for the second oifense $200, and so double for every offense 
of wiiich lie or she shall be convicted : and all informing officers are required to make due 
presentment of all breaches of this act." 

On the receipt of the tidings of the passage of this law, the people of Canterbury were wild 
with exultation ; the bells were rung and a cannon was fired to manifest the joy. On the 
y7th of June Miss Crandall was arrested and arraigned before Justices Adams and Bacon, 
two of those who had heeu the earnest opponents of her enterprise ; aud the result being 
predetermined, the trial was of course brief, and Miss Crandall was "committed" to take 
lier trial at the next session of the supreme court at Brooklyn, in August. A messenger was 
at once dispatched by the party opposed to Miss Crandall to Brooklyn to inform Mr. May, as 
her friend, of the result of the trial, slating that she was in the hands of the sheriff, and would 
be put in jail unless he or some of her friends would "give bonds" for her in a certain sum. 

The denouement may be related most appropriately in the language of Mr. May : 

" I calmly told the messenger that there were gentlemen enough in Canterbury whose 
bond for that amount would be as good or better than mine, and I should leave it for them to 
do Miss Crandall that fa-vor." ' But,' said the young man, 'are you not her friend?' '■Cer- 
tainly, ' I replied, ' too sincerely her friend to give relief to her enemies in their present embar- 
rassment, and I trust you will not find any one of her friends, or the patrons of her school, 
who will step forward to help them any more than myself.' ' But, sir,' he cried, 'do you 
mean to allow her to be put in jail?' ' Most certainly,' was my answer, ' if her persecu- 
tors are unwise enough to let such an outrage be committed.' He turned from me in blank 
surprise, and hurried back to tell Mr. Judsou and the justices of his ill success. 

"A few days before, when I first heard of the passage of the law, I had visited Miss Cran- 
dall with my friend, Mr. George W. Benson, and advised with her as to the course she and 
her friends ought to pursue when she should be brought to trial. She appreciated at once 
and fully the importance of leaving her persecutors to show to the world how base they were, 
and how atrocious was the law they had induced the legislature to enact — a law, by the 
force of which a woman might be fined and imprisoned as a felon in the State of Connecticut 
for giving instruction to colored girls. She agreed that it would be best for us to leave her 
in the hands of those with wliom the law originated, hoping that, in their madness, they 
would show forth all their hideous features. 

" Mr. Benson and I, therefore, went diligently around to all who he knew were friendly 
to Miss Crandall and her school, and counseled them by no means to give bonds to keep her 
from imprisonment, because nothing would expose so fully to the public the egregious wicked- 
ness of the law and the virulence of her persecutors as the fact that they had thrust her 
into jail. 

" When I found that her resolution was equal to the trial which seemed to be impendin"", 
tliat she was ready to brave and to bear meekly the worst treatment that her enemies would 
venture to subject her to, I made all the arrangements for her comfort that were practicable 
in our prison. It fortunately happened that tlu3 most suitable room, unoccupied, was the 
one in which a man named Watkins had recently been confined for the murder of his wife, 
and out of which he had been taken and executed. This circumstance we foresaw would 
add not a little to the public detestation of the black late. The jailor, at my request, readily 
put the room in as nice order as was possible, and permitted me to sub.stitute for the bed- 
stead and mattress on which the murderer had slept, fresh and clean ones from my own house 
and Mr. Benson's. 

"About 2 o'clock, p. m. another messenger came to inform me that the sheriff was on the 
way from Canterbury to the jail with Miss Crandall, and would imprison her unless her 
friends would give the required bail Although in sympathy with Miss Crandall's persecu- 
tors, he saw clearly the disgrace that was about to be brought upon the State, aud begged 
me and Mr. Benson to avert it. Of course we refused. I went to the jailor's house aud met 
Miss Crandall on her arrival. "We stepped aside. I said: ' If now you hesitate — if j'ou 
dread the gloomy place so much as to wish to be saved from it, I will give bonds for you 
even now.' ' 0, no,' she promptly replied, 'lam oidy afraid they Avill not put me iu jail. 



332 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION 

Their evidpnt hesitation and embarrassment show plainly how much they deprecate the effect 
of this part of their folly, and therefore I am the more anxious that they should be exposed, 
If not caught in their own wicked devices.' 

"We therefore returned with her to the sheriff and the company that surrounded him to 
await his final act. He was ashamed to do it. He knew it would cover the persecutors of 
Miss Crandall and the State of Connecticut with disgrace. He conferred with several about 
him, and delayed yet longer. Two gentlemen came and remonstrated with me in not very 

seemly terms : 'jlt would be a shame, an eternal disgrace to the State, to have her 

put into jail — into the very room that Watkins had last" occupied.' 

" 'Certainly, gentlemen,' I replied, 'and this you may prevent if you please.' 

" ' O !' they cried, ' we are not her friends ; we are not in favor of her school ; we don't 
want any more niggers coming among us. It is your place to stand by Miss Cran- 
dall and help her now. You and your abolition brethren have encouraged her to 

bring this nuisance into Canterbury, and it is mean in you to desert her now.' 

" I rejoined : ' She knows we have not deserted her, and do not intend to desert her. The 
law which her persecutors have persuaded our legislators to enact is an infamous one, worthy 
of the dark ages. It would be just as bad as it is whether we would give bonds for her or not- 
But the people generally will not so soon realize how bad, how wicked, how cruel a law it is 
unless we suffer her persecutors to inflict upon her all the penalties it prescribes. She is will- 
ing to bear them for the sake of the cause she has so nobly espoused. If you see fit to keep 
her from imprisonment in the cell of a murderer for having proffered the blessings of a good 
education to those who in our country need it most, you may do so ; ice, shall not.'' 

"They turned from us in great wrath, words falling from their lips which I shall not 
repeat. 

" The sun had descended nearly to the horizon ; the shadows of night were beginning to 
fall around us. The sheriff could defer the dark deed no longer. With no little emotion, 
and with words of earnest deprecation, he gave that excellent, heroic. Christian young lady 
into the hands of the jailor, and she was led into the cell of Watkins. So soon as I had 
heard the bolts of her prison door turned in the lock and saw the key taken out, I bowed and 
said : ' The deed is done, completely done. It cannot be recalled. It has ptissed into the 
history of our nation and our age.' I went away with my steadfast friend, George W. 
Benson, assured that the legislators of the State had been guilty of a most unrighteous act, 
and that Miss Crandall's persecutors had also committed a great blunder ; that they all would 
have much more reason to be ashamed of her imprisonment than she or her friends could 
ever have, 

" The next day we gave the required bonds. Miss Crandall wa'fr released from the cell of 
the murderer, returned home, and quietly resumed the duties of her school until she should 
be summoned as a culprit into court, there to be tried by the infamous '■Black Law of Con- 
necticut.' And, as we expected, so soon as the evil tidings could be carried in that day, 
before Professor Morse had given to Rumor her telegraphic wings, it was known all over the 
country and the civilized world that an excellent young lady had been imprisoned as a crim- 
inal — yes, put into a murderer's cell — in the'State of Connecticut, for opening a school for 
the instruction of colored girls. The comments that were made upon the deed in almost all 
the newspapers were far from grateful to the feelings of her persecutors. Even many who, 
under the same circumstances, would probably have acted as badly as Messrs. A. T. Juds'..i 
& Co., denounced their procedure as "unchristian, inhuman, anti-democratic, base, n;ean."' 

On the 23d of August, 1833, the first trial of Miss Crandall was had in Brooklyn, the seat 
of the county of Windham, Hon. Joseph Eaton presiding at the county court. 

The prosecution was conducted by Hon. A. T. Judson, Jonathan A. Welch, esq., and I. 
Bulkley, esq. Miss Crandall's counsel was Hon. Calvin Goddard, Hon. W. W. Elsworth, 
and Henry Strong, esq. 

The judge, somewhat timidly, gave it as his opinion " that the law was constitutional and 
obligatory on the people of the State." 

The jury, after an absence of several hours, returned into courjl not having agreed upon a 
verdict. They were instructed and sent out again, and again K third time, in vain ; they 



IN EESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 333 

stated to the judge that there was no probability that tbey could ever agree. Seven were for 
conviction and tive for aequittal, so they were discharged. 

The second trial was on the 3d of October, before Judge Daggett of the supreme court, 
who was a strenuous advocate of the black law. His influence with the jury was over, 
powering, insisting in an elaborate and able charge that the law was constitutional, and, 
without much hesitation, the verdict was given against Miss Crandall, Her counsel at once 
filed a bill of exceptions, and took an appeal to the court of errors, which was granted. Before 
that, the highest legal tribunal in the State, the cause was argued on the 22d of July, 1834. 
Both the Hon. W. W. Elsworth and the Hon. Calvin Goddard argued with great ability 
and eloquence against the constitutionality of the black law. The Hon. A. T. Judson and 
Hon. C. F. Cleaveland said all they could to prove such a law consistent with the Magna 
Charta of our republic. The court reserved a decision for some future time ; and that deci- 
sion was never given, it being evaded by the court finding such defects in the information 
prepared by the State's attorney that it ought to be quashed. 

Soon after this, an attempt was made to set the house of Miss Crandall on fire, but without 
effect. The question of her duty to risk the lives of her pupils against this mode of attack 
was then considered, and upon consultation with friends it was coucluded to bold on and bear 
a little longer, with the hojie that this atrocity of attempting to fire the house, and thus expose 
the lives and property of her neighbors, would frighten the instigators of the persecution, and 
cause some restraiut on " the baser sort." But a few nights afterwards, about 12 o'clock, 
being the night of the 9th of September, her house was assaulted by a number of persons 
with heavy clubs and iron bars ; and windows were dashed to pieces. Mr. May was sum- 
moned the next morning, and after consultation it was determined that the school should be 
abandoned. Mr. May thus concludes his account of this event, and of the enterprise. 

" The pupils were called together and I was requested to announce to them our decision. 
Never before had I felt so deeply sensible of the cruelty of the persecution which had been 
carried on for 18 months in that New England village, against a family of defenseless 
females. Twenty harmless, well behaved girls, whose only offense against the peace of the 
community was that they had come together there to obtain useful knowledge and moral 
culture, were to be told that they had better go away, because, forsooth, the house in which 
they dwelt would not be protected by the guardians of the town, the conservators of the 
peace, the officers of justice, the men of influence in the village where it was situated. The 
words almost blistered my lips. My bosom glowed with indignation. I felt ashamed of Can- 
terbury, ashamed of Connecticut, ashameduf my country, ashamed of my color. Thus ended 
the generous, disinterested, philanthropic. Christian enterprise of Piudence Crandall, but 
the law under which her enterprise was defeated was repealed in 1833." 

The principal championship of the repeal of the " Canterbury Law," as the act of 1833 was 
called, in the legislature of 1838, was made by Hon. Francis Gillette, then and always an 
earnest member of the house from Bloomfield : 

'•This law is unwise, impolitic, and preposterous. Colored children, and any other per- 
sons, may come into this State in any numbers, and for any other purpose than that of 
acquiring knowledge — no matter what they are, idlers, thieves, vagabonds, the very sweep- 
ings of the globe ; but if an innocent child comes into this State for the purpose of attending 
school, and that child's complexion is a little dashed, if it has not the Caucasian ilye, that 
child is liable, by this law, to be treated as a vagrant pauper, and hurried out of the State. 
as though its very breath was contagion and death. Notwithstanding, if it will throw away 
its books, and turn to some menial employment ; if it will abandon the pursuit of knowledge 
and become a waiter or a boot-black, it may, forsooth, tarry witliin the State, unmolested by 
this or auy- other law. It may, indeed, remidn fur any other purpose than to pr. pare itself 
to become an intelligent and worthy citizen ; but across the path of knowledge it finds the 
Canterbur}' black act, snake-like distended. We admit the vicious and degraded, while we 
reject the pure-hearted and aspiring. 

" Connecticut has ever shown heiself deeply sensible of the value of education to all 
classes, and of its inseparable connection wiih her prosperity, happiness, and glory. Her 
munificent school fund attests it ; her school-houses dotting thickly her surface evince it; 
her general policy Irom her earliest settlement confirms it ; but we here find in her recent 
legislation a law diametrically opposed to her past policy, and conflicting with her whole 
system of measures for pouring the light of knowledge over the youihful mind, and thus 
enriching herself, not with nelf, but with the treasures of cultivated intellect. 



3.^4 LEGAL STATUS OF TPIE COLOEED POPULATION 

" In vain shall we look for a parallel to this legislation in any moclera free State ; but in 
an earlier and darker age it is recorded of the inhabitants of Mitylcr.e that thej^ forbade the 
people of a tril)atary province to give the least instruction to their children, they havinf^ 
learned the close connection between light and liberty. Let us be mindful of our obligation 
to treat the children of this unfortunate race- the victims of ages of barbarous cruelty— with 
some little justice and humanity ; and when they come to us asking for the bread ot knowl- 
edge, let us not give them a stone, and thrust them from our presence, but cheer their wounded 
hearts with kindness and compassion, and welcome them to participate with us in the bless- 
ings of knowledge, of wise government, and impartial laws." 

SCHOOLS FOR COLORED CIIJLDREN IX HARTFORD. 

The following letter from Eev. W. W. Turner, to the Commissioner of Education, gives the 
history and present status of the colored population in respect to public schools not only 
in Hartford but in the State generally : 

Dear Sir: Until the year 1830 no separate schools for colored children had ever been 
organized in this town. From the beginning they had been received into the schools for 
other children, with equal privileges and advantages for instruction, support being derived from 
school funds and public taxation, and no distinction was recognized between them and the 
white children in the same school. Such in general was the fact throughout this State and 
the whole of New England. 

About the year above specified, the colored people expressed a desire that one or more 
separate schools for their own children should be formed in the city of Hartford, on which 
should be expended that part of the public school money which would be drawn by them 
according to their number. A mutual agreement to that effect was entered into, and the 
legislature, by request of the School Society of Hartford, passed a law authorizing within its 
limits one or more separate colored schools, and the appropriation to them of their share of 
the public money. This arrangement was consummated the same year, and was continued 
without any special change until the autumn of 1846. A memorial or petition was then sent 
to the School Society bj' the pastor of the colored congreg-ational church showing that since the 
separation above described nothing had been done for the colored schools by said society beyond 
the paying over of their sliare of the public fund every year. No school-houses had been built 
or furnished, and excepting small contributions from a few benevolent persons, not a farthing 
had been given for the payment of their teachers and the support of their schools by the 
W'hite citizens of Hartford. The colored population from want of means had been unable to 
l^rocure suitable rooms, or competent teachers, and consequently the education of their 
children had been exceedingly irregular, deficient and onerous — much of the time being 
without any schools at all. The School Society promptly voted to raise a tax sufficient to 
support two schools for colored children with suitable rooms and teachers, and appointed 
a committee to receive and apply the money raised for that purpose. This arraugement was 
entirely satisfactory to all concerned, and its results were especially beneficial to the colored 
population of the city. By the natural increase of this class of children, the rooms occupied 
by their schools some years after had become quite too small; and as graded schools had been 
established for other children, patrons of the colored schools of the city felt that the time 
had come when a suitable building for the accommodation of their schools should be built 
for them at the public expense. A petition to that effect was sent by many of the principal 
colored residents of, Hartford to the School Society, which appointed a committee to inves- 
tigate and report on the whole subject. As a preliminary step to all future action, this com- 
mittee called a meeting of the colored people to d;scuss and to decide for themselves the 
question whether they would have thoir children taught in future with the white children, or 
in schools of their own as heretofore. After a free and full deliberation upon the matter, 
they came almost, if not quite, unanimously to the conclusion that they preterred to have 
their children taught in separate schools in a building sufficiently large and properly arranged 
for classification to accommodate them all. The committee reported in favor of the plan, and 
the society authorized the erection of such a building in April, 1852. From that time until 
August of last year the colored schools, in common with all the public schools of the city, 
have been supported by tax on the property of our citizens, without any other expense to the 
parents of the children; and the full benefits of this judicious policy have been experienced 
by all classes of the community. In ]8t)8 a law was enacted by the legislature of Con- 
necticut providing that "the public schools of this State should be open to all persons 
between the ages of four and sixteen ; and that no person should be denied admittance to and 
instruction in any pirblic school in the school district where such person resides, on account 
of race or color." This law permitted the colored parents of this city to send their children 
to any of the public schools of the districts in which they resided — a privilege denied theai 
m some of these districts, and one which they very nmch desired to enjoy. They had for a 
good while been certain that the white population of the city would not furnish for them as 
good school accommodations as they had already done for their own children ; and that it 
was impossible for the colored people to establish and keep up such schools as were regarded 
essential to the thorough training of their children for the new fields of usefulness now 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 335 

opening before them. Iiimied lately, tlieretbre, oa the passages of the law referred to, they 
coucluded ivith entire unanimity to avail themselves of its provisions. They gave up 
their separate schools, and sent their children to the public schools of their respective 
districts. The new law and the new arrangement obtained the cheerful acquiescence 
of the teachers and scholars of these schools; the colored parents made special efforts 
to clothe and otherwise prepare their children for the new positions assigned them ; and up 
to tiie present lime the plau has v/orked admirably, and has already developed a rapid im- 
provement in learning, and in the deportment and self-respect of the colored children for 
whose benefit mainly the law was enacted." 
Tlie act of 1868, referred to in the foregoing communication, is as follows : 
"The public schools of this State shall be open to all persons between the ages of four 
and sixteen years, and no person shall be denied admittance to and instruction in any publia 
school in the school district where such person resides, on account of race or color, any law 
or resolution of this State heretofore passed to the contrary notwithstanding." 

DELAWARE. 

Out of a population of 112,210, in I8C0, there were in Delaware 21,G27 blacks, of which 
number 19,829 were free. 

In 1739, free negroes or mulattoes were forbidden by law to harbor or entertain any slave 
without tlic consent of the owner of such slave, under severe penalties ; and this was the 
only legislative action by this State, relating exclusively to the colored people, during the 
colonial period. Nearly one hundred years later, in 1832, an act was passed, providing that 
no congregation or meeting of free negroes or mulattoes, of more than 12 persons, should be 
held later than 10 o'clock in the night, except under the direction of three respectable white 
men, who were to be present during the continuance of the meeting, under a penalty of $10 
for each offense ; and on failing to pay, the offender was to be sold into slavery for a term 
not to exceed three years. It was also further enacted, that no free negro or mulatto, not a 
resident of the State, should " attempt or presume to hold any meeting for the purpose of 
religioas worship, or for the purpose of, or under the pretense of, preaching or exhortation, 
without the license of some judge or justice of the peace in this State, granted upon the rec 
ommendation of live respectable and judicious citizens." The penalty was a fine of $50 
and costs ; and on failure to pay, to be sold "to the highest bidder for a term not exceeding 
seven years." 

In 1833 a law was passed rcquiiing the owner of any slave to pay !j5 for a license to sel 
the same to a person in Maryland ; and in the case of the importation of a slave from Mary- 
land, $10 was to be paid ; and the sums thus paid were to be added to the fund for the edu- 
cation of the children of the white population. 

The laws respecting free negroes and mulattoes remained essentially unchanged until 
1852; and they did not, in express language, forbid the establishment of schools for their 
instruction ; nor was the instruction of the slaves expressly forbidden, though the Revised 
Statutes of 1852 provided for the taxation of all the property of the State for the benefit of 
schools for the children of whites alone. 

In 18G3 a positive enactment was made against all assemblages for the instruction of cola> 
ored people, and forbidding all meetings except for religious worship and the burial of their 
dead. The penalty for each offense was a fine of $10 and costs, and on failure to pay, to be 
sold into slavery not exceeding seven years, to any person residing in the county. 

While the free colored people were taxed to a certain extent for school purposes they could 
not enjoy the privileges ot public instruction thus provided, and were left for many years to 
rely principally upon individual efforts among themselves and their friends for the support 
of a few occasional schools. In 1840 the Friends formed the African School Association, in 
the city of Wilmington ; and by its aid two very good schools, male and female, were estab- 
lished in that place. 

In 186G the Delaware Association for the Moral Improvement and Education of the Col- 
ored People of the State was organized through the efforts of General E. M. Gi'egory, an- 
earnest and efficient assistant commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau. He was aided 
therein by Judge Hugh M. Bond and Francis T. King, of Baltimore, Maryland ; and also bj' 
the Right Reverend Alfred Lee, Bishop of the Protestant Episc^ipal Church of Delaware. 



336 



LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 



The latter gentleman penned an appeal to the public, in which he urgently pressed the con- 
siderations that should influence all classes to give to this movement their sympathy and co- 
operation. These considerations were alleged to be: 1st. The manifest equity of no longer 
excluding any class of the community from the advantages of mental culture ; 2d. The res- 
cue of a large number ot the young from indolence and vice ; 3d. The general social 
improvement which might be expected in the State ; 4th. The certain benefits to product- 
ive industry ; and, oth. The satisfaction of doing sometliing to redress a great wrong, and so 
pay a debt long overdue to the poor and defenseless. To the association thus founded and 
advocated the African School Association transferred its school property in Wilmington, 
valued at about $4,000, and also the income of its funds, in trust, that the former should 
establish and maintain on the premises transferred as high an order of schools for the colored 
people as their condition permitted. The Delaware Association also took charge of a school 
in Wilmington, which had been sustained previously by private contributions, and opened 
another in the school-room of the African Zion church. Besides these, it speedily estab- 
lished schools in the following places, viz : Dover, Milford, Seaford, Smyrna, Odessa, Chris- 
tiana, New Castle, Laurel, Georgetown, Milton, Newark, Delaware City, Lewis, Camden, 
Newport, Williamsville, and Port Penn. These schools have generally been well conducted, 
and attended with very satisfactory results. In their establishment the association was 
largely indebted to the Freedmen's Bureau, which contributed over |)1 0,000 in furnishing 
building materials ; and in their support it has, also, had the co-operation of the colored 
people themselves, who have contributed about $8,000 inpayment of tuition, teachers' board, 
purchase of books, and erection of school buildings. 

On the 3d of October, 1867, two normal schools, male and female, were opened in the old 
African Association building, which had been altered to suit their purposes. Of these 
schools Professor William Howard Day, an educated colored gentleman, who is superin- 
tendent of education under the Freedmen's Bureau for the States of Maryland and Dela- 
' ware, speaks in very commendable terms. The following statistics for the years 18G7 and 
. 1868 present the educational work done in the State of Delaware during that period : 





Number of schools, teachc 


rs, and 


pupils- 


-1867- 


'63. 










Number of schools. 


Number of teachers. 


Number of scholars. 


bo g 
<5-^ 


a 


Year. 


Day. 


Kight. 


Total. 


White. 


Colored. 


Total. 


Male. 


Female. 


Total. 


Ph 


i867 


20 
32 


3' 


20 
35 


4 
10 


16 
25 


20 
35 


269 
767 


443 
510 


712 
1,277 


581 
904 


81 


1868 


71 







Studies and expenditures for schools — 1867-68. 





Number of scholars 


in different studies pursued. 


Expenditures in support 
of schools. 


Year. 


1 
< 


it 

^ OQ 


Advanced 
readers. 


ti 

a 


p. 

2 

to 




< 


Higher br's. 


£ a 
3 


By others. 
Total. 


1867 


338 

158 


265 
570 


189 
433 


203 
545 


133 

S87 


282 
55 L 


25' 


$5, 800 
•2, 299 


$34, 963 $40, 763 


1868 


6, 191 8, 490 




1 



FLORIDA. 

By the census of 1860 Florida had 140,425 inhabitants, of whom 62,677 were blacks, and 
of these 61,747 were slaves. 

While Florida was still a Territory, in 1832, the immigration of any free negro or mulatto 
into its jurisdiction was forbidden by legal enactment ; and at the same time an act was 
passed forbidding any of the same class of persons, resident in the Territory, " to assemble 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 337 

at any time or place" for any purpose except for labor — n*ot even for a funeral. They 
might, however, "attend divine worship at any church, chapel, or other place of congregated 
white persons for that purpose." 

In 184(), one year after the admission of Florida as a State, "all assemblies and congre- 
gations of slaves, free negroes, and niulattoes, consisting of four or more, met together in a 
confined t-r secret place," were declared to be iinlawful, and the most stringent measures 
were used to prevent them ; but no "church or place of public worship," where any religious 
society should be assembled, " a portion of whom" were white, could be broken into or dis- 
turbed " at any time before 10 o'clock in the evening." 

December 28, 1848, an act was passed " to provide for the establishment of common 
schools," and giving to any person, liable to taxation on his property for the erection of 
school-houses, the right to vote at the district meetings; but white children only, of a speci- 
fied age, were entitled to school privileges. 

In the same year an act was passed providing that the school fund should consist of " the 
proceeds of the school lands," and of all estates, real or personal, escheating to the State, 
and " the proceeds of all property found on the coast or shores of the State." In 1850 the 
counties were authorized to provide, by taxation, not more than four dollars for each child 
within their limits of the prosier school age. In the same year the amount received from the 
sale of any slave, imder the act of 1829, was required to be added to the school fund. The 
common school law was revised in 1853, and the county commissioners were .luthorized to 
add from the county treasury any sum they thought proper for the support of common 
schools. 

January 18, 1866, an act establishing common schools for freedmen was passed, providing 
for a tax of one dollar each upon "all male persons of color between the ages of 21 and 45" 
for the support of such schools, which Avere placed under the care of a superintendent 
appointed by the governor. In 1869, by act approved January 30, a common school law was 
established, in which no reference is made to the complexion of the pupils. 

EDUCATION OF THE FREEDMEN, 

Among the various agencies engaged in the work of educating the freedmen of the South 
are two consisting of colored people in the northern States, and known respectively as the 
African Civilization Society and the Home Missionary Society of the African Methodist 
Episcopal Church. Both of these societies have shown no lack of interest in the great 
matter of improving the condition of their formerly enslaved brethren, and both of them 
have labored zealously, as far as their means would permit, either independently or in 
co-opevation with others,,in the establishment of schools at different points in the southern 
States. Several of these schools were opened at Tallahassee and other places in Florida 
shortly after the close of the war, and have proved important and successful instrumentali- 
ties for good. 

More sparsely settled than the other States, and lacking in the advantages of convenient 
roads, this State has not furnished so inviting a field to philanthropic effort as others ; yet, ' 
in spite of these obstacles, the northern societies have not been without their representatives 
here, the New York branch of the American Freedmen's Union Commission having the 
greatest number of teachers employed in this section. As elsewhere, their labors have been 
blessed in the improvement of their pupils both in school learning and in the general conduct 
of life. Besides the schools already mentioned there were yet others, amounting, perhaps, 
to one-half of the entire number of schools in the State. These last were taught by freed 
persons who had acciuired a little learning in their bondage. However poorly qualified they 
may have been to act as instructors, the existence of their schools was evidence both of their 
desire to labor in the elevation of their brethren and of the necessity felt by the latter for 
acquiring some knowledge, were it only the merest rudiments of learning. It is to be hoped, 
then, that even these schools were not wholly destitute of their wished-for fruit. Through 
the three several agencies already mentioned 30 schools were in existence in Florida at the 
close of 1865. 

Early in the following year, January 16, 1866, the State legislature created a public 
22 



338 



LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULiTION 



system ©f education for the freedmeu of the State. This enactment proivdes for the appoint- 
ment of a superintendent, whose duty is to "establish schools for frecdmeu, when the 
number of children of persons of color shall warrant the same," and to employ competent 
teachers for them. For the support of these schools it also provides that, besides a tuition 
fee of 50 cents per month to.be collected from each pupil, a fund, "to be denominated the 
common school fund for the education of freedmeu," shall bo raised by levying- a tax of $1 
upon all male persons of color between the ages of 21 and 55 years. The good effects of 
this law were apparent in the increased number of schools during that year and the fol- 
lowing. 

The action of the legislature was heartily seconded by the freedmen themselves, who, in a 
number of instances, erected school-houses at their own expense, besides contributing from 
their scanty means towards the support of teachers. Here, too, as in other States, the Freed- 
men's Bureau proved itself their efficient friend. In order to enable them to secure for them- 
selves school-houses as well as schools, it advised the formation of "school societies," and 
suggested a course of procedure upon compliance with which its assistance would be extended 
to them. It stipulated that each society should acquire, by gift or purchase, the perfect title 
to an eligible lot of ground not less than one acre iu extent, to be vested in a board of trus- 
tees for school purposes, and that it should then secure good pledges of labor and money 
sufficient to provide for all the work required in the erection of the school-house and iu 
making needed improvements of the property. Upon these conditions it agreed to supply 
all the lumber and other materials necessary for the construction of the building. Not only 
did the freedmen accede to this plan, but also quite a number of the landed proprietors entered 
cordially into it, readily furnishing the school lots required. 

The reports of 1868 showed, in the diminished number of schools, that Florida had not 
been exen:pt from the sufferings which hard times had entailed upon other States. With all 
the advantages just mentioned, it became evident, in the stringency of money matters, that 
its public school system, however judicious and commendable it may be, cannot be a com- 
plete success until years of patient and earnest labor shall be blessed with that prosperity 
which such labor must inevitably secure. 

The following table, compiled by Professor Vashou, presents the statistics of these 
schools from 1865 to ]8S8 : 

Number of schools, teachers, and scholars, 1865 to 1833. 





Number of schools. 


Slumber of teachers. 


Number of scholars. 


d 

n 

> 

< 




Year. 





To 
2 


■i. 


> 



"o 



c 


1 


Female. ■ 
Total. 


3 


,fGo i 




30 

38 
71 
£4 


"32 

24 


32 
37 


10 
51 
(14 
(U 




1,9(10 


1,619 




Igfifi i 






1 2, (SG3 




1807 


42 
33 


29 
21 


1 , 053 
1,032 


],]7.5 1 2,228 
1, 150 1 2,182 

1 


61 


1SG8 


74 



Studies and expenditures, 1867 and 18G8. 





Number of scholars ia diff^ireiit studies pursued. 


Expenditures in support 
of schools. 


Year. 


1 
< 


do 
c 

a 
a 


Advanced 
readiug. 

Writing. 


c 





E 

Si 

< 


.a 
K 


H 
-a 

>> 


J3 




.867 

1868 


418 
212 


1,047 
1,163 


432 
683 


562 
1,040 


208 481 
485 898 


19 

5 J 


$608 
629 


$20, 3fl2 
18, 571 


$21, 000 
19,200 











IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 339 

The State superintendent of public instruction, in a report submitted to Governor Reed 
January 9, 1809, remarks, respecting the schools conducted under the auspices of northern 
benevolent associations : 

" Many of the ladies who assumed the duties of teachers were persons of wealth and high 
social positions at home. Coming at a time when the freed children were cast suddenly at 
the tin-eshold of a new life, unused to tlie responsibilities and ignorant of the duties thus 
thrust upon them, they were welcomed with great joy, and labored with sincere Christian 
devotion, amidst hardships and privations. The teachers have changed, but most of the 
schools are still maintained." 

GEORGIA. 

By the census of 1860 the population of Georgia was 1,057,280; and of this number 
46'),(>98 were black, of whom all but 3,500 were slaves. 

The Province of Georgia, in 1770, adopted the law of South Carolina, passed in 1740, 
providing a lighter penalty only for teaching slaves to write — a fine of £20 instead of £100. 
The same law provided that any magistrate or constable must " disperse any assembly or 
meeting of slaves which may disturb the peace and endanger the safety of his Majesty's 
subjects;" and any slave found at such meeting might, bj^ order of the magistrate, be 
immediately corrected, without trial, by whipping on the bare back " twenty-five stripes 
with a whip, switch, or covvskin." The reason for the passage of this provision of the law 
was, as stated, because " the frequent meeting of slaves, under the pretense of feasting, niay 
be attended with dangerous consequences." The "feasting" referred to was the love feast 
of the Methodist church. 

In 1829 the following law was enacted: "If any slave, negro, or free person of color, or 
any white person, shall teach any other slave, negro, or free person of color to read or write 
cither written or printed characters, the said free person of color or slave shall be punished 
by fine and whipping, or fine or whipping, at the discretion of the court ; and if a white 
person so offend, he, she, or they shall be punished with a fine not exceeding $500 and 
imprisonment in the common jail at the discretion of the court." 

In December, 1833, the penal code was consolidated, and in it a provision from the act of 
1829 was embodied, providing a penalty not exceeding $100 for tlie employment of any 
slave or free person of color in setting up type or other labor about a printing office requir- 
ing a knowledge of reading or writing. This penal code continued in force until swept 
away by the events of the late war. 

In 1833 the city of Savannah adopted an ordinance " that if any person shall teacb or 
cause to be taught any slave or free person of color to read or write within the city, or who 
shall keep a school for that purpose, he or she shall be fined in a sum not exceeding 
$100 fur each and every such offense; and if the offender be a slave or free person 
of color he or she may also be whipped, not ex".eediug thirty-nine lashes." And yet, in the 
face of su".h ordinances, instruction was imparted by persons of color in the city of Savan- 
nah, and individuals were to be found who a few years later advocated a more humane and 
liberal policy toward the entire laboring class of the State. 

In the summer of 1850 a series of articles by Mr. F. C. Adams appeared in one of the 
papers of Savannah, advocating the education of the negroes as a means of increasing 
their value and of attaching them to their masters. The subject was afterwards taken up 
in the Agricultural Convention which met at Macon in September of the same year. (See 
the INIacon Journal and Messenger, Chapman, editor.) The matter was again brought up in 
September, 1851, in the Agricultural Convention, and after being debated, a resolution was 
passed that a petition be presented to the legislature for a law granting permission to edu- 
cate the slaves. The petition was presented to the legislature, and Mr. Harlston introduced a 
bill in the winter of 1852, which was discussed and passed in the lower house, to repeal the 
old law, and to grant to the masters the privilege of educating their slaves. (See Millcdge- 
villc Recorder.) The bill was lost in the senate by two or three votes. 



340 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

SCHOOLS FOR THE BLACKS IN GEORGIA. 

The following account of the eftorts to establish schools in Georgia since 1865 was pre- 
pared by Professor Vashon : 

Among the many secret things brought to light by the opening of the southern prison- 
house, there was one at least Nvhich did not challenge the public regard by its atrocity, but 
rather by the evidence which it afforded of the futility of oppressive enactments in crushing 
out the soul's nobler aspirations. This was a school for colored persons in Savannah, Geor- 
gia. For upwards of 30 years it had existed there, unsuspected by the slave power, and 
sucessfully eluding the keen-eyed vigilance of its minions. Its teacher, a colored lady by 
the name of Deveaux, undeterred by any dread of penalties, throughout that long period 
silently pursued her labors in her native city, in the very same room that she still occupies ; 
and she now has the satisfaction of knowing that numbers who are indebted to her for their 
early training are, in these more auspicious days, co-workers with her in the elevation of 
their common race. It is not a matter for surprise that a city favored with such an estab- 
lishment as Miss Deveaux's should prove a field ripe for the harvesters, or that its colored resi- 
dents should hail with appreciative joy the advent of a better time. Within a few days 
after the entrance of Sherman's army, in December, 1865, they opened a number of schools 
having an enrolment of 500 pupils, and contributed $1,000 for the support of teachers. 
In. this spontaneous movement they were fortunate in having the advice and encourage- 
ment of the Eev. J. W. Alvord, then secretary of the Boston Tract Society, and of other 
friends who were with the invading forces. Two of the largest of these schools were in 
" Bryant's Slave Mart;" and thus the very walls whichhad, but a few days before, re-echoed 
with the anguish of bondmen put up for sale, now gave back the hushed but joyous mur- 
murs of their children learning to read. In a very little while this effort attained to such a 
development as to compel an appeal for outside assistance. To the Macedonian cry, " Come 
over and help us," the American Missionary Association and also the Boston and New York 
societies responded, both by sending additional teachers and by engaging to pay the sala- 
ries of those already on the ground. Schools were also established at Augusta, Macon, and 
other places thoughout the State ; so that, at the close of the year, there were 69 schools 
in existence, with as many teachers, 43 of whom were colored, and with over 3,600 pupils 
in attendance. 

The same spirit that prompted the negroes of Georgia to open these schools was still mani- 
fested by them in a continuance and enlargement of the good work. In January, 1860, 
they org-anized the Georgia Educational Association, whose object was to induce the freed- 
meu to establish and support schools in their own counties and neighborhoods ; and, in fur- 
therance of this end, it provided for the formation of snbordinate associations throughout the 
State. The purpose of its projectors was to act in harmony with agencies already in the 
field, with the educational officers of the Freedmen's Bureau, and with all other parties who 
were willing to assist them in the moral and mental culture of their race. Thus, they hoped, 
by this union of effort, to accomplish much immediate good, and to lay deeply and perma- 
nently the foundation of a system of public .instruction which should, in time, place an edu- 
cation within the reach of all the citizens of Georgia. The plan thus proposed met with an 
approving response from the people, and schools were rapidly opened in many counties of 
the State. In many quarters, however, great opposition was offered to this new order of 
things; and the newspapers, in alluding to the female teachers, would descend to the most 
abusive ribaldry. In frequent instances, too, this opposition did not stop short of acts of 
violence and outrage. During the year 1866 seven school buildings were destroyed by 
white incendiaries ; and, at a number of points, teachers were forced either to close their 
schools or to appeal to the bureau for protection. In the following year, however, Mr. G. 
L. Eberhart, the State superintendent of education under the bureau, reported a wonderful 
change in this matter, in the following words : "At the beginning of the current school year 
scarcely any white persons could be found who were willing to ' disgrace ' themselves by 
^ teaching niggers -^^ but, as times grew hard, and money and bread scarce, applications for 
employment became so numerous that I was obliged to prepare a printed letter with which 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 341 

to answer them. Lawyers, pliysicians, editors, miuisters, and all classes of white people 
applied for eniployaieut ; and while a few by their letters evinced only tolerable qualilieations 
— none of them first class — a vast majority were unable to write grammatically or to spell 
the most simple and common words in our language correctly. Not a few appeared to think 
that ' (iirjhody can teach niggers.'''^ This change in popnlar sentiment rendered it possible 
to establish schools to a much greater extent in the country districts ; and the result was 
that at the close of the school year, in 181)7, 191 daj' schools and 45 night schools were 
reported as existing. Of these schools 9G were supported either wholly or in part by freed- 
men, who also owned57of the school buildings. The poverty which had contributed so much 
towards diminishing the prejudices of the white residents, had, on the other hand, an unfavor- 
able effect on the prosperity of the schools. Through its pressure many of the suVordinate 
societies ceased to exist, and the schools supported by them were discontinued ; and as the 
northern associations deemed it to be the better policy to confine their work to the cities in 
the training of prospective teachers, the rural districts suffered somewhat, and the exhibit of 
schools for 1868 was about 100 less than in the preceding year. Some compensation for 
this, however, was found in the establishment by the American Missionary Association of 
three permanent institutions of a higher grade, with brief notices of which this sketch shall 
be closed. 

THE GEORGIA UNIVERSITY, ATLANTA. 

Early in the year 1837 the Georgia University was incorporated, $10,000 having been 
contributed from the educational fund of the Freedmen's Bureau towards establishing its 
normal department. A desirable tract of land, consisting of 53 acres within the city limits, and 
known as Diamond Hill, was purchased and two brick buildings erected thereon. These 
are to be used as dormitories, after the completion of the main edifice, which it is the 
intention of the trustees to put up at as early a da,te as their means will permit. 

THE BEACH INSTITUTE, SAVANNAH. 

The Beach Institute, at Savannah, was established in 1867, and was thus named in honor 
of Alfred E. Beach, esq., editor of the Scientific American, who generously donated the 
means for purchasing the lot upon which it stands ; and it is a neat and substantial frame 
structure, erected by the Freedmen's Bureau at a cost of §13,000. This building, which 
rests upon brick foundations, is 55 feet by 60 feet, and has, at the north and south 'ends, two 
Ls, each 10 feet by 35 feet. On the first floor are four largo school-rooms, all of which can 
be converted into one when desired,, by means of sliding doors and windows. Four other 
school-rooms and an ante-room are on the second floor. All of these rooms have high ceil- 
ings, iind are well lighted, and furnished with substantial desks, seats, black-boards, &c. 
A staircase at each end furnishes ready egress from the upper story. On the east side of 
this building stands the "Teachers' Home," a neat and comfortably arranged two-story 
frame house, erected by the association at a cost of ip3,000. There are GUO pupils in the 
institution, which is under the charge o;" Mr. O. \V. Diniick, assisted by nine female teachers, 
eight of whom arc white and one colored. 

THE LEWIS SCHOOL, MACON. 

The Lewis School, at Macon, was dedicated, with appropriate exercises, to God, and to 
the Christian education of the freed people of Georgia, on the 2Qth day of March, 1866. It 
is named in honor of General John R. Lewis, inspector of the Freedmen's Bureau, and is a 
handsome two-story building 80 feet long by 60 in width, affording accommodations for over 
500 pupils. The school-rooms are neatly finished with Georgia pine, and furnished with 
cherry desks, and all the other most approved modern educational appliances. With a 
corps of teachers, intelligent, refined, and thoroughly capable, there is no doubt that the 
Lewis School will justly continue to be, as ]t is now the pride of its founders and of the 
colored people of Macon. 



342 LEGAL STATUS OF TPIE COLORED POPULATION 

Nnmhcr of schools, teachers, and pupils — 1865-'68. 





Number of schools. 


Number of teachers. 


Number of scholars. 




a 


Year. 


Day. 


Night. 


Total.* 


White. 


Colored. 


Total. 


Male. 


Female. 


Total. 










69 

79 

236 

132 


20 


43 


fi9 
113 
239 

174 






3, fi03 

7, 792 

13,481 

8.542 




















1867 


191 
103 


45 
26 


148 
127 


91 

47 


6, 033 
4,035 


7, 4-18 
4,507 


10, 231 
6,708 


76 


ISfiS 


78 







Studies and expenditures — 186~-'68. 





Number of scholars in different studies pursued. 


Expenditures in support 
of schools. 


Tear. 


1 

■a 

< 


i 




to 

a 


'a 
a 

tX) 

o 

O 


< 


li 

"•3 


1? 
S 


o 

>> 


p 


1867 


2, 600 ' 8, 987 
1,560 , 4.592 


2,318 
2,366 


3,020 
3, 573 


1,8.34 
2,361 


2,810 
3, 1U2 


139 
253 


$3o, 224 
21,596 


$40, 000 
31,000 


591, 096 


1868 


52, 596 











ILLINOIS. 

Out of a total population of 1,711,951 in 1860 there Avere returned 7,628 free colored inhabi- 
tants. By the constitution of 1847 the right of suffrage is restricted to white male citizens, 
and the benefits of the school law are by implication extended exclusively to children of white 
parents. Hon. Newton Bateman, in his exhaustive, elaborate, and every way excellent 
report as superintendent of public instruction, submitted to the governor December 15, ]ti63, 
introduces the subject of schools for the colored population, as follows : 

"The nuQiber of colored persons in the State under 21 years of age, as reported for 1867, 
was 8,962, and the number reported for 1868 was 9,78L The number between the ages of 
6 and 21 years, or of lawful school age, was in 1867, 5,492, and in 1868 the number of school- 
going colored children reported in the State was 6,210. * if -s 

"I have made every effort to obtain reliable statistics in respect to this element of our popu- 
lation, but there is good reason to believe that the actual number of colored persons in the 
State is much greater than is exhibited in the above statement. As children of color are not 
included in the numerical ba,sis upon which qither the tounty superintendent or the township 
trustees apportion the school fund, there is no special or pecuniary motive to care and dili- 
gence in taking this census, as there is in taking that of white children, as previously shown. 
Indifference and other causes have also operated, in some portions of the State, to prevent 
a faithful effort to collect and report the desired information in regard to these people. Taldng 
the figures as reported and comparing them, it will be seen that the number of colored 
persons under 21 has increased 1 ,505, or over 18 per centum, in the last two years ; and that 
the number between 6 and 21 has increased 1,279, or 26 per centum. I have no doubt that 
the actual number of colored children in the State, between 6 and 21, is at least 7,000, and 
probably more. Indeed this is demonstrated from the statistics which are given. The num- 
ber under 21 reported is 9,781. Of these, the number under six must be deducted. The 
ratio of 6 to 21 is two-sevenths ; hence, the number between 6 and 2 1 should be very nearly 
five-sevenths of the whole number under 21 ; but five-sevenths of 9,7dl is G,987, being an 
inconsiderable fraction under 7,000. While, for reasons previously given, the number 
reported as under 21 is undoubtedly too small, yet, being more easily taken than the number 
between 6 and 21, it is no doubt the more nearly correct of the two. At all events, it is not 
too large, and if there are 9,731 colored people in the State under 21, it is absolutely certain 
that there are not less than 7, 090 between 6 and 21, being a little less than one per centum of 
the number of white children between the same ages." 

" Inremarkingupou the condition of these people in respect to school privileges, in the last 
biennial report, the fullowiug language was used : ' For the education of these 6,000 colored 
children the general school law of the State makes, virtually, no provision. By the dis- 
criminating terms emploj'cd throughout the statute, it is plainly the intention to exclude 
them from a joint participation in the benefits of the free school system. Except as referred 
to by the terms which imply exclusion, and in one brief section of the act, they are wholly 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AXD EDUCATION. 343 

ijiuorecl in all the common school legislation of the State. The purport of that one section 
(the SOtli) is that the amount of all school taxes collected from persons of color shall be paid 
back to them ; it does uot say what use shall be made of the money so refunded, although 
the intention (if there was any) may be presumed to be that it should be used for separate 
schools for colored children. Jiut if that was the object it has not been attained, except in i\ 
few instances, for two reasons: first, the school taxes paid by persons of color are not gen- 
erally returned to them; and, second, even when they are refunded, there are uot colored 
children enough, except in a few places, to form separate schools. In some of the citi(\s and 
larger towns, where the schools are under special acts and nurnicipal ordinances, the educa- 
tion of colored children is provided for in a maniirr worthy a just and Christian people ; and 
in many other instances the requirements of the law are faithfully observed, and the efforts of 
the colored people to provide schools I'or their children are iieartily seconded. But the larger 
portion of the aggregate number of colored people in the State are dispersed through the dif- 
feieut counties and school districts, in small groni)sof one, two, or three families, uot enough 
to maintain separate schools for themselves, even with the helpof the pittance paid forschool 
taxes by such of them as are property holders. This ^vhole dispersed class of our colored 
population are withont the means of a common school education for their children ; the law 
does not contemplate their co-attendance with white children, and they are without recourse 
of any kind. I think it safe to my that at least one-half of the 6,000 colored children, between 
the ages of (i and 21, are in this helpless condiiicn with respect to schools. They are trying, 
by conventions, petitions, and appeals, to reach the ears and hearts of the representatives of 
the pei'ple and the law-making ])ower of the State, to see if anything can be done for them. 
I have tried to state iheir case ; I think it is a hard one. I commend the subject to the atten- 
tion of the geneial assembly, as demanding a share of public regard.' 

" I desire again to call attention to the fact that, as 1 understand the law, those people are 
excluded from all participation in the benefits of the public schools, except by common con- 
sent, or as a matter of sufi'erance. The recurrence throughout the statute of the restiictive 
word 'white' leaves no room for doubt that it was the intention to provide for the education 
of white children only, in the free schools of the State, and upon this principle the school 
law has been interpreted, and the system administered, from the first. I approve the reso- 
lution adopted by the State Teachers' Association, ' that the distinctive word "white," in 
the school law and the 80th section of the same, are contrary to the true intent of the prin- 
ciple on which the school system is based, and should be repealed.' I regard the longer 
presence in the school law of this great and free commonwealth, of provisions which now 
exclude 7,000 children of lawful school age from all the blessings of public education, and 
which, if not repealed, will continue to exclude theiu a:;d the thousands which may here- 
af er be added to the number, as alike impolitic and unjust; the opprobium and shame of our 
otherwise noble system of free schools. No State can afford to defend or perpetuate such 
provisions, and least of all the State that holds the dust of the fingers that wrote the pro- 
clamation of January 1, 188'3. Let us expunge this last remaining remnant of the unchris- 
tian ' black lav.s' of Illinois and proclaim in the name of God and the Declaration of 
Independence, that till the school-guing children of the State, without distinction, shall be 
equally entitled to share in the rich provisious of the free school system. Nor need any one 
be s:cared by the phantom of blended colors in the same school-room. The question of 
co-attendance, «r of separate schools, is an entirely separate and distinct one, and may safely 
be left to be determined by the respective distilcts and communities to suit themselves. In 
many places there will be but one school for all; in many others there will be separate 
schools. That is a matter of but little importance, and one which need uot and cannot be 
regulated by legislation. Only drive tiie spirit of caste from its intrcnchments in the statute, 
giving all equal educational rights under the laic, and the consequences will take care of 
tlumselves." 

COLOUED SCHOOLS IN CHICAGO. 

From tlie following note of Mr. Packard, superintendent of public schools in Chicago, 
addressed to the State superintendent of public instruction in Indiana, it appears that the 
experim.entof a separate school for the colored children was tried without satisfactory results. 
Why the school was abolished by the legislature does not appear : 

•'Korcne year, 1864 and 1865, the experiment of a separate colored school was tried. 
The school was disorderly and much trouble existed in the vicinity of the school. The legis- 
lature in 1864-'5 abolished this school, and since that time colored children have been 
admitted to the public schools on an equality with other childreu. Not a word of complaint 
has come, with perhaps one or two individual exceptions, arising from seating pupils — a 
matter v.liich is easily remedied. Colored children are admitted to our high school ; one 
graduated last year; others will graduate this year. All difficulty with the children of color 
lias di.-a|)peared, except such as may be common to all childreu who have had uo better 
advantages than themselves; we certainly have less frequent complaints than in the separate 
system." 



344 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

INDIANA. 

By the census of 1860 the population of Indiana was 1,350,428, and of this number 
]],428 were free colored; and towards this class a violent and persistent hostile legislation 
has been pursued from the earliest history of the State. 

The constitution in 1851 provides that "no negro or mulatto shall have the right of suffrage" 
and after the date of its adoption, " no negro or mulatto shall come into or settle in the 
State," and "all contracts made with such persons are declared void ;" and "any person 
who shall employ such negro or mulatto, or otherwise encourage him to remain in the State, 
shall be fined in any sum not less than $10 nor more than $500, such fines to be appropriated 
to the colonization of such negroes as desire to leave the State." The general assembly are 
directed to pass laws to give effect to these provisions. The utterly un-American, undemo 
cratic and unchristian character of these provisions has been frequently exposed, and 
particularly by the State superintendents of public instruction. Professor Hoss, in his 
report to the general assembly dated December 3!, J866, remarks : 

" I am fully aware of the public sensitiveness on this subject, hence conscious of t)ie 
difficulty of preventing it. If the time ever was in Indiana when it was honestly believed, 
that the colored man could be kept out of the State by stringent legislatioti, that time lias 
passed and that belief cannot exist now, unless in an illiberal or prejudiced mind. The 
severe logic of events proves the trutli of this assertion. These events and agencies, such 
as the abolition of slavery, the enactment of the civil rights bill, the nullitication of the I'.Jth 
article of the constitution of Indiana, and the changed and changing tone of public senti- 
ment concerning the colored man, are all of too recent a date and of too great a magnitude 
to require presentation here. 

" Therefore, whereas it is clear, f rst, that the colored man is to remain with us, i. e., in our 
State ; second, that he is being, and is to bo, clothed with new and larger powers of citizen- 
ship, it follows that he is becoming a greater force in both society and the State. Any 
force generated iu, or injected into, the social or political organism at once suggests the 
necessity of guidance or control ; uncontrolled, evil if not ruin will ensue. But in a popular 
government like oui's, human force in the aspect now under consideration is most easily con- 
trolled for the good of society and the State when the party possessing and exerting such 
force is educated. The constitution of our State broadly and explicitly recognizes the above 
truth as applied to governments. The constitution holds the following : ' knowledge and 
learning generally diffused throughout a community, being essential (italicizing mine) to 
the preservation of a free government,' it becomes the duty of the legislature to provide a 
system of common schools and other means of securing popular intelligence, also to encour- 
age ' moral, intellectual, and scientific improvement.' 

'■ Therefore, the above granted true, it follows that the welfare of the government, i. e., the 
State, requires the education of all the community, hence of the colored man. A non- 
sequitur can hardly be pleaded here by saying the negro is not a citizen. If such were true, 
it is not material to the argument, as the constitution speaks not narrowly of citizens only, 
but of members of community in general. Hence under the narrowest logic and most pre- 
judiced definition of terms, the constitution includes the colored man as an element of that 
community throughout which ' knowledge and learning are to be diffased.' Therefore, the 
above true, the constitution seems clearly to contemplate the education of colored children. 

" But, granting the above all true, we are in the lower story of tlie argument, nan;ely, among 
policies and expediencies, Avhich look to the ' preservation of a free government.' Let 
none suppose that I do not regard this a great, a glorious object. It is both great and 
glorious, yet justice may be as great and glorious. 

"The question occurs, how far justice will sustain the State in closing, or at leastrefusing 
to open, the avenues of knowledge to the eager minds of several thousand members of the 
community. 

" Independent of recent events, I submit that these children are as clearly entitled to their 
' share of the congressional township revenue as any children iu the State. Congress in 
granting this land did not use the now ambiguous term 'citizen,' but the plainer term 
'inhabitant,' saying that ' section numbered 16 in every township ^' '' shall be 

granted to the inhabitants of such township for the use of schools.' Consequently, every 
colored child resident of the State, being an ' inhabitant'' of some one of the congressional 
townships, is entitled to its pro rata of the congressional revenue of that township. 

" Second and higher, I suppose it will bo granted that there are claims liigiiur than the 
claims of mere inhabitancy, namely the claims of a human being as such. I'ho claims of a 
colored man are the claims of a human being with human responsibilities, human aspira- 
tions, with human hopes and sympathies, and bearing as others bear, marred by sin, the 
image of his Creator. Hence both State policy and justice say that he should be educated. 
" Deference to the extreme sensitiveness of public opinion maysay, wail for a more oppor- 
tune time. If it be true that this be not the time, the time is coming, and couiing surely if 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 345 

not speedily. 'The mills of God grind slowly, but surely.' Justice, like truth, bides her 
time, but executes her mission. 

"If the legislature shall deem it wise to inaugurate a movement looking to the above end, 
I would respectfully submit the following in aid of this result : 

" ]. That the scliool trustees open separate schools for colored children, when a given number 
of such children of school age reside within attending distance. Probably that number could 
not safely be less than 15. 

"2. In case in any neighborhood the number of children be less than 15, then the distribu- 
tive share of revenue due each colored child shall be set apart for the education of such child 
in such manner as the proper school trustee shall provide. 

" 3. Make it specially obligatory upon the trustee to make some provision for theeducation 
of the children to the extent of the money set apart for the same, as provided in case 
second." 

Mr. Hobbs, in his annual report submitted December 31, 1868, remarks: 

"We cannot avoid the grave consideration, that there is a large colored population in the 
State who have hitherto submitted ]3atiently to the ordeal of adverse public sentiment and 
the force of our statutes, in being denied participation in the benefits of our public school 
funds, while at the same time no bar can be discovered to their natural and constitutional 
right to them. By the grants of Congress, whence mainly we derive these funds, no exclu- 
sion is made. They were evidently designed for the citizens of the State without regard to 
color. Whatever additions our States may have made, they are still known as one ' common 
school fund.' But whatever distinctions may have been made in the rights and privileges 
of citizens by our laws, they have been set aside by the emendations of our national con- 
stitution and the 'civil rights bill.' All citizens are now equal before the law. Colored 
citizens, while hitherto deprived of their natural and constitutional rights, have been subject 
to the speriid school tax for township purposes in common with ichile citizens, and have thus 
paid their proportion of expense for building school-houses for white children. After being 
denied all privilege to the school funds and thus taxed, they have been under the necessity 
of levying on themselves an additional tax to build their own school-houses and for the 
entire cost of their tuition. The liistorian will find this a dark chapter in our history. 

" Whatever elements of ignorance and incompetency the population of a State may contain, 
is so much that may damage its prosperity and safety. How can we inspire these people 
with gratitude and patriotism, and win them to the support of law and virtue, when we repel 
them by cold indifference and deny them their natural aud constitutional rights?" 

To reach a safe decision, founded on the experience of other States, as to the true policy 
of dealing with this portion of the population, the superintendent ascertained by correspond- 
ence the practice of other free States in this regard, and finds that "Illinois and Indiana 
are alone of States north of Mason and Dixon's line" in denying educational privileges to 
colored citizens, and urges that " the deeply seated prejudices in the niiuds of many citizens 
should yield to duty, justice, und humanity." 

IOWA. 

Iowa had in 1860 a population of 674,913 inhabitants, of whom 1,069 were free blacks. 
By the constitution of 1857 the right of suffrage was limited to white male citizens; "but 
by sundry amendments," writes the late Franklin D. Wells, superintendent of public 
instruction, to the superintendent of schools in Indiana, " to our State constitution submitted 
to the people, and by them adopted at the election on the 3d of Noveaiber, 1868, by nearly 
30,000 majority, a man's rights and privileges are no longer determined by the color of his 
skin. Colored citizens of Iowa are entitled to vote, to hold office, and hold property ; are a part 
of the militia, and are entitled to the benefits of our public school .system on the same foot- 
ing with white citizens. Wherever the word ' white' occurred in the constitution it has 
been stricken out." 

KANSAS. 

In 1860 Kansas had a population of 107,206, of wliidi number 625 were free colored per- 
sons. 

By the constitution adopted July 29, 1861, the right of suffrage is restricted to white 
male persons; but the first school law provides that equal educational advantages "shall be 
extended to all children in the State." A clause in the law leaves it to the discretion of the 
board of directors to establish separate schools for the colored children ; but the legislature, 
in 1867, provided that when any children are denied admittance to a public school by vote 



346 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLOKED POPULATION 

or action of the directors, the members of such board shall each pay a fine of $100 for any 
school month the children are thus excluded. 

The people of this State have from its earliest settlement been imbued with the spirit of 
freedom ; and their legislation in reference to educational matters has consequently been 
free from invidious discriminations as to the several races. Their schools are generally open 
to black and to white children alike ; and it is only at a few points, where large numbers of 
negro emigrants are to be found, that schools for colored children exist separately. About 
]5 of these schools have been established and maintained through benevolent agencies ; 
among which may be mentioned the American Missionary Association, the Michigan and 
the' Northwestern branches of the American Freedmen's Union Commission, and the 
General Assembly of the Presbyterian church, old school. The last of these, operating 
through a standing committee originally formed in 1864, and reorganized in (he following 
year, has labored with praiseworthy efficiency not only in this State but also in Tennessee, 
Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Arkansas, and the District of 
Columbia. Its mission in Kansas is located at Quiudaro, where, under the superintendence 
of the Ptev. E. Blachly, D. D., 

THE QUINDARO HIGH SCHOOL 

has been established. This institution, situated on the western bank of the Missouri river, 
and on the line of the Pacific railroad, is readily accessible from every quarter. In the face 
of great discouragements it has gone quietly forward, and had, at the date of its last cata- 
logue, 180 students, 95 of whom were males and 85 females. Colonel F. A. Seely, the 
superintendent of education under the Freedmen's Bureau, in speaking of this institution 
says: "In respect to orderly conduct, thoroughness of instruction, and advancement in 
study, this school is unsurpassed." It is the purpose of its trustees to establish a depart- 
ment of theological instruction, and to this end they are desirous to secure the services of 
an efficient teacher in that branch. The property of the institution, valued at fi6,200, con- 
sists at present of a commodious seminary building and three dwelling houses for teachers. 
Besides this, the trustees hope to secure 200 acres of land, so as to add a manual labor feature 
to their promising institution. 

KENTUCKY. 

Out of a population of 1,555,634, in 1880, 33 6,167 were blacks, and of these 10,684 were 
free and 225,483 were slaves. 

In 1738 Kentucky was included in what was then formed into the county of Augusta, in 
Virginia. In 1769 Botetourt county was cut off from the county of Augusta; in 1772 Fin- 
castle was cut off from Botetourt ; and in 1776, the first year of the com.monwealtli of Vir- 
ginia, Fincastle was divided into three counties, Washington, Montgomery, and Kentucky, 
the latter constituting what is now the State, and which was originally the hi;oting and bat- 
tle ground of the savages, north and south, from whom it received the name Cane-tuck-ee, 
signifying " the dark and bloody ground." 

In the compact with Virginia, in 1789, by which Kentucky was empowered to originate 
an independent State, "free male inhabitants above the age of 21 years" were designated 
as electors; and the constitution, adopted June 1, 1800, declared " every free male citizen, 
negroes, mulattoes, and Indians excepted," of the age of 21 years, to be electors. It also 
prohibited the emancipation of slaves by the general assembly, without the consent of the 
owner, but gave to slaves the right of "an impartial trial by a petty jury" in charges of 
felony. 

The first legislation in the State, on the subject of the colored people, declared that no per- 
sons should be slaves in the State, except those who were slaves on the 17th of October, 1785, 
and their descendants ; and in other respects the laws were essentially the same as those of 
Virginia, in relation to the colored population, until 1792. In 1816, and also in 1830, strin- 
gent laws were enacted to preventcruelty in the treatment of slaves, and in 18.33 theimport- 
ation of slaves was forbidden under a penalty of $600 for each offense. No laws are found 
on the statute books of Kentucky forbidding the instruction of slaves. 



IN EESPECT TO SCnOOLS A^D EDUCATION. 3-17 

In 1830 a school system was establisLc], by which school districts had the power to tax 
the iuhabitants of the district for scliool purposes. lu tliis provision the property of colorotl 
people was included, although they could not vote nor have the benefits of the school. 
The provision for a full tax not exceeding 50 cents was, however, confined to "every tcliite 
male inhabitant over 20 years of age ; but the right to vote in the school district meelicg 
was iu certain cases extended to white females over 21 years of age. The Revised Statutes 
of 1852 provided that " any widow, having a child between six and 18 years of age should 
be allowed to vote in person, or by written proxy." But colored children were excluded 
from the district school, even though their parents were taxed for its support. 

In 1SG4 the school laws were revised, but the benefits of the system were still confined to 
free white children. In 18i>7, however, an act was passed and approved March [), " for the 
benefit of the negroes and inulattoes " of the State, providing that all taxes collected from 
negroes and mulattoes shall be set apart and constitute a separate fund "for their use, one- 
half, if necessary, to be applied to the support of their paupers and the remainder to the 
education of their children. An additional tax of $2 was also to be levied upon every male 
negro 18 years of age, for this fund. Separate schools may be established in each district, 
for the sujiport of which they are to receive their proportion of the appropriate fund. As to 
the operation of this law the State superintendent, (Z. F. Smith,) in his annual report, dated 
March 25, 1868, remarks as follows: 

"The new law, approved March 9, 1887, has not operated to the satisfaction of its 
framers, as was hoped. I think the following extract from a letter of one of our commis- 
sioners explains the chief ground of difficulty : 

" ' There were no' colored schools taught in my county in 1867, under the supervision of 
trustees ; consequently none reported. The trustees have all been apprised of the fact that 
the law makes it their duty to have colored schools taught. But they reply " the law says 
they niaij have, but don't say they shall liave, colored. schools taught in their districts." The 
trustees therefore are perfectly indift'erent iu regard to colored schools.'" 

" There is nothing obligatory in the laAv making the trustees responsible for neglecting its 
enforcement. They have no personal interest in its operations, and to leave its execution to 
the chance impulses of the spirit of philanthropy is a very doubtful reliance for the applica- 
tion of a general law. The difficulties are magnified, also, by the fact that there exists yet 
in some quarters much of morbid and unreasonable prejudice against legislating in any way 
for the benefit of the colored population, and especially for the education of their children. 
Trustees do not like always to encounter this prejudice, especially when they conclude that 
they have no personal interest in so doing, and the law is left to become a dead letter. 

"I prepared some amendments to the law, which, I thought, would make it practicable 
and efficient ; but these did not seem to meet the approval generally of the legislators, and 
were not adopted. But another amendment was introduced, and became a law, which 
requires all the revenues from taxes collected of negroes and mulattoes to be used, lirst, for 
pauper purposes; and, if there should beany excess, for school purposes. The amendment 
is published as part of this report. With the embarrassing provisions of the original law, 
it virtually destroys the practicability of existing legislation to furnish the colored people 
Avi!h any educational advantages. I think there is little hope of accomplishing any tiling 
for the education of the negroes until a law, independent of any pauper scheme, is passed, 
and the execution of 'such law left, iuits details, to agencies from among their own people." 

SCHOOLS FOR FREEDMEN. 

The attempts to establish schools for colored children have encountereij greater obstacles, 
perhaps, in Kentucky than in any other of the former slave States. As it did not engage in 
the rebellion as a State, slavery only ceased there upon the official announcement, on the 10th 
day of December, 1865; and until then no colored child within its limits was by law per- 
mitted to go to school. On accounlt of its quasi loyalty, the Freedmen's Bureau has had but 
little power there, while the opposition prompted by intense local prejudice to the education 
of the blacks has deterred northern benevolent societies from sending their teachers to a 
quarter where they could not expect adequate protection. Then, too, the freedmen who had 
enlisted iu great numbers in the Union army returned to their homes at the close of the war, 
with a manful worthiness well attested by courage on the battle-field, and by their eager 
desire for mental improvement, but hampered by a degree of poverty that hindered them in 
many instances from doing anything to secure instruction for themselves or their children. 
Yet, iu spite of all these obstacles, the educational work which had been begun in the camps 



348 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

of colored troops, at such brief intervals as are afforded by a soldier's life, found its continu- 
ance, on the return of peace and the subsequent proclamation of liberty. More than 30 
schools with an attendance of over 4,000 pupils were soon in operation at different points in 
the State. Most of these schools were taught by colored teachers, and mainly supported by 
the freed people themselves. In Lexington, Frankfort, Danville, and, perhaps, one or two 
other places, public opinion looked somewhat favorably upon this innovation; but else- 
where great opposition to it was manifested not only in opprobrious words, but often in acts 
of violence. Still, in the face of all these discouragements, the work of enlightenment went 
on increasing, until, at the close of the school-year in 1868, 178 schools were reported in Ken- 
tucky, with an enrolment of 8,189 pupils. 

For a time it seemed that liberal views would influence the legislation of this State in 
behalf of the education of its freedmen. By an act approved February 16, 1866, it was pro- 
vided that the taxes collected from negroes and mulattoes should be " set apart as a separate 
fund for their use, one-half, if necessary, to go to the support of their paupers, and the 
remainder to the education of their children." Under this law, v/hich permitted separate 
schools for colored children, but failed to make their establishment obligatory, a few hundred 
dollars were appropriated in accordance with its provisions, during the year following its 
enactment. In 18G7, it was amended so as to entitle each colored child attending school for 
at least three months during the year to receive $2 50 from taxes collected within its county. 
But the assembly of 1868 rescinded the doings of the preceding assemblies and directed that 
all taxes collected from negroes and mulattoes should be devoted only to the support of their 
paupers. 

It is well that in this desert there is an oasis or two for the eye to rest i:pon. Such an 
oasis is 

BEREA COLLEGE. 

Berea College was established in Madison county in 1858, and which was an outgrowth 
of the missionary work of the Rev. John G. Fee, a native Kentuckian, and of his co-labor- 
ers, under the care of the American Missionary Association. From its commencement its 
founders took quiet but firm ground against the spirit of caste ; and it is, therefore, not to be 
wondered' at that in the popular agitation consequent on the John Brown raid this school 
fell a prey to lawless fanaticism. Its teachers were driven into exile and its students scat- 
tered. The rebellion soon followed ; and, after the w^ar which crushed out both the rebellion 
and slavery, its cause, most of the Berea exiles returned to their homes. The school was 
re-opened January 1, 18G5 ; and, although its trustees steadfastly adhered to their position 
not to tolerate distinctions of color and race, its success has exceeded the sanguine expecta- 
tions of its friends. The last catalogue showed 301 students in attendance, about one-third 
of whom were white, and the remainder colored. 

Berea College has an able corps of instructors, made up as follows, viz : Rev. J. G. Fee, 
A. M., president and lecturer on Biblical Antiquities and the Evidence^ of Christianity. 

Rev. J. A. R. Rogers, A.M., principal, and teacher of Latin and Mathematics. 

Rev. W. E. Lincoln, teacher of Greek, Rhetoric, &c. 

Teachers : Mrs. Louie M. Lincoln, Miss Eliza M. Snedeker, Miss Louisa Kaiser, Miss Jen- 
nie Donaldson. 

THE ELY NORMAL SCHOOL, LOUISVILLE. 

The Ely normal school was formally dedicated April 6, 1868, with appropriate exercises, 
including addresses by the Rev. Messrs. Hayward, Cravath, Right Rev. B. B. Smith, Bishop 
of Kentucky, the Hon. Bland Ballard, the Hon. James Speed, and others. It received its 
name in compliment to General John Ely, who, as chief superintendent of freedmen's 
affairs, first organized the bureau in this State, and by faithful labors in behalf of the freed- 
men, both in redressing their wrongs and in securing their just prerogatives, had merited 
their lasting gratitude. 

This school is delightfully situated. It is located on a corner lot having one front of 100 
feet on Broadway, the finest street in the city, and another of 220 feet on 14th street. In 
point of convenience and simple architectural beauty the building has no superior m the 



city. It is a two-storied structure, built of the best quality of brick, is 50 by 70 feet iu 
extent, and contains nine rooms suitably furnished for its purposes. The total cost of this 
handsome property was $20,000, of which sum the government appropriated the sum of 
$12,300. 

This institution is under the control of the American Missionary Association, and has an 
attendance of over 400 pupils. Mr. A. H. Robbins, a graduate of Oberlin College is its 
superintendent. 

The following tables, prepared by Professor Vashon, give the number of scholars and 
attendance, as well as teachers and studies for ISGT-'GS. 

Tabic giving the number of schools, teachers, scholars, and attendance. 



Year. 


Number of schools. 


Numbpr of teacht^-s. 


Number of scholars. 


rt 6 

£•3 


"a 


Day. Night. 


Total. 


White. 


Colored. Total. 


Male. 


Female. 


Total. 




1866 




35 

107 
178 




58 






4,122 
6,371 
8,182 






1867 

1868 


88 14 
155 23 


36 
37 


98 124 
155 190 


2, 765 
3,741 


3,606 
4,441 


5,396 
6,236 


84 
76 







Table shoicing the ninabcr in different studies, and cost of maintaining schools. 





Number of scholars 


in different studies pursue 


d. 


Expended in support of 
schools. 


Year. 


ci 


i 

li 

d 




a 


1 

Eb 

o ■ 


g 
< 


"3) s 


£ ?' 


o 

n 


o 


1867 


834 
984 


3,160 
3,584 


1,883 
2,476 


2.310 
2,810 


1,332 
1,770 


2, 355 
2,810 


388 
490 


$21,736 
17, 138 


$10,027 
20, 996 


$31, 763 
33, 134 


1868 









LOUISIANA. 



By the census of 1880 there were 708,002 inhabitants, of whom nearly one-half were blacks, 
viz : 331,7-J6 slaves, and 18,647 free ; a total of 350,373. 

By the treaty of Paris, April 30, 1803, for the purchase of the province of Louisiana, it Avas 
stipulated that " the inhabitants of the ceded territory " should be admitted to " all the rights, 
advantages, and immunities of citizens of the United States." As early as January, 1805, a 
law was enacted bj- the territorial legislature of Orleans, containing a provision as to the 
mode of selling slaves at auction ; and in May of that year an act was passed " for the pun- 
ishment of crimes and misdemeanors," which declared that nothing iu tliQ act should be 
construed to extend to slaves, but that they should be punished for the specified otienscs 
by '■ the laws of Spain for regulating her colonies." The " Black Code," approved June 7, 
1806, was rigorous, but protected slaves from outrage. By it slaves were to have the enjoy- 
ment of Sundays ; or, if employed, to receive 50 cents a day. But by the same code it was 
declared that "no slave can possess anything in his own right or dispose of the proceeds of 
his industry without the consent of his master," No slave was permitted to go out of the 
plantation to which he belonged without written permission, under a penalty of 20 lashes. 
Free people of color were never "to presume to conceive themselves equal to the whites ; 
but they ought to yield to them in every occasion, and never speak to or answer them dis- 
respectfully," imder the penalty of imprisonment, according to the nature of the ofl'ense;" 
for the third offense of striking a white man, the slave might suffer death. 

In 1814 a law was passed forbidding any free negro or mulatto to .settle in the Territory, 
or remain in it more than two weeks after coming into it from another State ; and as apenalty, 
if unable to pay the fine and costs, he was to be sold to pay them. 

Louisiana was admitted into the Union April 30, 1812, and in September of that year av 



3n0 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

act was passed authorizing the orgauizalion of "a corps of militia," from among the free 
Creoles who had paid a State tax. The cominander of the corps was to be a white man, and 
the corps was to consist of four companies of 64 men each. In January, ]815, " an auxil- 
iary troop of free men of color" was authorized to be raised in the parish of Natchitoches, not 
exceeding 80 men, who were to famish themselves with arms and horses. Each member of 
the corps was to be the owner or the son of the owner " of some real property of the value of 
at least $150." In 1830 the prohibitions of the act of 1814 against the immigration of free 
people of color were re-asserted, with additional provisions of greater rigor. This act also 
provided that whoever should "write, print, publish, or distribute anything having a tendency 
to produce discontent among the free colored population, or insubordination among the 
slaves," should, on conviction, be imprisoned "at hard labor for life, or suffer death, at the 
discretion of the court." Whoever used language having a similar tendency, or was "instru- 
mental in bringing into the State anyjoaper, book, or pamphlet having such tendency," 
was to " suffer imprisonment at hard labor, not less than three years nor more than 21 years, 
or death, at the discretion of the court." It was also provided that " all persons who shall 
teach, or permit or cause to be taught, any slave to read cr write, shall be imprisoned not 
less than one month nor more than 12 months." 

From the headquarters, seventh military district, at Mobile, on the 21st of September, 
1814, General Andrew Jackson addressed a proclamation to the free colored inhabitants of 
Louisiana, inviting them to participate in the military movements of that section of the 
country, "as a faithful return for the advantages enjoyed under her mild and equitable gov- 
ernment," with the same pay in bounty money and land received by white soldiers. On 
the 18th of December he reviewed the troops, white and colored, and in the address calcu- 
lated to awaken their enthusiastic ardor, he said to the colored soldiers: "I expected much 
from you, for I was not uninformed of those qualities which must render you so formidable 
to an invading foe. I knew that you could endure hunger and thirst, and all the hardships 
of war. I knew that you loved the land of your nativity, and that, like ourselves, you had 
to defend all that is most dear to man. But you surpass my hopes. I have found in you, 
united to those qualities, that noble enthusiasm which impels to great deeds." 

In 1847 a system of public schools for " the education of white youth " was established, 
by which " one mill on the dollar, upon the ad valorem amount of the general list of taxable 
property," might be levied for its support. The income from the sale of the public lands 
donated by Congress was given for the same purpose. In 1857 an act was passed forbid- 
ding the emancipation of slaves ; and this was the last legislation on the subject previous 
to the rebellion. 

By the act of January 3, 1864, the article of the then existing civil code which declared 
that there were in the State " two classes of servants, to wit, free servants and the slaves," 
was changed so as to declare " there is only one class of servants in this State, to wit, free 
servants." In 1867 an act establishing a system of free schools in Batoji Rouge limited the 
taxation for theiv support and their benefits to the white population. By the constitution, 
ratified April 23, 1868, all discrimination based on race, color, or previous condition, are pro- 
hibited in the public schools. Under the operations of this provision $70,000 were appi'o- 
priated to the support of schools for colored children. 

freedmen's schools. 

For the following account and tables of the schools for colored children in Louisiana, since 
1865, we are indebted to Professor Vashon: 

Prior to the rebellion the only schools for colored children in Louisiana, were a few private 
ones in the city of New Orleans, among that somewhat favored class of mixed blood known 
as "Creoles." Even these schools, although not in contravention of any specific law, were 
barely tolerated by a community whose criminal code declared, that to teach a slave to read 
dtid write, was an offense "having a tendency to excite insubordination among the servile 
class, and punishable by imprisonment at hard labor for not more than 21 years, or by death 
at the discretion of the court." Thus, even the wealthy tax-paying persons of the pro- 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AXD EDUCATION. 351 

scribed race, as well as its less fortunate members, were debarred from any participation iu 
the bcucfits of the system of public iustructiou provided by law. 

Only oue attempt to open a school for the poor of the colored people of this State is to be 
noted. Mrs. Mary D. Brice. of Ohio, a student of Antioch College, went with her husband 
to New Orleans in December, 1858, feeling that she was called by heaven to make this 
attempt. Poor and unaided, she was unable to begin her school until September, 1860 ; and 
so great was the popular outcry against the proceedings, that she was compelled to close it 
the following year. After the lapse of five months, receiving, as she believed, a divine inti- 
mation that she would be sustained, she reopened her school ; and iu spite of frequent 
warnings and threats, persisted in teaching until the triumph of the Union forces under 
Farragut, in April, 18G-2, made it safe for her to do so. With the advent of these forces, too, 
a few other private teachers appeared in response to the urgent call of the colored people for 
instruction. 

In October, 1863, the first public colored schools were established by the commissioners of 
enrolment, created by order of Major General Banks, then commanding the Department of 
the Gulf. Soon seven of these were in operation under the charge of 23 teachers, and having 
au average attendance of 1,422 scholars. On March 22, 1SR4, General Banks issued his 
general order No. 38, which created a board of education for freedmen in the Department of 
the Gulf, with power to establish common schools, employ teachers, erect school houses, 
regulate the course of studies, and have, generally, the same authority that assessors, super- 
visors and trustees have in the northern States, in the matter of establishing and conducting 
common schools. The purpose of this order was stated to be "for the rudimental instruc- 
tion of the freedmen of the department, placing within their reach those elements of knowl- 
edge which give intelligence and greater value to labor." And for the accomplishment of 
this purpose the board was empowered to assess and levy upon all real and personal property, 
taxes sufficient to defray the expense of the schools established, for the period of one year. 
On the first day of the following month, the schools already established were transferred to 
this board, which also accepted other schools that had been recently opened under the 
auspices of benevolent societies, and provided additional ones in 14 other parishes. In the 
performance of its duties the board encountered great difficulties, not only in obtaining suit- 
able school accommodations, but also in taking measures to guard against attacks by guerilla 
bauds, aud to repress the opposition of persons professedly loyal. But it labored energetic- 
ally, and in December, 1864, it reported as under its supervision 95 schools, 162 teachers, 
and U,571 scholars. 

The system of schools thus established continued to progress satisfactorily until Novem- 
ber 7, 1865, when the power to levy the tax was suspended. This suddenly deprived the 
schools of nearly all their support. Through the restoration of property to pardoned rebels 
too, many of the buildings used for school purposes had to be given up. The consequence 
of all this was that the number of colored schools in Louisiana, which bad increased to 150, 
was speedily cut down to 73. In this sad juncture of affairs the freedmen manifested the 
most profound solicitude, and thousands of them expresed a willingness to endure, and even 
petitioned for increased taxation, in order that the means for supporting their schools might 
be obtained. 

But the depression in educational matters thus caused did not long continue. The north- 
ern benevolent societies came to the rescue, and labored with increased zeal in this crisis. 
The freedmen, too, strenuously insisted upon the fuUfilment of the contracts which required 
planters to provide means of instruction for their children, while the planters themselves 
found their manifest profit in aiding to build school houses, thus securing willing and indus- 
trious laborers. Through the operation of these combined causes, the schools of Louisiana 
not only regained their highest number under the system created by military authority, but 
even doubled it, thus manifesting a prosperity which, it is hoped, will long continue. 



352 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION" 

Number of schools, teachers, and pupils, 1865 to 1868. 





Kumber of scbools. 


Number of teachers. 


Number of scholars. 




a 


Year. 


Day. 


Night. 


Total. 


White. 


Colored. 


Total. 


Male. Female. 
1 


Total. 




1865 






150 

73 

300 

225 






265 
90 

294 
273 







19, 000 
3, 3H8 
10, 7G3 
10, 745 


"'2,' 09.3' 
9, 383 

8, 265 




]80() 










62 


3867 


195 
162 


105 
63 


, 142 


152 


5, G40 
5, 622 


5,063 
5,123 


87 


1868 


151 ]22 


76 











Studies and expenses, 1867 and 1868. 





Number of scholars in differ 


eut studies pursued. 


Expenditures in 
of schools 


support 


fear. 




^ 


"^ . 




b 


_d 


r ^ 


c 


.: 




















■3 










































fcDa 












>> 






tjj 




S =2 







s 






cj 


< '" 


,- 




•-- 




>, 


>, 







< 


H 


^ 





<l 




M 


P5 


H 


1857 


2 636 


4 C:67 


3 044 


3,951 
3, 696 


2 150 


3 356 


501 


139, 230 
52, 866 


$7, 537 
7,150 


|46, 767 


18G8 


1,718 


4, 229 


3,374 


2,974 


4,020 


513 


60, 016 





MAINE. 

■ By the census of 18G0 the population of Maine was 628,279, of whom 1,327 were free 
blacks. 

By the constitution of 1820 the right of suffrage is not affected by color or race, and the 
common school is open to all children of the community for which it is established. 

MARYLAND. 

' By the census of 1860 Maryland had 687,049 inhabitants, of whom 171,131 were blacks, 
viz : 87, 189 slaves and 83,942 free. 

By constitutional provision from 1776 down to 1867, the right of suffrage has been 
restricted to white male citizens having certain qualifications. 

By early legal enactments, ihe earliest in 1633, the poor negro slave was treated as not to 
be numbered among the Christian inhabitants, and in 1692 it was provided that the sacra- 
ment of baptism should not be construed to work the freedom or manumission of any negro 
or slave. In 1695 "the frequent assembling of negroes within the province" was pro- 
hibited, and in 1723 this restriction was specifically extended " to the Sabbath and other 
holidays." Although numerous enactments of similar character were made down to the 
abolition of slavery, no statute of Maryland that we have read ever expressly prohibited the 
instruction of either its free or slave colored population. And there were not wanting at all 
times in her history men, like Bacon, Bray, and Boucher, who urged the duty of preparing 
the way for the emancipation of the slaves and of mitigating its evils by Christian teaching. 

By the constitution of 1864 it is made imperative on the general assembly, at its first 
session after' the adoption of this fundamental law, " to provide a uniform system of free 
public schools," and " to levy at each regular session an annual tax of not less than 10 cents 
on each $100 of taxable property, for the support of free public schools," to be distributed 
to the several counties "in proportion to their respective population between the ages of 5 and 
20 years." 

One of the earliest schools for colored children in Baltimore was the St. Frances academy, 
ostablished in 1831, in connection with the Oblate Sisters of Providence Convent, some 
account of which has been given already. 

The Wells school, so called in memorial of Nelson Wells, a colored man, who left by will 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 353 

to trustees the sum of $7,000, the income alone to be applied to the education of free colored 
children, was opened about 1835, and has been maintained as a free school ever since. 

In 18G4 an association was formed in Baltimore, comprised principally of members of the 
Society of Friends, " for the moral and educational iajprovement of the colored people," and 
before the close of their first year's operations it had 7 schools in the city and 18 schools in 
the county in successful operation, with an aggregate of about 3,000 scholars, at an expense 
of !|9,5t5G ; and at the end of the second year there were 79 schools, with 7,300 pupils, at an 
expense of $52,^)^)1. 

In submitting a bill for " a uniform system of public instruction for the State of Marijland," 
Dr. Van Bokkelen, the State superintendent, provided for the establishment of separate 
schools for children and youth of African descent, iu all respects equal to schools designed 
for the education of other children and subject in every particular to the same rules as to 
teachers, text-books, «&c. On these provisions he makes the following comments : 

"Maryland has given fi'eedom to or removed the stain of degraded servility from more 
than one-fourth of her people. It remains for her to vindicate the policy and humanity of 
this act of emancipation, by fitting its recipients for their new privileges and obligations. 
Shall we leave these colored people in ignorance and permit them to degenerate until they 
become worthless and vicious, inmates of almshouses or of jails? or shall we educati; them, 
make them intelligent, virtuous, useful? Upon the action of the general assembly depends 
the fact whether freedom shall be fraught with richest blessings, or leave the iVeedman no 
better than when he was a slave, unless he avails himself of his new facilities for change of 
residence and leaves us for a more favored latitude. 

" I have no doubt as to what duty demands, no doubt but that duty wdl be our guide. 
These freedmen and those who have been degraded because of the same color as the slave, 
must be educated ; they must be made intelligent and skillful, according to their capacity ; 
they must have every opportunity that intelligent legislation and a sense of moral obligation can 
give them. It is their right as much as that of white children, for they have to do their part 
to develop the resources of the State, and they have to bear their full proportion of taxation 
upon every dollar of property which they own or may earn. Hence it is proposed that they 
shall have schools ; schools adapted to their wants ; schools as good as any in the State, 
and have a fair opportunity to show what they can do when they have a fair chance. 

" Private benevolence has commenced the work which properly belongs to the State, and 
agencies are now in successful operation to wliich the taxes collected from colored persons 
can be paid over for the benefit of their own children. 

" I am informed that the amount of school tax paid annually by these people to educate 
white children in the city of Baltimore for many years has been more than |.500. The rule 
of fair play would require that this be refunded, unless the State at once provides schools 
under this title." 

These recommendations were not heeded, but the superintendent, in his first annual report 
after the inauguration of the system, dated December 30, 1865, urges immediate and liberal 
action in the following earnest language : 

" By the friends of universal education our system of public instruction will not be recog 
nized as such, unless it provides for all the children in the State. Knowledge is better than 
ignorance, and virtue is better than vice, and therefore it is wise that the opportunity of 
instruction shall be proffered to all who have minds to be cultivated or moral sentiments to 
be developed. If ignorance leads to idleness and crowds our almhouses with paupers — if 
vice tends to crime and fills our jails and penitentiaries with wretched convicts — then it is 
good policy to open the school-house to every child whom ignorance may degrade or vice 
corrupt. It matters not what may be the color of the skin or the fand of nativity, the shape 
of the cranium or the height of the cheek-bones, whether the child be of Indian or African, 
European or Asiatic descent ; his ignorance will be a blight and his vice a curse to the com- 
munity in which he lives. 

" Whether the pauper be white or black, the tax to support him is equally great ; and it 
costs as much to conduct the trial by which an Americo-African or a Chinese is convicted of 
crime, as it would were he of the superior race. All the economic arguments, therefore, 
which are advanced for the education of the white child are equally applicable to the black. 
They are even more forcible, because the colored race, having been so long degraded by 
ignorance, needs education the more. 

"We cannot reconcile it to sound judgment that any portion of our thinking population be 
deprived of instruction ; if knowledge be good for any, it is good for all. Yet we record the 
fact that Maryland, while devising a uniform system of what is termed public instruction, 
closed the school door agamst one-fourth of her people, they representing one-half of her 
laboring population. 

"We all know that the prosperity of our State and the development of her vast resources 
depend upon the skill and intelligence of the industrial classes. The labor of Maryland is 
her wealth. The more persevering and expert the labor, the greater and more valujvble its 
23 



354 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

product. The virtue of the laboring class is the strong:est incentive to preserving industry, 
and the only certain assurance that the gains of diligence will be well applied and frugally 
consumed. 

" What, then, must be the result if, through prejudice or because of a short-sighted policy, 
we cramp the minds and thus pervert the morals of one-half of our laborers? what it', instead 
of energizing the mass of muscle by an active brain, we withhold the influences of education ? 
what if, instead of developing those moral sentiments which counsel temperance and 
frugality, we give the low vices a chance to grow in the rank soil of ignorance '? Will the 
State become any richer by such a course ? Will it be more desirable as a home ? Will the 
poor-tax and jail-tax be lessened? Will property be more valuable or shall we be more 
honored because we have kept a portion of our people down ? These are questions for 
citizens of Maryland to ponder. Tiiey have a very significant claim upon our thoughts. 
They involve our interests and even our dignity as a civilized and progressive community of 
intelligent and liberal-minded men. They are directly, intimately, connected with the edu- 
cation of the colored persons who are among tis, who intend to remain with us, and whose 
services we need ; the services of every one of them, and even more ; for the cry from all 
sections of the State is that labor is scarce, and industrious workmen can find prompt and 
abundant work. 

" Other reasons may be urged why schools ought to be opened for colored children. These 
people for many years have been to us faithful servants they have tilled our fields; and 
worked in our dwellings, performing acceptably all those duties which increase the conveni- 
ences and comforts of social liie. They have been our hewers of wood and drawers of water. 
Generation after generation has followed our bidding and helped to earn for us what we 
pi ssess. In our homes their kind hearts have attracted the love of our children, and the 
faithful nurse is remembered with affection and treated even with respect. Now that they 
are free and provide for themselves — and this by no act of theirs, but by our will— our duty 
is to educate them, to give them knowledge enough to know bow to provide for themselves. 
Grant them at least this much of the inheritance, that they may be able to take care of them- 
selves and their families, and become valuable members of the. community. This we owe 
to the colored people. To educate them is our duty as well as our interest. 

" The constitutional provision by which the school money is divided according to population, 
without regard to color, I think imposes upon us a legal obligation to educate all children 
without reference to caste, class, or condition ; and therefore, in framing the bill which was 
presented to the general assembly, I considered it my duty, as under the constitution, to pro- 
vide separate schools for colored children, just as I would for any other class that I found in 
the State which could not mingle with the white children. 

' ' Money is appropriated and therefore ought to be irsed for colored schools. According to 
the constitution, all the money received from the 15-cent State tax is divided by the total 
number of persons between 5 and 20 years, white and black. Thus, $1 68 per year was 
apportioned to each person, and that sum multiplied by the total population between 5 and 
2U years gave the amount received by each county. Charles county, for instance, has 6,466 
persons between .5 and 20, she therefore receives $10,883 47. But by act of legislature 
she is released Irom the responsibility of educating 4,384 of those persons, they being black, 
and use the entire school money for the education of 2,082, thus receiving $5 for each. On 
the other hand, Alleghany county receives $18,284 24 for a population of 10,851, nearly all 
of whom have to be educated, there being only 464 colored children in the county ; thus 
receiving only $1 94 for each pupil. 

" This is an unjust discrimination in favor of certain counties. It 'alone would furnish 
sufficient reason for requiring separate schools to be opened for colored children, even were 
there no arguments upon economic and general grounds. 

" If the money is given for a specific purpose, it is the duty of legislators to require its 
faithful application. 

" While the State is holding back, an association of citizens, influenced by philanthropic 
motives, is endeavoring to make up our lack of duty. Their report shows 34 schools in the 
dift'erent parts of the State maintained by private liberality. The plan of operations for 
1866 embraces 116 schools, at an expense of $56,000. If nothing more can be done, this 
association ought at least to be authorized to draw from the treasury the amount paid for each 
colored child, but I trust the general assembly will put into the law the sections reported by 
me last February, directing that separate schools shall be established for the instruction of 
youth of African descent, whenever as many as 40 claim the privileges of public instruction ; 
these schools to be under the control of the board of school commissioners. 

"No person of intelligence pretends to doubt the capacity of colored children to acquire 
knowledge. The experience of the past three years settles this point very satisfactorily ; 
not only in our midst, but even in those portions of the south where slavery was more exact- 
ing, and the negroes were worked in large bodies upon the rice and cotton plantations, 
having very little intercourse with persons of any degree of intelligence. Our labor then 
will not be in vain, and I invoke the general assembly to nianifest its wisdom and philan- 
thropy by proffering the blessings of education to a class of children long neglected, whose 
parents have rendered faithful service, and by whose labor millions of dollars have been 
added to our wealth. 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 355 

" I leave politicians to discuss the question of suftVaj^e, but this much may be asserted, that 
while it is very doubtful whether the colored man is to be trusted with the ballot, there can be 
no doubt that he oughtto have the spelliujij book." 

In his second annual report, dated December 15, 1867, the superintendent submits the 
following remarks and statistics respecting schools for colored children : 

"No public organized plans have been adopted for the education of this class of children, 
except in the city of Baltimore, as reported last year. Schools iiave been continued in tie 
counties under the direction of the Baltimore Association for the Moral and Mental Improve- 
ment of Colored Persons, supported by contributions from benevolent associations, and 
the payment of tuition fees by the parents or friends of the children educated. 

"The extent and efficiency of this work are indicated by the following statistics furnished 
by the actuary of the Baltimore association : 

Summarij of statistics of schools for colored persons for year ending June 30, 1807. 

Total number of schools for colored persons 84 

In the city of Baltimore 22 

In 1 9 counties 62 

Number of pupils registered 8, GoO 

In the city 2,800 

In the counties 5, 800 

Average attendance 6, COO 

Number of teachers 89 

Number of months schools were open 9 

Total expense of 84 schools, including books, furniture, and supervision $61,808 50 

Average cost of each sch'^ol 734 02 

Average salary of each teacher 364 46 

Cost of each different pupil 7 19 

Cost of each average pupil 9 35 

Cost of each different pupil per month 80 

Contributions to sustain the schools were received from — 

Citizens of Baltimore $3,305 16 

Appropriation of city council 20, 000 00 

Associations in other States , 10,787 97 

Friends in England and Ireland 1, 144 23 

Colored people in the State 23,371 14 

Loan 3,200 OO 

"A normal school has been established in the city of Baltimore, in which teachers for 
colored schools are trained for their special work, and subjected to a rigorous examination 
before taking charge of a school. A large building has been purchased and furnished With 
all requisites for the success of the institution. 

"The schools for colored people iu the city of Baltimore were adopted by the city council 
in September, 1867, and are now conducted under the supervision of the city school com- 
missioners. 

"The large amount coiitributed by the colored people towards the support of their schools, 
being more than one-third the whole income, is proof of their interest in the education of 
their children, and is worthy of special commendation. It is the best guarantee that they 
will use faithfully whatever facilities may be given them for establishing a school system. 

" Upon this important topic I have nothing to add to the views presented in previous 
reports. The opinions then advocated have been strengthened by observation during ofScial 
visits. Whatever prejudice may have existed in the minds of some of oiir citizens on tiiis 
subject is rapidly disappearing, and I think it may be asserted that, wiiile there is not at 
present a willingness to educate colored children at the public expense, there is a readiness 
to grant them such facilities and encouragements as will not prove a burden upon the 
resources of the State." 

The general school law adopted in 1865, in pursuance of Article VIII in the constitution 
as revised in 1867, by which the system established in 1865 is abolished, dispenses with a 
State superintendent, but provides for an annual report by the principal of the State nor- 
mal school on the condition of the schools based on the reports of the county school com- 
missioners. The legislature by special act relating to the colored population, passed March 
30, 1868, provides as follows : 

"Section 1. The total amount of taxes paid for school purposes by the colored people of 
any county, or in the city of Baltimore, together witii au.y donations that may bo made for 
the purpose, shall be set aside for the maintaining tiie schools for colored children, which 
schools shall be conducted under the direction of the board of county school commission- 
ers or the board of commissioners of public schools of the city of Baltimore, and shall bo 
subject to such rules and regulations as said respective board shall prescribe." 



356 



LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 



Professor Newell, in the report required of him on the condition of schools in the State 
for the year ending September 30, 1868, embraces the following items and statements 
respecting the colored schools : 

"Inthecity of Baltimore there were 13 public schools for colored children with 1,312 
pupils on the roll, imder 29 teachers. These schools were maintained at an expense of $22,166, 
of which sum $2,856 were paid by the pupils in tuition." 

The school commissioners of Frederick county, after referring with just pride to the action 
of the State in extending liberal aid to the instruction of the blind, of the deaf mute, of the 
orphan, of the juvenile offender, and the adult criminal, remark : 

"And with all this her labor of amelioration is not complete, nor can it be until she meets 
squarely the question of State policy, which demands some attention to the mental and moral 
culture of her negro population. Shall this large and increasing population continue in its 
present ignorant and vicious condition? Does not every consideration of morality and 
enlarged benevolence, and indeed self- protection, plead the cause of the poor abject negro? 

" Torn from his relation to his master by a violent political convulsion, in which he acted 
no voluntary part ; thrown upon the world in his weakness, poverty, and ignorance, among 
a race with which, with equal advantages, he can never compete; is it wise, is it politic, that 
he should be left to grope back to his original barbarism ? This is a question of grave 
importance, and should be met promptly and without prejudice. Its postponement will only 
increase the burden; its neglect is cruel : he is tantalized with a personal liberty, whilst the 
shackles of ignorance and vice are riveted upon his mind and soul. To ameliorate his con- 
dition he is powerless. Give him education or take back that which has been thrust upon 
him — his personal liberty — which is but the instrument of his extermination." 

The school commissioner of Dorchester county remarks : 

"In obedience to the order of the board last summer, I visited the Jenifer Institute, a 
school for colored children in the town of Cambridge. My report of the admirable condition 
of the school, the perfect discipline maintained, the evidences of real progress made by the 
pupils, induced the board to take some action with regard to these schools. In a short time 
trustees were nominated to the board by the patrons of these schools, and confirmed, so that 
we have had a sort of oversight of them. The coloi'ed people seem most anxious to be under 
the control of the board, and the warm interest taken in their schools by the commissioners 
and the examiner is evidently most grateful to them. The amount of their school tax will 
be divided between the schools, but this amount is so small that they continue to help them- 
selves, with such assistance as they can get from the Baltimore association." 

The following tables, prepared by Professor Vashon, will exhibit the progress of the 
schools for colored children, from 1865 to 1868: 

Table giving the number of schools, teachers, scholars, and attendance. 





Number of schools. 


Number of teachers. 


Number of scholars. 


u 

II 


fl 




Day. 


Night. 


Total. 


White. 


Colored. 


Total. 


Male. 


Female. 


Total. 




J865 






47 
86 
107 
134 


24 


27 


51 
101 
103 
154 






4,016 
8,144 
6,047 

5,458 






J866 














1867 


69 
102 


38 
32 


28 
44 


75 
110 


3,390 
2,882 


2,657 
2,576 


4,220 
4,547 


69 


1868 


83 







Table showing the numbers in different studies and cost of maintaining schools. 





Number of scholars in diiferent studies pursued. 


Expended in support 
of schools. 


Year. 


-f3 

1 

■a 

< 


i 

Of . 

>.. to 

a 
W 


g in 


ii 
.3 

•a 


C3 

So 

o 


.2 

s 

.a 
< 


to a 


■a 


J3 
P3 


■3 




1867 


638 
393 


3,004 
2,174 


1,940 
2,526 


2,837 
3,241 


1, 755 
1,680 


2,426 
3,241 


118 

497 






$92, 781 


1868 















IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 357 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

In Massacliusetts, out of a population of 1,231,066, in 1860, there were 9,602 free colored 
persons. By the constitution and laws of the State, the right of suffrage, eligibility to oflace, 
and the advantages of the public schools of every grade, are open to all citizens without dis- 
tinction of color. 

SEPARATE SCHOOLS FOR COLORED CHILDREN PROHIBITED. 

In Boston, as early as 1793, a separate school for colored children was established in the 
house of Primus Hall, a respectable colored man, and taught by Elisha Sylvester, a white 
man, at the expense of the parents sending to it. In 1800 a petition was presented to the 
school coumiittee by 66 colored persons, praying for the establishment of a public school for 
their benefit. The petition was referred to a sub-committee, who reported in favor of grant- 
ing the petition ; but the request was refused by the town at a special meeting, in the call 
for which a notice that this question would be acted upon was inserted. 

The private school, first taught by Elisha Sylvester, was continued until 18u6 by two gen- 
tlemen, Messrs. Brown and Williams, from Harvard College. In 1806, the African meeting- 
house in Belknap street was erected, and the lower story was fitted up as a school-room for 
colored children, to which place the school kept in Mr. Hall's house was transferred, where 
it was continued until 183.5, when a school-house was erected out of a fund left by Abiel Smith, 
known as the Smith school-house. Towards this school the town made an annual appropri- 
ation of $200, the remainder of the expense being defrayed by the parents, those who were 
able to do so paying 12^ cents per week. The erection of the Smith school-house was 
deemed at the time of sufficient importance to be marked by appropriate public exercises, 
as part of which Hon. William Minot delivered an address. 

From J809 to 1812 this school was taught by the well-known Prince Sanders, who was 
brought up in the family of a lawyer in Thetford, Vermont, and who in 1812 became a civil 
and diplomatic officer in the service of Christophe, Emperor of Hayti. He was brought to 
the city by the influence of Dr. Channing and Mr. Caleb Bingham, and was suppor^ed by 
the liberality of benevolent persons in Boston. 

The African school in Belknap street was under the control of the school committee from 
1812 to 1821, and from 182J was under the charge of a special sub-committee. Among the 
teachers was J.ohn B. Kussworm, from 1821 to 1824, who entered Bowdoin college in the 
latter year, and afterwards became governor of the colony of Cape Palmas in southern 
Liberia. 

Tlie first primary school for colored children in Boston was established in 1820, two or 
three of which were subsequently kept until 1855, when they were discontinued as separate 
schools, in accordance with the general law passed by the legislature in that year, which 
provided that, " in determining the qualifications of scholars to be admitted into any public 
school, or any district school ih this commonwealth, no distinction shall be made on account 
of the race, c<jlor, or religious opinions of the applicant or scholar." "Any child, who, on 
on account of his race, color, or religious opinions should be excluded from any public oi 
district school, if otherwise qualified," might recover damages in an action of tort, broufh* 
in the name of the child in any court of competent jurisdiction, against the city or town in 
which the school was located. 

MICHIGAN. 

The population of Michigan in 1860 was 749,113, of whom 6,799 were colored. Under a 
decision of the Supreme Court, a man with not over one-fourth negro bl6od is a "white 
man;" hat for 1.5 years colored men (and women if hable to taxation) have been leo-al 
voters in school meetings, on an equality with whites. Colored children are included in the 
school census, and the public money is apportioned upon all between 5 and 20 years ot 
age, the public schools being free to all alike. 



358 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

MISSISSIPPL 

Mississippi had a population of 791,305 in 1860, of whom more than half were slaves, 
the number being 436,631 ; and the number of free colored people was only 773. 

This State was originally principally embraced in the charter of Georgia of 1732, which 
ex ended to the jSississippi river. Its early laws pertaining to the colored race were almost 
exact transcripts of the laws of Louisiana Territory of 1804. An early act, July 20, 1805, 
prohibited the emancipation of any slave, except for some meritorious act for the benefit of 
his owner or of the Territory. An act of 1807 prohibited slaves from going from home with- 
out a pass, the penalty being limited to "20 stripes." Unlawful assemblies were to be atoned 
for by a penalty of 39 stripes. White men, free negroes, and mulattoes, found in company with 
slaves at an unlawful meeting, were fined $20 and costs for each offense. In 1817 the western 
ern portion of the Territory became a State, and in 1819 a law was passed forbidding the immi- 
gration of any free negro or mulatto into the State. In 1818 provision was made for a sep- 
arate burial place for "the bodies of slaves and colored persons " in the city of Natchez, with 
a penalty not exceeding $50 for the burial of any slave or colored person in any other place 
than the one designated. In 1822 the several acts relating to colored people were arranged 
together, and a provision was introduced declaring it to be unlawful for any slave to possess 
in his or her own right, any horse, mare, gelding, mule, or any other cattle, sheep, or hogs 
whatever ;" or to cultivate cotton for his own use. Any negro or mulatto, bond or free, 
might be a " good witness " in cases where free negroes or mulattoes alone were interested ; 
but the law adds, "if any negro or mulatto shall be found, upon proof made to any county or 
corporation court of this State, to have given false testimony, every such offender shall, with- 
out further trial, be ordered by said court to have one ear nailed to the pillory, and there to 
stand for the space of one hour, and then the said ear to be cut off, and thereafter the other ear 
nailed in like manner and cut off at the expiration of one other hour, and moreover to receive 
39 lashes on his or her bare back, well laid on, at the public whipping-post, or such other 
punishment as the court shall think proper, not extending to life or limb." This law 
remained in force until the period of the rebellion. 

Bv an act of January, 1823, all meetings of slaves, free negroes, or mulattoes, above the 
number of five, at any place of public resort or meeting-house, in the night ; or at any school- 
house, for teacliing, reading, or writing, in the day or night, was to he considered an unlaw- 
ful assembly ; and the penalty was lashes, "not exceeding 39." With the permission of 
their master or overseer, however, slaves might attend a meeting for religious worship, con- 
ducted by a regularly ordained or licensed white minister, or attended by at least two discreet 
and reputable white persons, appointed by some regular church or religious society. 

In 1831 "every free negro or mulatto in the State, under the age of 50 years, and over 
the age of 16 years," was peremptorily ordered, within 90 days from the date of the passage 
of the act, to " remove and quit the State," and not to return on any pretense. The penalty 
for such a person remaining in the State was to be sold into slavery for five years. But 
exceptions were made in cases where licenses to remain were obtained from the court, founded 
upon evidence of " good character and honest deportment." By the same act it was "unlaw- 
ful for any slave, free negro, or mulatto, to preach the gospel," under a penalty of 39 lashes, 
except to slaves upon the plantation where the one preaching belonged, and with the permis- 
sion of the owner. 

In March, 1846, an act was passed to establish a system of common schools, and creating 
a fund from " all escheats and all fines and forfeitures and amercements:" from licenses to 
hawkers ; and all incooies from school lands. The several counties were authorized to levy 
a special tax, not exceeding the State tax, for common school purposes. In 1843 another 
act was passed to provide for common schools in certain counties in which a tax equal to 25 
per cent, of the State tax was annually levied upon all the taxable property of the county, to 
constitute a common school fund for such counties. All acts prescribed that the schools were 
for the education of "white youth between the ages of 6 and 20 years." 



IN EESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 



359 



FREEDMEN'S SCHOOLS. 

The work of establishing schools for the freedmeu has not been as successful in the State 
of Mississippi as in some of the other States, owing to the unsettled condition of public 
affairs ; but at different points schools have been established, some under the direction of 
northern assoisiatioiis, some under the auspices of the churches, and some through the efforts 
of the freedmen themselves, who have manifested great eagerness to learn to read and write. 
Several of the largest landed proprietors have taken up tlie subject and are establishing 
schools for the children of persons employed on their estates. 

The following statistics have been prepared by Professor Vashon from the reports of the 
Freedmen's Bureau : 

Number of schools, teachers, and scholars — 1865 to 1868. 





Number of schools. 


Number of teachers. 


Number of scholars. 


5 v 

<*- 


a 


Year. 


Day. 


Night. 


Total. 


White. 


Colored. 


Total. 


Male. 


Female. 


Total. 


u 


1865 






34 

50 

8C 

134 






68 

80 

99 

140 






4,310 
5,407 
5, 708 
6,753 






1866 














1867 


53 

102 


27 
32 


80 
94 


19 
46 


2,689 
3,090 


3, W 9 
3,663 


4,449 
5, 226 


77 


1868 


77 







Studies and expenditures — 1867-'68. 





Number of scholars in different studies pursued. 


Expenditures in support 
of schools. 


Year. 


1 

•a 
< 






!3C 

a 


be 
o 


a 
< 


^1 


0) 

£ ri 
B3 


.a 
o 
>> 


"3 
o 


1867 


443 

838 


2,633 
2,960 


2,532 
2,796 


2,426 
2,509 


1,242 
1,677 


2,426 
4,384 


156 
257 


$2, 020 
5,689 


$5, 588 
5,143 


$7, 608 


1868 


10,8b;J 







MISSOURI. 

There were in this State, in 1860, 1,182,012 inhabitants, 118,503 of whom were colored; 
of these 114,931 were slaves, and 3,572 were free. 

The province ceded by France to the United States in 1803, under the general name ot 
Louisiana, was organized by Congress in 1804, by the names of the Territory of Orleans, 
and the District of Louisiana, the latter embraciug the territory now forming the States of 
Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, the greater part of Minnesota, and the region west of these States 
to the Rocky mountains. In 1805 the District of Louisiana was called the Territory of 
Louisiana ; and this nauie was again changed in 1812 to that of the Territory of Missis- 
sippi. The first legislation relating to the colored people in Missouri was while it was in a ter- 
ritorial condition, by the governor and judges of the Indian Territory, who were authorized 
by Congress to make laws for the district. This act of 1804 provided that no slave should 
go from the tenements of his master " without a pass or some letter or token;" the penalty 
was "stripes at the discretion of the justice of the peace." If a slave presumed to go upon 
any other plantation than that of his master, Avithout leave in writing from his or her owner, 
not being absent upon lawful business, the penalty was " 10 lashes." 

No master or mistress of slaves was peruiitted to suffer the meeting of slaves upon his or 
.her plantation above four hours at any one time, without leave of the owner or owners. The 
penalty was $?> for each offense, increased by $1 for each negro present at the meeting, above 
the number five. Any white person, free negro, or mulatto, who should be fouud in com- 
pany with slaves at any unlawful meeting, was fined $3 for each offense ; and, on failure to 



360 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

pay the fine and costs, he was to receive "20 lashes well laid on hy order of the justice.' 
AH tradings with or by slaves was strictly forbidden, " except with the consent of the master, 
owner, or overseer." 

In 1817 the general assemblyof the Territory of Missouri passed a more stringent act against 
slaves traveling without permission. In 1822, after Missouri was admitted as a State, more 
severe penalties were attached to the offense of trading with slaves; and in 1833 "slaves 
or free persons of color" were forbidden to assemble at any store, tavern, grocery, grog or 
dram shop " at any time by night or day, " more especially on the Sabbath day, commonly 
called Sunday." 

In 1845 free negroes and mulattoes were forbidden to remain in the State except on license. 
Three days were allowed to depart, and one additional day for every 20 miles travel was 
allowed, to escape to some free State, on the penalty of fine, imprisonment, and lashes. In 
1847 it was enacted that "no person shall keep or teach any school for the instruction of 
negroes or mulattoes in reading or writing, in this State." No meetings were allowed for 
religious worship, where the services were conducted by negroes or mulattoes, unlest some 
sheriff or other ofBcer or justice of the peace were present, "to prevent all seditions spaechts 
and disorderly and unlawful conduct of every kind." Such meetings, held in violation or 
these provisions, were deemed unlawful, and the penalty was a "fine not exceeding $500 or 
imprisonment not exceeding six months, or both fine and imprisonment." No free negro ar 
mulatto was henceforth to be permitted to come into the State. 

By the present constitution and laws of the State, provision is mtido for a free ptrbiJC 
school system ; for the appointment of a State superintendent of schools. In each county a 
county superintendent is elected every two years. Each congressional township composes a 
school district, under the control, in matters of education, of a board of education. Smaller 
divisions are regarded as sub-districts, under the management of local directors. The excel- 
lent system of public schools in the city of St. Louis includes a normal school, a high school, 
31 district schools, and three colored schools. 

The following table, prepared by Professor Vashon, gives the progress of schools for col- 
ored youth from 1865 to 1868: 

Table giving the number of schools, teachers, scholars, and attendance. 



Year. 


Number of schools. 


Number of teachers. 


Number of scholars. 




a 


Diiy. 


Night. 


Total. 


White. 


Colored. 


Total. 


Male. 


Female. 


Total. 


o 

0) 

CM 


1865 






24 
38 
55 
60 






31 
46 
62 

70 






1.925 
2, 6<,)8 

9. 7n() 






1806 . 










" 






1,918 
3, 009 




1867 


44 
49 


11 
U 


32 

39 


30 
31 


1,290 
2,196 


1 469 


m 


1868 


2,016 4 9\-? 


71 











Table showing the numbers in different studies, atid cost of maintaining schools. 





Number of scholars in the different studies pursued. 


Expended in support of 
schools. 


Year. 


C8 

.a 
< 


i . 

CO 


a 0^ 


n 


.a 
P, 
a) 

3) 

c 


1 


II 

X: 


-a 

« . 
£ a 

cq 


o 

>> 

P5 


'o 


1867 


237 

757 


1,074 
1,623 


604 
2,029 


881 
2,520 


523 

1,698 


837 
1,995 


87 
695 








1868 

















IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 361 

NEW YORK. 

By the census of 1860 the total population of the State of New York was 3,880,735, of 
which number 49,005 were free colored. 

By the constitution of 1777 the right of suffrage was extended to every male inhabitant 
of full age, without respect to color; but in the revision of 1821 this right was so far abridged 
that "no man of color, unless he shall have been for three years a citizen of this State and 
for one year next preceding any election shall be seized and possessed of a freehold estate of 
$250 over and above all debts and incumbrances charged thereon, and shall have been 
actually rated and paid a tax thereon, shall be entitled to vote at any such election. And 
no person of color shall be subject to direct taxation unless he shall be seized and possessed 
of such real estate as aforesaid." In 184G and in 1850 the question of equal suffrage to 
colored persons was submitted separately, on the adoption of each revised constitution of 
those dates, and rejected by large majorities on both occasions. In 1867 the convention for 
revising the constitution adopted an article giving equality of suffrage to colored people, 
to be voted upon separately. 

By act of 1841 the legislature authorized any school district, with the approbation of the 
school commissioners of the town in which the district was situated, to establish a separate 
sehool for the colored children of such district. This was not intended to deny them the 
privileges of the regular school, to which they were declared by the superintendent to be 
equally with all others entitled. In the revised school code of 1864 the school authorities of 
any city or incorporated village organized under special acts may establish separate schools 
for children and youth of African descent resident therein ; " and such schools shall be sup- 
ported in the same manner and to the same extent as the schools supported therein for white 
children ; and they shall be subject to the same rules and regulations and be furnished with 
facilities for instruction equal to those furnished to the white schools therein." 

EARLY EFFORTS OF ELIAS NEAU AT NEW VORK. 

A school for negro slaves was opened in the city of New York in 1704 by Elias Neau, a 
native of France, and a catechist of the " Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 
Foreign Parts." After a long imprisonment for his public profession of faith as a Protestant, 
he founded an asylum in New York. His sympatiiies were awakened by the condition of 
the negroes in slavery in that city, who numbered about 1,500 at that time. The difficulties 
of holding any intercourse with them seemed almost insurmountable. At first he could only 
visit them from house to house, after his day's toil was over ; afterwards he was permitted 
to gather them together in a room in his own house for a short time in the evening. As the 
result of his instructions at the end of four years, in 1708, the ordinary number under his 
instruction was 200. Many were judged worthy to receive the sacrament at the hands ot 
Mr. Vesey, the rector of Trinity church; some of whom became regular and devout com- 
municants, remarkable for their orderly and blameless lives. 

But soon after this time some negroes of the Carmantee and Pappa tribes formed a plot 
for setting fire to the city, and murdering the English, on a certain night. The work was 
commenced but checked, and after a short struggle the English subdued the negroes. 
Immediately a loud and angry clamor arose against Elias Neau, his accusers saying that his 
school was the cause of the murderous attempt. He denied the charge in vain ; and so furi- 
ous were the people that, for a time, his life was in danger. The evidence, however, at the 
trial proved that the negroes most deeply engaged in the plot, were those whose masters 
were most opposed to any means for their instruction. Yet, the offense of a few was charged 
upon the race ; and even the provincial government lent its authority to make the burden 
of Neau the heavier. The common council passed an order forbidding negroes " to appear ir 
the streets after sunset, without lanthorns or candles ;" and as they could not procure these, 
the result was to break up the labors of Neau. But at this juncture Governor Huntei 
interposed and went to visit the school of Neau, accompanied by several officers of rank, 
and by the society's missionaries ; and he was so well pleased that he gave his full approval 
to the work, and in a public proclamation called upon the clergy of the province to exhort 



362 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

their congregations to extend their approval also. Vesey, the good rector of Trinity church, 
had long watched the labors of Neau and witnessed the progress of his scholars, as well as 
assisted him in them ; and finally the governor, the council, mayor, recorder, and two chief 
justices of New York joined in declaring that Neau " in a very eminent degree deserved the 
countenance, favor and protection of the society." He therefore continued his labors until 
1722, when, " amid the unaffected sorrow of his negro scholars and the friends who honored 
him for their sake, he was removed by death." 

The work was then continued by " Huddlestone, then schoolmaster in New York ;" and 
he was succeeded by Rev. Mr. Wetmore, who removed in 1726 to Rye ; whereupon the Rev. 
Mr. Colgan was appointed to assist the rector of Trinity church, and to carry on the instruc- 
tion of the negroes. A few years afterwards Thomas Noxon assisted Mr. Colgan, and their 
ioint success was very satisfactory. Rev. R. Charlton, who had been engaged in similar 
labor at New Windsor, was called to New York in 1732, where he followed up the work suc- 
cessfully for 15 years, and was succeeded by Rev. Samuel Auchmuty. Upon the death oi 
Thomas Noxon, in 1741, Mr. Hildreth took his place, who in 1764 wrote that " not a single 
black admitted by him to the holy communion had turned out badly, or in any way dis- 
graced his profession." Both Auchmuty and Hildreth received valuable support from Mr. 
Barclay, who, upon the death of Mr. Vesey, in 1746, had been appointed to the rectory of 
Trinity church. 

OTHER EARLY L.4B0RERS FOR THE SLAVES. 

The labors of Neau and others in New York, for a period of half a century, had their 
counterpart in many other places by other laborers. Taylor and Varnod, missionaries of 
the society in South Carolina, bestowed diligent care in giving religious instruction to the 
slaves ; and they gratefully confess to have received assistance from the masters and 
mistresses, which was the more welcome, on account of the ill will and opposition which 
any attempt to ameliorate the condition of slaves provoked among most of the British 
planters of that day. In the ranks of the Pennsylvania missionaries was Hugh Neill, once a 
distinguished Presbyterian minister in New Jersey. During the 15 years of his ministry 
he labored with zeal and success for the instruction of the negroes. Dr. Smith, provost of 
the college of Philadelphia, engaged in the same work, and at the death of Neill, in 1766, 
was placed on the list of the society's missionaries. Dr. Jenney was rector of St. Peter's 
and Christ church in Philadelphia from 1749 to 1762, and during his incumbency the society 
appointed a catechetical lecturer in that church for the instruction of negroes and others. 
William Sturgeon, a student of Yale College, was selected for that office and sent to England 
to receive ordination. He entered upon his duties in 1747, and discharged them for 19 years. 
In 176.3 a complaint of neglect of duty was brought before the society against him, in not 
catechizing the negro children ; but, upon a full investigation by the rector and four vestry- 
men its falsehood was shown and his stipend was increased. 

In 1706 Dr. Le Jean, a missionary of the society, was appointed to the mission at Goose 
creek, near Charleston, South Carolina, where he labored 1 1 years, especially among the 
negroes, and he succeeded in carrying on a systematic course of instruction. Dr. Le .Jean 
was preceded in the same work by Rev. Mr. Thomas, in 1695, who had not only taught 20 
negroes to read and write, but induced several ladies to engage in the work ; among them 
was Mrs. Haige Edward, who instructed several of her slaves. I hope, writes Rev. Mr. 
Taylor, their example will provoke some masters and mistresses to take the same care with 
their negroes. 

Bishop Gibson, who presided over the See of London from 1723 to ir48, did not hesitate 
to urge forward the work of Christian love in behalf of the negro slave. He wrote two public 
letters upon this subject in 1727; one exhorting masters and mistresses of families "to 
encourage and promote the instruction of their negroes in the Christian faith ;" and the other, 
urging and directing the missionaries to assist in the work. 

The bishop of London, in 1727, published a letter to the masters and mistresses of families 
in the English plantations abroad, exhorting them to encourage and promote the instruction 
of the negroes in the Christain faith, and in it remarks : " Considering the greatness of the 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 363 

profit there is received from tbeir labors, it might be hoped that all Christian masters — those 
especially who are possessed of considerable uun>bers — should also be at some small expense 
in providing for the instruction of those poor creatures, and that others, whose numbers are 
less, and who dwell in the same neighborhood, should join in the expense of a common 
teacher for the negroes belonging to them." 

In the year 1733, among other Africans consigned to Michael Denton, of Annapolis, Mary- 
land, was one of delicate constitution, who was sold to a gentleman living on the eastern 
shore. One day a wliite boy found him in the woods apparently engaged in prayer, and 
mischievously disturbed him by throwing sand in his face. Rendered unhappy by tliis and 
similar treatment, he ran away to a neighboring county, where his dignified but melancholy 
bearing excited attention. An old negro w'as at last found who understood his language, 
and from him it was discovered that the slave had been a foulah in Africa. He had in his 
possession slips of paper on which were written certain characters, which being sent to 
Oxford proved to be in the Arabic language. General Oglethorpe became deeply interested 
in the man and redeemed him from captivity. On his arrival in England he was treated 
with marked attention, dined with the Duke of Montague, received a gold watch from the 
Queen, and assisted Sir Hans Sloane in the translation of Arabic manuscripts. This roman- 
tic occurrence led to much discussion as to the duty of planters to the negro, and in 1735, 
when Oglethorpe was member of Parliament, an act was passed prohibiting the importation 
of black slaves or negroes into the province of Georgia. 

In 1749 the Rev. Thomas Bacon, of Talbot county, Maryland, delivered some remark- 
able discourses to masters and mistresses, as well as to his "beloved black brethren and 
sisters," which were published in London, and in the present century reprinted at Winches- 
ter, Virginia, by the late Bishop Meade. 

Williams, bishop of Chichester, in a discourse before the Society for Foreign Parts, says : 

"These negroes are slaves, and for the most part treated as worse, or rather by some as 
if they were a different species, as they are of a different color, from the rest of mankind. 
The Spaniards are reproached for driving the poor Americans to the fort like the cattle of 
the field, but our slaves, on the other hand, are driven from it." 

Bishop Butler, author of the Analogy of Religion, declared in a discourse that the slaves 
of the British colonies ought not to be treated " merely as cattle or goods, the property of 
their master. Nor can the highest property possible to be acquired in these servants cancel 
the obligation to take care of their, religious instructions. Despicable as they may appear 
in our eyes, they are the creatures of God." 

Archbishop Seeker, in 1741, recommended the "employing of young negroes, prudently 
chosen, to teach their countrymen," and Dr. Bearcroft, in 1744, alludes to this project in a 
discourse before the Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts, in these words : 

" The society had lately fallen upon a happy expedient by the purchase of two young 
negroes, whom they have qualified by a thorough instruction in the principles of Christian- 
ity, and, by teaching them to read well, to become schoolmasters to their fellow-negroes. 
Tlie project is but of yesterday, but the reverend person who proposed, and under whose 
care and inspection the two youths are placed, hath acquainted the society that it succeeds 
to his heart's desire; that one school is actually opened at Charles Town, South Carolina, 
which hath more than (50 young negroes under instruction, and will annually send out 
between 3U and 40 of them well instructed in religion and capable of reading their Bibles, 
who may carry home and difuise the same knowledge which they shall have been taught 
among their poor relations and fellow-slaves. And in time schools will be spread in other 
places and in other colonies to teach them to believe in the Son of God, who shall make them 
free indeed." 

Bishop Warburton, in 17G6, says: 

" From the free savages I come now to the savages in bonds. By those I mean the vast 
multitudes yearly stolen from the opposite continent and sacrificed by the colonists to theii 
great idol, the god of gain. But what, then, say these sincere worshippers of mammon? 
They answer : 'They are our own property which we offer up.' Gracious God ! talk as of 
herds of cattle, of property in rational creatures, creatures endowed with all our faculties 
possessing all our qualities but that of color, our brethren Ijoth by nature and grace, shocks 
all the feelings of humanity and the dictates of common sense." 

Bishop Lowth, formerly professor of poetry in the Oxford University, speaking of negroes 
in America, said : 

" From their situation they are open and accessible to instruction, and by their subjectioK 



364 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

are under the immediate influence and in the hands of those who ought to be their instruct- 
ors. These circumstances, so favorable in appearance, have not been productive of the g^ooJ 
effects which might have been expected. If their masters, tyrannizing over this people with 
a despotism beyond example, are determined to keep their minds in a state of bondage still 
more grievous than that in which they hold their bodies ; should not suffer them to be 
instructed ; * * * * should this in reality be a common practice among 
their masters, ' Woe unto you.' " 

Bishop Porteus, whose mother was a native of Virginia, and whose father had resided 
there many years, in one of his discourses alludes to plantation negroes as being generally 
considered as mere machines and instruments to work with, rather than beings with minds 
to be enlightened and souls to be saved. 

Bishop Wilson (Sodor and Man) was another distinguished clergyman, who watched for 
the opportunity to aid the missionaries who were laboring in the colonies for the instruction 
of the Indians and negroes ; and in 1740 he published an '' Essay towards the Instruction 
for the Indians," the germ of which was written by him in 1699, on " The Princijjles and 
Duties of Christianity," for the use of the people of the Isle of Man, and was the first book 
ever printed in the Manx language. He bequeathed £50 for the education of negro chil- 
dre:* in Talbot county. 

In 1711 Bishop Fleetwood preached the anniversary sermon before the society, in which 
he urged the duty of instructing the negroes, the effect of which afterwards, on the heart of 
a prejudiced planter in North Carolina, is shown by an extract from a letter by Giles Raiqs- 
ford, one of the society's missionaries. "By much importunity," he says, "I prevailed o>i 
Mr. Martin to let me baptize three of his negroes. All the arguments I could make use of 
would scaiee effect it, till Bishop Fleetwood's sermon preached before the society turned the 
scale." These are a few only of the many instances going to show the prevailing sentiment 
of the laborers of a cenlsary and a half ago. 

SCHOOLS FOR COLORED CHILDREN BY THE MANUMISSION SOCIETY. 

The first school for colored children in the city of New York, established by the Manumis- 
sion Society, was denominated "The New York African Free School." 

It appears that in the years 1785 and '788 the business of kidnapping colored people and 
selling them at the south was carried on in this city and vicinity to such an extent as to pro- 
voke public attention to the necessity of taking some measures to check this growing evil. 

In the city of Philadelphia a society had already been formed to protect the blacks from 
similar dangers there. A deputation was sent from New York to that sociely for infor- 
mation, and to procure a copy of its constitution, which assisted much in the organization 
of "The New York Society for Promoting the Manumission of Slaves, and Protecting such 
of them as have been, or may be, Liberated." The following are the names of the mem- 
bers of this society, who composed the first board of trustees of the "New York African 
Free School:" 

Melaucthon Smith, Jno. Bleecker, James Cogswell, Lawrence Embree, Thomas Burling, 
Willett Leaman, Jno. Lawrence, Jacob Leaman, White Mattock, Mathew Clarkson, Na- 
thaniel Lawrence, Jno. Murray, junior. 

Their school, located in Cliff street, between Beekman and Ferry, was opened in 1786, 
taught by Cornelius Davis, attended by about 40 pupils of both sexes, and appears, from 
their book of minutes, to have been satisfactorily conducted. In the year 1791 a female 
teacher was added to instruct the girls in needlework, the expected advantages of which 
measure were soon realized, and highly gratifying to the society. In 1808 the society was 
incorporated, and in the preamble it is recorded that "a free school for the education of such 
persons as have been liberated from bondage, that they may hereafter become useful mem- 
bers of the community," has been established. It may be proper here to remark that the 
good cause in which the friends of this school were engaged was far from being a popular 
one. The prejudices of a large portion of the community were against it ; the means in the 
hands of the trustees were often very inadequate, and many seasons of discouragement were 
witnessed ; but they were met by men who, trusting in the divine support, were resolved 
neither to relax their exertions nor to retire from the field. 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 365 

Through the space of about 20 years they struggled on ; the number of scholars varying 
from 40 to 60, until the year 1809, when the Lancasterian, or Monitorial, system of iustruc 
lion was introduced, (this being the second school in the United States to adopt the plan,^ 
under a new teacher, E J. Cox, and a very favorable change was produced, the number o< 
pupils, and the efficiency of their instruction being largely increased. 

Soon after this, however, iu January, 1814, their school-house was destroyed by lire, whicb 
checked the progress of the school for a time, as no room could be obtained large enough tc 
accommodate the whole number of pupils. A small room in Doyer street was temporarily 
hired, to keep the school together till further arrangements could be made, and an appeal 
was made to the liberality of the citizens and to the corporation of the city, which resulted 
in obtaining from the latter a grant of two lots of ground in William street, on which to 
build a new school-house; and in January, 181.5, a commodious brick building, to accommo- 
date 200 pupils, was finished on this lot, and the school was resumed with fresh vigor and 
increasing interest. In a few months the room became so crowded that it was found neces- 
sary to engage a separate room, next to the school, to accommodate such of the pupils as 
were to be taught sewing. This branch had been for many years discontinued, but was 
now resumed under the direction of Miss Lucy Turpen, a young lady whose amiable dis- 
position and faithful discharge of her duties rendered her greatly esteemed, both by her 
pupils and the trustees. This young lady, after serving the board for several years, removed 
with her parents to Ohio, and her place was supplied by Miss Mary Lincrum, who was 
succeeded by Miss Eliza J. Cox, and the latter by Miss Mary Ann Cox, and she by Miss 
Carolina Roe, under each of whom the school continued to sustain a high character for order 
and usefulness. 

The school in William street increasing in numbers, another building was found necessary, 
and was built on a lot of ground 50 by 100 feet square, on Mulberry street, between Grand 
and Hester streets, to accommodate 500 pupils, and was completed and occupied, with C. 
C. Andrews for teacher, in May, 1820. 

General Lafayette visited this school September 10, 1824, an abridged account of which is' 
copied from the Commercial Advertiser of that date : 

Visit of Lafayette to the African school in 1824. 

"At 1 o'clock the general, with the company invited for the occasion, visited the African 
free school, on Mulberry street. This shcool embraces about 500 scholars ; about 450 were 
present on this occasion, and they are certainly the best disciplined and most interesting 
school of children we have ever witnessed. As the general was conducted to a seat, Mr. 
Ketchum adverted to the fact that as long ago as 1788 the general had been elected a mem- 
ber of the institution (Manumission Society) at the same time with Grenville Sharp and 
Thomas Clarkson, of England. The general perfectly remembered the circumstance, and 
mentioned particularly the letter he had received on that occasion from the Hon. John Jay, 
then president of the society. One of the pupils, Master James M. Smith, aged Jl years, 
then stepped forward and gracefully delivered the following address : 

" ' General Lafayette : In behalf of myself and fellow schoolmates, may I be permitted 
to express our sincere and respectful gratitude to you for the condescension you iiave mani- 
fested this day in visiting this institution, which is one of the noblest specimens of New 
York philanthropy. Here, sir, you behold hundreds of the poor children of Africa sharing 
with those of a lighter hue in the blessings of education ; and while it will be our pleasure 
to remember the great deeds you have done for America, it will be our delight also to cherish 
the memory of General Lafayette as a friend to African emancipation, and as a member of 
this institution.' 

"To which the general replied, in his own characteristic style, 'I thank you, my dear 
child.' 

" Several of the pupils underwent short examinations, and one of them explained the use of 
the globes and answered many questions in geography." 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS FOR COLORED CHILDREN. 

These schools continued to flourish, under the same management, and with aa attendance 
varyit ^rom 600 in 1824 to 862 in 1832, in the latter part of which year the Manumission 
Society, vhose schools were now in part supported by the public fund, applied to the Public 
School Society for a committee of conference to effect a union. It was felt by the trustees 



.^P6 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

that on many accounts it was better that the two sets of schools should remain separate, but, 
fearing further diversion of the school fund, it was desirable that ihe number of societies 
participating should be as small as possible, and arrangements were accordingly made for a 
transfer of the schools and property of the elder society. After some delay, in conseijuence 
of legislative action being found necessary to give a title to their real estate, on the 2d of 
May, 1834, the transfer was effected, all their schools and school property passing into the 
hands of the New York Public School Society, at an appraised valuation of $12,130 22. 

The aggregate register of these schools at the time of the transfer was nearly 1,400, with 
an average attendance of about one-half that number. They were placed in charge of a 
committee with powers similar to the committee on primary schools, but their administra- 
tion was not satisfactory, and it was soon found that the schools had greatly diminished in 
numbers, eiBciency, and usefulness. A committee of inquiry was appointed, and reported 
that, in consequence of the great anti-slavery riots, and attacks on colored people, many fami 
lies had removed from the city, and of those that remained many kept their children at home ; 
they knew the Manumission Society as their special friends, but knew nothing of the Public 
School Society ; the reduction of all the schools, but one, to the grade of primary, had given 
great offense ; also the discharge of teachers long employed, and the discontinuance of rewards, 
and taking home of spelling books ; strong prejudices had grown up against the Public 
School Society. The committee recommended a prompt assimilation of the colored schools 
to the white ; the establishment of two or more upper schools in a new building ; a normal 
school for colored monitors, and the appointment of a colored man as school agent, at $150 
a year. The school on Mulberry street at this time, 1835, was designated Colored Grammar 
School No. 1 . A. Libolt was principal, and registered 31 7 pupils ; there were also six pri- 
maries, located in different parts of the city, with an aggregate attendance of 925 pupils. 

In 1836 a new school building was completed in Laurens street, opened with 210 pupils, 
R. F. Wake, (colored,) prin cipal, and was designated Colored Grammar School No. 2. Other 
means were taken to improve the schools, and to induce the colored people to patronize them ; 
the principal of No. 1, Mr. Libolt, was replaced by Mr. John Paterson, colored, a suiEcient 
assurance of whose ability and success we have in the fact that he has been continued in the 
position ever since. A " Society for the Promotion of Education among Colored Children " 
was organized, and established two additional schools, one in Thomas street, and one in 
Center, and a marked improvement was manifest ; but it required a long time to restore the 
confidence and interest felt before the transfer, and even up to 1848 the aggregate attend- 
ance in all the colored schools was only 1,375 pupils. 

In the winter of 1852 the first evening schools for colored pupils were opened ; one for 
males and one for females, and were attended by 379 pupils. In t-lie year 1853 the colored 
schools, with all the schools and school property of the Public School Society, were trans- 
ferred to the "Board of Education of the City and County of New York," and still further 
improvements were made in them ; a normal school for colored teachers was established, 
with Mr. John Paterson, principal, and the schools were graded in the same manner as those 
for white children. Colored Grammar School No. 3 was opened at 78 West Fortieth street. 
Miss Caroline W. Simpson, principal, and in the ensuing year three others were added ; No. 

4, in One Hundred and Twentieth street, (Harlem,) Miss Nancy Thompson, principal ; No. 

5, at 101 Hudson street, P. W. Willianas, principal; and >To. 6, at 1167 Broadway, Prince 
Leveridge, principal. Grammar Schools Nos. 2, 3, and 4, had primary departments attached, 
and there were also at this time three separate primary schools, and the aggregate attend- 
ance in all was 2,047. Since then the attendance in these schools has not varied much from 
these figures. The schools themselves have been altered and modified from time to time, 
as their necessity seemed to indicate; though under the general management of the Board 
of Education, they have been in the care of the school officers of the wards in which they 
are located, and while in some cases they received the proper attention, in others they were 
either wholly, or in part, neglected. A recent act has placed them directly in charge of the 
Board of Education, who have appointed a special committee to look after their interests, and 
measures are being taken by them which will give this class of schools every opportunity 
and convenience possessed by any other, and, it is hoped, will also improve the grade of its 
scholarship. 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 



367 



The organization and attendance of these schools in 1868 is shown in the following table, 
compiled from information received from the city superintendent of schools, Mr. S. S. Ran 
dall : 



Schools. 



No. 1 — Boys' department .. 

Girls' department. . . 
No. 2 — Boys' department . . 

Girls' department. .. 

Primary departm't . 
No. 3 — Grammar departm't 

Primary depanm't . 
No. 4 — Grammar departm't, 

Prima'ry departm't . 
No.5 



No. 6. 



Evening schools. 



No. 1 

No. 2 

No. 3 

Normal school . 



Total. 



1820 
1836 

1853 
1840 
18.54 
1868 



1852 

18.52 



1854 



Teachers. 



Principals. 



John Peterson 

EUza Gwynne . . . 
Ransom F. Wake. 
Fanny Tompkins. 
Sarah Ennalls - . . 
Chas. Ij. Reason.. 
Cath.A.Thomps'n 
S.J. S. Tompkins 
Elizabeth Pierce . 
Mary E. Tripp... 



Mary M. Moreau 



S.J. S. Tompkins. 
Ransom F. Wake. 
Mary JI. Moreau. 
Chas. L. Reason. . 
Carol'e Hamilton . 



34 



Pupils. 



5399 
^380 

<147 
U70 
(102 
i207 
(310 



41 



C) 



(*) 
(*) 



2,056 



149 

142 

(*) 
64 

122 
46 
62 

143 



11 



C^) 



739 



135 Mulberry street, 14tb 

ward. 
51 and 53 Laurens street, 

8th ward. 

78 West Fortieth street, 

20th ward. 
98 West Seventeenth street, 

16th ward. 
One-hundred-and-twenti'tb 

St., (Harlem,) 12th ward. 
155 Stanton st., 17th ward. 



In building of school No. 2. 
In building of school No. 4. 
In building of school No. 6. 
In building of school No. 1, 
on Saturdays. 



Gkade of Scholarship. — Colored boys' grammar schools, 78; colored girls' grammar schools, 71i; colored 
primary schools, 76.^ ; total of all the schools in the city, 80 3-7. (Whole number of sessions, 430 in each.) 
* No report. t About 45 in each. 

In addition to and independeitt of these schools there are four primaries in connection with 
the Colored Orphan Asylum at One hundred and fifty-first street. Their aggregate register 
last year was 264 pupils. There are also two or three small private primary schools for col- 
ored children in the city, and these, with the before-mentioned, comprise all those now ia 
existence. The teachers in these schools are, with but two exceptions — the principal of No. 
6 and the assistant principal of No. 1 — of the same race as their pupils. The pupils are, for 
the most part, children of laboring people ; many of them are put out to service at an early 
age, and only get a chance to go to school when thoy are out of a situation ; while very few 
are able, or take sufficient interest to attend regularly all of the time ; which in part accounts 
for the low grade of scholarship in this class of schools ; but there has been an improvement 
in this respect of late, and, in view of the efforts being made in their behalf, we are encour- 
aged to believe that their future history will show a brighter record. 

GERRITT smith's SCHOOL AT PETERBORO'. 

In any historical survey of the progressive development of schools for colored people, the 
timely and liberal aid and efforts of Hon. Gerritt Smith, of Peterboro', New York, should not 
be omitted. This eminent philanthropist was one of the earliest to extend liberal aid to 
several, as well as the assurance of his sympathy to all, institutions which opened theii 
doors to children and youth of the colored population. He established and maintained for a 
number of years in his own village a school, which was attended by colored pupils from 
different parts of the country. He was an early and very liberal patron of Oneida Institute, 
the doors of which were ever open to pupils without respect to complexion or race. He gave 
to it between $3,000 and |4,000 in cash, and 3,000 acres of land in Vermont. He did even 
more for Oberlin College, in Ohio, because of its hospitality to colored pupils. He gave it a 
few thousand dollars in money and 20,000 acres of land in Virginia, which brought to the 



368 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

institution probably more than $50,000. The New York Central College, at McGrawville, 
where colored and white young men and women were instructed together, cost Mr. Smith 
several thousand dollars more. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

The total population of North Carolina in I860 was 992,622, of whom 361,522 were col- 
ored ; and of these 331,059 were slaves, and 30,463 free. It was not until 1729 that any law 
relating to assemblies of slaves, free negroes, and mulattoes was enacted in North Carolina, 
when slaves were also forbidden to hunt or range over the lands not belonging to their owner ? 
and when thus trespassing, the owner of the land on which they were found was authorized 
to whip them, "not exceeding 40 lashes." And, by the same law, "if any loose, disor- 
derly, or suspected person, not being a white person, was found drinking, eating, or keeping 
company with slaves in the night time," he was liable to a penalty of 40 lashes, unless he 
could give a "satisfactory account of his behavior." If negroes belonging to one man were 
found in the quarters or kitchens of the negroes of another man, they were liable to a penalty 
of 40 lashes, while those who entertained them were subject to 20. In 1741 slaves not 
wearing a livery were forbidden to leave the plantation to which they belonged. In 1777 
it was enacted that no negro or mulatto slave should be set free, "except for meritorious 
services." Among other enactments of about this period were those forbidding free negroes 
or mulattoes to entertain any slave during the Sabbath, or to trade with slaves, the penalties 
for either offense being severe. In 1812 slaves were forbidden to act as pilots on the coast 
of the State, and in 1830 it was provided that the owner of any slave consenting to such 
service should forfeit the value of the slave. This law was still in force in 1 860. 

Until the year 1835 public opinion permitted the colored residents of this State to main- 
tain schools for the education of their children. These were taught sometimes by white 
persons, but more frequently by teachers of the same race as their pupils. After this period 
colored children could be educated only by finding a teacher within the circle of their own 
family, or out of the limits of the State ; in which latter event they were regarded as expa- 
triated, and prohibited by law from returning home. The public school system of North 
Carolina declared that no descendant from negro ancestors, to the fourth generation inclu- 
sive, should enjoy the benefit thereof. Thus matters continued until the success of the 
Union forces opened a way for educational effort. In 1863 thousands of freedmen had taken 
refuge at Newbern and on Roanoke island, and to both of these places the Aruericau JVIis- 
sionary Association sent teachers who opened schools. As in Virginia, so, too, in North 
Carolina other schools followed close upon the march of the United States troops. Immedi- 
ately upon the entry of the latter into Wilmington, in 1865, the teachers of the association 
also made their appearance there, and were hailed by the negro population with indescribable 
delio-ht. Mr. Coan, one of these teachers, thus describes the scene: "By appointment, I met 
the children at the church vestry the next morning. They were to come at 9 o'clock ; by 
7 the street was blocked, the yard was full. Parents, eager to get ' dese yer four chil- 
dern's name tooken,' came pulling them through the crowd. 'Please, sir, put down des-; 
yer.' ' I wants dis gal of mine to jine ; and dat yer boy hes got no parents, and I jes done 
and brot him.' . . . The same evidences of joy inexpressible were manifest at the organ- 
ization of evening schools for adults. About 1,000 pupils reported themselves in les5 
than one week after our arrival in Wilmington." This thirst for knowledge, which was 
common to the freed people throughout the entire south, was met by efforts on tho part or 
various benevolent agencies to satisfy it. Upon the cessation of hostihties schools wera 
opened in different localities, and before the end of the year nearly 100 were in operation, 
with an attendance of more than 8,000 pupils. Each successive year since then has been 
marked by an increase in the number of these schools, in spite of the obstacles which 
presented themselves, in the scarcity of teachers, and of suitable school buildings, and, too 
often, in the unfriendly opposition of white residents. To overcome these obstacles the 
freedmen themselves have earnestly seconded the efforts of philanthropy in their behalf. In 
the depth of their poverty they have sustained a large portion of the schools, and cheerfully 
contributed to the support of others. In 1867 Mr. F. A. Fiske, the State superintendent of 



IN EESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 



)Gd 



education under the Fieedman's Bureau, reported, tbat many instances had come under his 
notice where the teachers of a self-supporting^ school had been sustained till the last cent 
the freedinen could command was exhausted, and where these last had even taxed their 
credit in the coming crop to pay the bills necessary to keep up the school. As evidence of 
the g^reat interest manifested in acquiring knowledge, the same officer mentioned a fact con- 
nected with one of the schools under his supervision which is, perhaps, without a parallel 
in the history of education. Side by side, commencing their alphabet together, and con- 
tinuing their studies until they could each read the Bible fluently, sat a child of six summers, 
her mother, grandmother, and great-grandmother, aged 75 years, the representatives of four 
generations in a direct line. 

The following tables, prepared by Professor Vashon, give the condition of the schools for 
the years specified : 

Number of schools, teachers, and pupils, 1BS5 to 1868. 



Year. 


Number of schools. 


Number of teachers. 


Number of scholars. 


< 


a 


Day. 


Night. 


Total. 


White. 


Colored. 


Total. 


Male. 


Female. 


Total. 




1865.. 






86 
136 
190 
342 




119 
].'58 

997 






8,506 
10, 971 
12, 273 
17,410 






1866 


















1867 


130 
238 


60 
104 


1.39 
146 


88 


5,922 


6.351 


8,714 
11, 078 


71 


1868 


221 367 


8,531 8.879 


63 















Studies and expenditures, 1867 and 1868. 





Number of scholars in different studies pursued. 


Expenditures in support 
of schools. ' 


Year. 


CS 

.a 
< 


a 

'i 




a 
1 


J3 
P. 

a 


S 
< 


S 


9 
a) 

a 

■a 


t 

o 
P5 


3 

o 


1867 


1,363 
1,286 


7,425 
6,310 


3,462 
4,043 


4,005 
6,200 


2,879 
3, 652 


3.872 
5,455 


321 
711 


$3, 671 
15, 510 


f 48, 249 
69, 258 


$51, 920 
84, 768 


1868 





There are two high schools in North Carolina, one at Wilmington, and another at Beaufort. 
These were established by the American Missionarj' Association. 

Among the other benevolent educational agencies operating in this State, mention should 
be made of the American Freedmen's Union Commission, working principally through its 
New York and New England branches, and the Friends Association of Philadelphia. The 
last mentioned society, besides ministering largely to the relief of physical wants and suffer- 
ing among the freedmen, since its organization on the 11th of November, 1863, has, also, 
maintained schools at different points throughout the south. Nineteen of these were within 
the limits of North Carolina. 

The Protestant Episcopal church, too, has found here a field for its Christian labor ; and 
its freedmen's committee has under its charge, at Raleigh, 



THE ST. AUGUSTINE NORMAL SCHOOL. 

This institution was incorporated in July, 1867, and opened in the following January for 
the admission of pupils, of whom 26 were enrolled. Its principal is the Rev. J. Brainton 
Smith, D. D. The trustees have now on hand and in pledges a fund of about $4,300. which 
they purpose to set apart as a permanent endowment. Besides, they have already purchased 
a tract of land, consisting of 100 acres, pleasantly situated just outside of the city limits. 
Here, in a beautiful grove, they are now erecting a commodious edifice that will, when com- 
pleted, readily accommodate 150 pupils ; they also intend to erect a boarding hall to serve as 
a home for pupils coming from a distance. 

There is another academical school at Charlotte. 24 



370 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION 



THE BIDDLE MEMORIAL INSTITUTE. 

This institution was founded by a generous donation from the widow of the late Henry J. 
Biddle, of Philadelphia, and is, indeed, a fitting monument to the memory of that gentleman, 
who gave his life to his country in efforts to crush the slaveholders' rebellion. For this 
reason the Biddle institute appeals peculiarly to the regard of the freedmen, and they have 
not been deaf to its claims. It has been duly incorporated under the laws of North Carolina ; 
and through the liberality of Colonel W. R. Myers, of Charlotte, has been made the recipient 
of a beautiful tract of eight acres in the immediate neighborhood of the city. Upon this 
site two houses intended for professors' residences have been erected and paid for, and the 
main building is now in process of erection. To complete the entire work $8,000 are 
required, which, it is confidently hoped, will be readily made up by the freedmen and their 
friends. The first session of the institute opened on the 16th of September, 1867, and 43 
students were admitted during its first school year. Great care is exercised in the admission 
of students, and all of them are required to devote a *art of their time to teaching among the 
people. 

This institution was established under the auspices of the general assembly's committee 
on freedmen of the Presbyterian church, Cold school,) whose praiseworthy labors in Kansas 
and elsewhere have already been adverted to, and who have, since 1865, supported 22 other 
schools at different points in the State of North Carolina. 

The present constitution of North Carolina, adopted in April, 1868, provides for "a general 
and uniform system of free public schools." The governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary 
of State, treasmy, auditor, superintendent of public works, superintendent of public instruc- 
tion, and attorney general, constitute a State board of education, which succeeds to all the 
powers and trusts of the president and directors of the literary fund of North Carolina ; and 
has full power to legislate and make all needful rules and regulations in relation to free 
public schools and the educational fund. The superintendent of public instruction has the 
charge of the schools. Each county is divided into school districts, in each of which one or 
more public schools must be maintained at least four months in the year. The schools of 
each county are under the control of county commissioners, elected biennially. 

OHIO. 

By the census of 1860 the population of Ohio was 2,339,511, of which number 36,673 were 
free colored. By repeated votes of the people the right of suffrage has been denied to this 
portion of the population unless they have a preponderance of white blood. 

The superintendent of common schools (John A. Norris) writes to the superintendent of 
public instruction in Indiana as follows : " Colored youths of legal school age, i. c, between 
the ages of 5 and 21 years, are entitled to the privileges of the public school fund. Colored 
youth cannot of legal right claim admittance to our common schools for white youth. The 
local school authorities may, however, admit a colored youth to the public schools for white 
youth, and as a matter of fact in the larger part of the State the colored youth are admitted 
on equal terms with the white youth to the common or public schools." According to his 
report for 1869 there were, in 1868, employed in the colored schools of the State, 241 teachers, 
(male, 104; female, 137.) The number of schools was 189, having 10,404 pupils enrolled, 
(males 5,409; females, 4,995.) The average number in daily attendance -was 5,246, (males, 
2,730; females, 2,516.) 

THE COLORED SCHOOLS OF CINCINNATI. 

The first schools exclusively for colored persons were established in the year 1820, and by 
colored men. One of these schools was located in what was known as " Glenn's old pork 
house," on Hopple's allej', near Sycamore street. This school did not last long. Another 
was established, in the same year, by a colored man named Schooley. It was kept some- 
where in the neighborhojd of Sixth street and Broadway, which vicinity was then called 
'■The Green," which has long since disappeared. Mr. Wing, who kept a private school neat 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 371 

the corner of Vine and Sixth streets, admitted colored students to his night school. During 
the period of time extending from 1820 to 1835 no school was regularly kept, teachers being 
few and patronage slack. Owen T. B. Nickens, a colored man, who still teaches at New 
Richmond, Ohio, was one of the prominent educators of that period. 

About 1835 came the begining of the anti-slavery discussion among the people of Cincin- 
nati. A number of young men and women, filled with a hatred to slavery and a desire to 
labor for a down-trodden race, came to Cincinnati and established several schools. One in 
the colored Baptist church, on Western row, was taught at various times by Messr.s. Barbour, 
E. Fairchild, W. Robinson, and Augustus Wattles. Of the ladies, there were the Misses 
Bishop, Matthews, Lowe, and Mrs. Merrell. They were all excellent teachers, and deeply 
imbued with a desire to do good, and are remembered with gratitude by those who received 
instruction at their hands. 

They were, of course, subjected to much contumely. Boarding-house keepers refused to 
entertain them, placing their trunks upon the sidewalks and telling them that they "had nc 
accommodations for nigger teachers." They were obliged to club together, rent a house, and 
board themselves. Frequently the schools were closed because of mob violence. 

A part of the salary of these teachers was paid by an educational society, consising ot 
benevolent whites (many of whom have lived to witness the triumph of principles which 
they espoused amid so much obloquy) and the better class of colored people. Among the 
colored men who co-operated heartily in the work, may be named Baker Jones, Joseph 
Fowler, John Woodson, Dennis Hill, John Liverpool, and William O. Hara. 

These schools continued with varying fortunes until 1844, when Rev. Hiram S. Gilmore, 
a young man of good fortune, fine talents, and rare benevolence, established the " Cincinnati 
high school," which was, in some respects, the best school ever established in Cincinnati for 
the benefit of the colored people. Its proprietor, or patron rather, spared no expense to make 
it a success. Ground was purchased at the east end of Harrison street and a commodious 
building of five large rooms and a chapel was fitted up. In the yard, an unusual thing at that 
time in any Cincinnati school, was fitted a fine gymnasium. Good teachers were employed 
to give instruction in the branches usual to a full English course of study, besides which, 
Latin, Greek, drawing, and music were taught. 

The number of pupils at times rose to 3U0 ; but the receipts never equalled the expenses. 

Some of the pupils displayed such proficiency in singing, declamations, and the like, that 
regularly, every vacation, classes of them, in charge of the principal, journeyed through the 
States of Ohio and New York giving concerts. The profits realized by these expeditions 
were devoted to clothing and furnishing books to the poorer pupils of the school. In some 
cases the time of such poor pupils as gave sign of ability was hired from their parents. 
Never did a nobler soul exist than that which animated the breast of Hiram S. Gilmore ! 
The teachers of this school were : Mr. Joseph H. Moore, Thomas L. Boucher, David P. 
Lowe, lately police judge of our city, and finally Dr. A. L. Childs; the musical proficiencies 
of the pupils was due to their thorough training by W. F. Colburn, their instructor in 
music. In 1848 the school passed into the bands of Dr. A. L. Childs, who was its principal 
at the time of its discontinuance. 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS FOR COLORED CHILDREN. 

The law authorizing the establishment of schools for colored children at the public expense 
was passed in 1849. An attempt to organize schools under the law was made in 1850, 
Trustees were elected, teachers employed, and houses hired, but the money to pay for all 
this was not forthcoming from the city treasury. The law orders that so much of all the 
funds belonging to the city of Cincinnati as would fall to the colored youth, by a per capita 
division, should be held subject to the order of the colored trustees. The city declared that 
the colored trustees, not being electors, were not and could not be qualified as office-holders 
under the constitution of the State of Ohio, hence they could draw no money from the 
city treasury. They refused, therefore, to honor the drafts of the school board. The schools 
were closed after continuing three months, the teachers going unpaid. The colored school 
board, inspired by the appeals and counsels of the late John I. Gaines, called a meeting of 



S72 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

the colored people, and laid the case before them. It was resolved to raise money and 
employ counsel to contest this decision of the city officials. The legal proceeding was in 
the nature of an application for mandamus. The case was placed in the hands of Flamen 
Ball, esq. The colored people were victors, though not till the case had been carried to the 
supreme court by the contestants. 

In 1851 the schools were again opened, but the accommodations were wretched. The 
amount falling to the colored schools was small. Good houses were needed, but eminent 
legal gentlemen declared there was no authority anywhere to build school-houses for colored 
children. The school board was proceeding cautiously in the matter, when, suddenly, by a 
change in the law, they were thrown out of power. The control of the colored schools was 
vested in the board of trustees and visitors which had control of the public schools for white 
children. This board was authorized by the new law to appoint six colored men, to whom 
the task of managing the schools was intrusted, except in the matter of controlling the 
funds. The leading colored men held aloof from this arrangement, feeling that if colored 
men were competent to manage the schools in one particular they were in all, and if colored 
men could manage the schools, colored men could select the managers as well or better 
than white men could. 

The law was again altered in 1856, giving to the colored people the right of electing their 
own trustees. Thus it stands to-day. 

The first school-house was erected and occupied in 1858. It was built by Nicholas Long- 
worth and leased to the colored people, with privilege of purchasing in 14 years. It has 
been paid for several years ago. It cost $14,000. In 1859 the building on Court street, for 
the western district, was erected. Since then three other buildings, two of them small, have 
been completed. The total value of all the property used by the colored schools is about 
$50,000. The rooms will accommodate about 700 pupils. The title to this, as with other 
school property, is vested in the city of Cincinnati. 

The schools are classified as primary, intermediate, and high school. Seventeen teachers 
are employed, all of whom are colored and former pupils, except two, who are Germans, 
and are employed, one in teaching the German language, the other in teaching music. The 
salaries paid are not so high as are paid in the other public schools of the city. The receipts 
for the year ending June 30, 1869, were about $24,000. The number of pupils enrolled in 
all departments was 1,006 ; average belonging, 522 ; average attendance, 475. 

WILBERFORCE UNIVERSITY. 

The earliest collegiate institution in the United States, founded and owned by colored men, 
is Wilberforce University, which originated in 1863, during the heat of the great rebellion. 
Although designed for the special training of colored youth, it is prohibited by its charter 
from making any distinctions on account of race or color, among its trustees, its instructors, 
or its students. The present faculty consists of five persons, three of whom are colored and 
two white. It is located three and a half miles east of Xenia, in Greene county, Ohio, and is 
under the management of members of the African Methodist Episcopal church. 

The first establishment of Wilberforce University, however, is due to another body of 
Christians. In 1853 some of the ministers and members of the Methodist Episcopal church 
saw and felt the necessity of a more liberal and concentrated effort to improve the condition 
of the colored people in Ohio and other States, and to furnish the facilities of education to 
them. Deeming that colored men must be, for the most part, the educators and elevators of 
their own race in this and other lands, they conceived the idea of an institution wherein 
many of that class should be thoroughly trained for professional teaching, or for any other 
pursuit in life. At the session of the Cincinnati conference, in 1855, this movement culmin- 
ated in the appointment of the Rev. John F. Wright as general agent to take the incipient 
steps for establishing such a college. This gentleman, with others, entered into negotiations 
for the purchase of the Xenia Springs property, which had been previously fitted up as a 
fashionable watering place, at a cost of some $50,000. This property consisted of 52 acres 
of land, in a beautiful and healthy region, upon which there had been erected a large edifice 
with numerous rooms, well adapted to the purposes of a collegiate institution. Besides this 



IN EESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 373 

principal building, there was a number of cottages upon the place well suited to the use of 
private families. Mr. Wright and his associates were fortunate enough to find about half a 
dozen wealthy and philanthropic gentlemen to second them in their efforts, and in May, 1856, 
the purchase was concluded for $13,500. In the following August application was duly 
made for incorporation under the general law of thp State of Ohio, and every legal requisi- 
tion having been complied with, the institution was organized and constituted a body cor- 
porate under the name of the Wilberforce University. It was kept in successful operation 
from October, 1856, until June, 1862, at which time, as it was supported mainly by southern 
slaveholders who sent their children there to be educated, the war cut off the greater portion 
of its patronage and compelled a suspension of its operations. The institution was then 
laboring under an indebtedness of $10,000 ; and for this sum the trustees offered to sell out 
all their right, title, and interest to the African Methodist Episcopal church, whose co-opera- 
tion in this enterprise had been requested and declined as early as 1856. This offer was 
accepted ; thus the present Wilberforce University came into being. The credit for this 
result is largely due to the Rt. Rev. Daniel A. Payne, one of the bishops of the African 
Methodist Episcopal church, who had favored co-operation with the white Methodists, and 
who has ever since been an untiring worker in behalf of this educational enterprise. 

In the course of the two following years the new proprietors reduced their indebtedness to 
$3,000, having received aid from their white friends only to the extent of $260. The gratify- 
ing success attendant thus far upon the establishment of this unique institution was destined 
to encounter quite a serious check. On the 14th day of April, 1865 — a day sadly memorable 
in the annals of our country as that of President Lincoln's assassination — the college edifice 
fell a prey to incendiarism ; but the ardor of the friends of Wilberforce was quickened instead 
of being diminished by this misfortune. The amount of insurance upon the burnt building 
($8,000) enabled them to discharge the obligations existing against them, and to reserve 
$5,000 as a fund for rebuilding. With this amount at their command, they confidently laid 
the foundation of a new structure 160 feet in length by 44 feet in width, at an anticipated 
cost of $35,000, and made appeal to their friends to aid them in their endeavors. Their call 
for assistance has been quite favorably responded to both by members of their own denomina- 
tion and other parties ; among the latter of whom may be mentioned the executors of the 
Avery estate, and the Society for the Promotion of Collegiate and Theological Education at 
the West. They are now enabled to show as the result of their persevering energy a hand- 
some building, suflSciently advanced towards completion to accommodate their students, 
about 80 in number, equally divided between the two sexes. The prospects are quite flat- 
tering, too, for the endowment of their requisite number of professorships, and for makino- 
additions to their scientific apparatus and to their library, now already numbering about 
2,500 volumes. 

Wilberforce is designed to be a university complete in all the ordinary faculties. Those of 
literatuie, medicine, and theology have already been established, and additional ones in the 
department of science and law are contemplated. The several courses of instruction are 
full and thorough ; and two features included in them are deserving of especial mention as 
showing the laudable spirit of its board of trustees. These are, first, that, in view of anti- 
cipated missionary effort in Hayti, particular attention is paid to the study of French; and, 
second, that, with the design of training teachers for labor among the freedmen, a normal 
day and Sunday school has been instituted. 

The corps of instruction now employed at Wilberforce University is as follows, viz : 
Et. Rev. Daniel A. Payne, D. D., President and Professor of Christian Theology, Mental 
Science, and Church Government; John G. Mitchell, A. M., Professor of Greek and Mathe- 
matics ; Rev. William Kent, M. D., Professor of Natural Sciences ; Theodore E. Suliot, A. M., 
Professor of English, Latin, and French Literature, and Associate Professor of Mathe- 
matics. 

Medical Department. — William Kent, M. D., Professor of Practical and Analytical Chem- 
istry ; Williams, M. D.; J. P. Marvin, M. D.; Alexander T. Augusta, M. D. 



374 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

OBERLIN COLLEGE. 

In any account of the higher education of colored youth in this country, Oberlin College 
must not be omitted. That institution, established in 1833, opened its doors to deserving 
applicants without distinction of sex, race, or color, and as early as 1836 had several colored 
students. The first colored graduate of the college was George B. Vashan, subsequently 
professor of languages in Avery College, at Pittsburg. The whole number of colored gradu- 
ates is 20, three of whom are females. The whole number of colored graduates in the 
teachers' course is 16 ; in the theological department, 1. Before the war the ratio of colored 
students to the whole number was five per cent, for a period of nearly 20 years ; since the 
war it has amounted to nearly eight per cent., making an average of nearly 50 colored stu- 
dents during the last 25 years. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

By the census of 1860 there were returned, out of a population of 2,906,115, in Pennsyl- 
vania, 56,849 free blacks. By the constitution of the State the right of sufi'rage is restricted 
to whites ; but by the school law the privileges of a public school education are extended to 
all children, whether white or black ; and, by an act passed in 1854, the school directors of 
the several districts are authorized and required "to establish, within their respective dis- 
tricts, separate schools for the tuition of negro and mulatto children, whenever such schools 
can be so located as to accommodate 20 or more pupils ; and whenever such separate 
schools shall be established and kept open four months in any year, the directors or con- 
trollers shall not be compelled to admit such pupils into any other schools of the district : 
Provided, That in cities and boroughs the board of controllers shall provide for such schools 
out of the general funds assessed and collected by uniform taxation for educational purposes." 

To the members of the Society of Friends, in Philadelphia, and to associations originating 
under the auspices of that religious body, are the blacks of this country indebted for the 
earliest permanent and best developed schools for their children. 

SCHOOLS FOR BLACK PEOPLE BY ANTHONY BENEZET. 

Kev. George Whitefield — who visited America in 1739, partly to found an orphan house 
after the model of that of Franks, at Halle, purchased in 1740 a tract of land of about 5,000 
acres in Upper Nazareth township; but in view of making a location further south, (in 
Georgia,) transferred his title to the Moravian brethren in 1843— contemplated, it is said, the 
establishment of a school for negro children, but accomplished nothing.* 

The earliest school of any kind for the education of the children of negroes, in Philadel- 
phia, so far as we can ascertain, was established as an evening school, by Anthony Benezet, 
about the year 1750, and taught by him gratuitously. This remarkable man, who was the 
first on this continent to plead the cause of the oppressed African race, and whose publica- 
tions were instrumental in enlisting the energies of Clarkson and others in the abolition of 
the slave trade, was born at St. Quentin, France, December 31, 1713, (old style.) His 
parents were among the most noted and wealthy persons of the place, but, on becoming Pro- 

*It is stated in Sypher's "School History of Pennsylvania " that Rev. George Whitefield commenced the 
erection of a school-house for colored children at Nazareth. We do not have at hand the authorities to con- 
firm or refute this statement; but we find in Anderson's ' ' Colonial Church " that Whitefield, on the occasion 
of his visit to Georgia, in 1740, censured Oglethorpe and others, who had got introduced into the charter a 
clause prohibiting the importation of negro slaves into the colony of Georgia. "To prohibit people from 
holding lands, except under the conditions which those laws prescribed, or to require them to carry on the 
work of cultivation in a hot climate without negro labor, was little better, he said, than to tie their legs and 
bid them walk. He maintained that to keep slaves was lawfi^. ; else how was the Scripture to be explained 
which spoke of slaves being born in Abraham's house, or purchased with his money 1 He denied not that 
liberty was sweet to those who were born free ; but argued that, to those who had never known any other 
condition, slavery might not be so irksome. The introduction, also, of slaves into Georgia, would bring them, 
he believed, within the reach of those mpans of grace which would make them partakers of a liberty far more 
precious than any which affected the body only ; and, upon such grounds, he hesitated not to exert himself to 
obtain a repeal of that part of the charter which torbade the importation of slaves." 



IN EESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. -^75 

testants, their estate was confiscated, and they withdrew from their'native country and took 
refuge in Holland. From thence the family removed to London, and the father having 
engaged in commercial pursuits there, he recovered, to some extent, his lost fortune. 

In 1731 the family removed to Philadelphia, where they were permanently established ; 
and in 1736 Anthony married Joyce Marriott, of Wilmington, Delaware, with whom he 
lived 50 years " in love and peace." Declining to engage in commerce, from motives of a 
religious nature, he turned his attention to mechanical pursuits, v.hich proving unfavorable 
to his health, at the age of 26 he engaged as a teacher at Germantown, in the vicinity of Phila- 
delphia. 

In 1742 he became usher in the public school formed under a charter from William Penn, 
in which school he continued 12 years. In 175r) he opened a school for the instruction of 
girls, which was attended for 30 years by the daughters of the most affluent and respectable 
inhabitants of the city. His methods of instruction and of discipline were far in advance of 
those of the teachers of that period, by which he attached his pupils to himself for his gen- 
tleness and regard for their happiness ; among other privileges granting them a room as a 
place of amusement during the mtervals of study. His views of education are expi-essed in 
the following paragraphs : 

"With respect to the education of our youth, I would propose, as the fruit of 40 years' 
experience, that when they are profisients in the use of their pen, and become sufficiently 
acquainted with the English grammar and the useful parts of arithmetic, they should be 
taught mensuration of superficies and solids, as it helps the mind in many necessary matters, 
particularly the use of the scale and the compass, and will open the way for those parts of the 
mathematics which their peculiar situations may afterwards make necessary. It would also 
be profitable for every scholar, of both sexes, to go through and understand a short but very 
plain set of merchant's accounts in single entry, particularly adapted to the civil uses of life. 
And iu order to perfect their education in a useful and agreeable way, both to themselves and 
others, I would propose to give them a general knowledge of the mechanical powers, geog- 
raphy, and the elements of astronomy ; the use of the microscope might also be profitably 
added, in discovering the minute parts of creation; this, with the knowledge of the magni- 
tude and courses of those mighty bodies which surround us, would tend to exalt their ideas. 

" Such parts of history as may tend to give them a right idea of the corruption of the 
human heart, the dreadful nature and effects of war, the advantage of virtue, &c., are also 
necessary parts of an education founded upon Christian and reasonable principles. These 
several instructions should be inculcated on a religious plan, in such a waj' as may prove a 
delightful rather than a painful labor, both to teachers and pupils. It might also be profit- 
able to give lads of bright genius some plain lectures upon anatomy, the wondrous I'rame of 
man, deducing therefrom the advantage of a simple way of life, enforcing upon their under- 
standing the kind eftorts of nature to maintain the human frame in a state of health, with 
little medical help but what abstinence and exercise will afibrd. These necessary parts of 
knowledge, so useful in directing the youthful mind in the path of virtue and wisdom, might 
be proposed by way of lectures, which the pupil should write down, and when corrected 
should be copied in a neat bound book, to be kept for future perusal." 

While teaching this scl^ool for girls he prepared and published two of the earliest school- 
books printed in this country; one a spelling-book and primer, and a grammar. The senti- 
ments expressed in these books were such as grew out of his efforts to promote the education 
of youth on the basis of a true estimate of human life, "whence obedience and love to God, 
benignity to man, and a tender regard for the whole creation would necessarily flow;" and 
also from his desire to give to youth "as easy and compendious a knowledge of their c»vn 
language, and such other useful parts of learning, as their respective situations may make 
necessary to answer all the good purposes of life." 

In the year 1750 he became interested in the iniquity of the slave trade, and from this time 
he devoted himself strenuously to the amelioration of the condition of the black people till 
the end of his life. In this direction he took special interest in the education of their youth, 
establishing for them, as has been stated, the first evening school, which he taught himself 
gratuitously ; and he subsequently engaged in soliciting fuuds for the erection of a building 
for a day school ibr their instruction. From the experience derived from his own school, and 
Irom his intercourse with the blacks, he formed aud expressed a more favorable opinion of 
their dispositions and mental capacities than had been previously generally entertained. On 
these points lie says: "1 can with truth and sincerity declare that I have found amo:ig 
the negroes as great vatiety of talents as among a like number of whites, and I am bold to 
assert that the notion entertained by some, that the blacks are inferior in their capacities, is 



376 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

a vulgar prejudice, founded on the pride or ignorance of their lordly masters, who have kept 
their slaves at such a distance as to be unable to form a right judgment of them." 

When the education of colored youth was taken up by the Society of Friends, Benezet 
volunteered to assist the teacher; and on several occasions, when there was a failure to pro- 
cure a teacher, he himself continued the school. Without dwelling further on the labors of 
Benezet to promote the abolition of slavery in his own State, and to ameliorate the condition 
of the colored people everywhere, the following extract from his will exhibits his desire to 
continue his work in their behalf after his death : 

" I give my above said house and lot, or ground rent proceeding from it, and the rest and 
residue of my estate which shall remain undisposed of after my wife's decease, both real and 
persona], to the Public School of Philadelphia, founded by charter, and to their successors 
forever, in trust, that tfhey shall sell my house and lot on perpetual ground rent forever, if 
the same be not already sold by my executors, as before mentioned, and that as speedily as 
may be they receive and take as much of my personal estate as may be remaining, and there- 
with purchase a yearly ground rent, or ground rents, and with the income of such ground 
rent proceeding from the sale of my real estate hire, and employ a religious-minded person, or 
persons, to teach a number of negro, mulatto, or Indian children to read, write, arithmetic, 
plain accounts, needle-work, &c. And it is my particular desire, founded on the experience 
I have had in that service, that, in the choice of such tutors, special care may be had to 
prefer an industrious, careful person, of true piety, who may be or become suitably quali- 
fied, who would undertake the service from a principle of charity, to one more highly learned, 
not equally disposed ; this I desii'e may be carefully attended to, sensible that from the 
number of pupils of all ages, the irregularity of attendance their situation subjects them to, 
will not admit of that particular inspection in their improvement usual in other schools, but 
that the real well-doing of the scholars will very much depend upon the master making a 
special conscience of doing his duty; and shall likewise defray such other necessary expense 
as may occur in that service ; and as the said remaining income of my estate, after mj^ wife's 
decease, will not be sufficient to defray the whole expense necessary for the support of such 
a school, it is my request that the overseers of the saiifl Public School shall join in the care and 
expense of such a school, or schools, for the education of negro, mulatto, or Indian chil- 
rlven, with any committee which may be appointed by the monthly meetings of Friends in 
Philadelphia, or with any other body of benevolent persons wlio may join in raising money 
and employing it for the education and care of such children; my desire being that, as such 
a school is now set up, it may be forever maintained in this city." 

Benezet died on the 3d of May, 1784, and his funeral was attended by the widows and 
)rphans and the poor of all descriptions, including many hundreds of blacks, all of whom 
' mourned for the loss of their best friend." 

SCHOOLS FOR BLACK PEOPLE BY THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS. 

To the Society of Friends in particular is the African slave in America indebted for the 
earliest efforts for his enlightenment and for the most persistent struggles for his emancipation 
and the abolition of the slave trade. George Fox, from the time of landing in 1672, on the 
banks of the Patuxent, in Maryland, never failed to impress upon' those who controlled the 
negro the importance of raising him above the brute. In an epistle to Friends in America, 
written in 1679, he says : " You must instruct and teach your Indians and negroes, and all 
others, how that Christ, by the grace of God, tasted death for every man." The journals of 
the Quaker preachers who succeeded him show they were animated by the same spirit. One 
of their number, a man of fine classical education, and educated as a lawyer, says: " The 
morning that we came from Thomas Simons's my companion, speaking some words of truth 
to his negro woman, she was tendered, and as I passed on horseback by the place where 
she stood weeping I gave her my hand, and then she was much more broken. ^ * She 
stood there, looking after us and weeping as long as we could see her. I inquired of one 
of the black men here how long they had come to meetings. He says they had always been 
kept in ignorance and disregarded, as persons who were not to expect anything from the 
Lord, till Jonathan Taylor, who had been there the year before discoursing with them, had 
informed them that the grace of God, through Christ, was given also to them." On the 
25th of the second month, at Pocoson, not far from Yorktown, Virginia, he was * ' enter- 
tained in much friendship and tender respect by Thomas Nichols and his wife, but by her 
especially, who, though a mulatto by extraction, was not too tawny for the divine light of 
the Lord Jesus Christ." 



IN KESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 377 

On the 26th of January, 1770, through the influence of Anthony Benezet, a committee 
was appointed at a monthly meeting of Friends, in Philadelphia, " to consider on the instruc- 
tion of negro and mulatto children in reading, writing, and other useful learning suitable to 
their capacity and circumstances ;" and, on the 30th of May of the same year, they decided 
to authorize a special committee of seven Friends to employ a schoolmistress of prudent and 
exemplary conduct " to teach, not more at one time than 30 children, in the first rudiments 
of school learning and in sewing and knitting." The school was to be opened to white chil- 
dren if a sufficient number of children of negroes and mulattoes did not apply for admission. 
In June a male teacher was employed — Moles Patterson — who had a salary of £80 a yeai 
and an additional sum of £ 1 1 for one-half of the rent of his dwelling-house. While instruc- 
tion was gratuitous to the poor, those who were able were requested to pa}', "at the rate of 
10s. a quarter for those who write and 7s. 6d. for others." 

The scholars having been found on examination to have made good progress, the monthly 
meeting authorized the construction of a school-house for the express uses of the school. On 
the resignation of Patterson, David Estaugh was employed as the teacher, " he having spent 
some time to improve himself under our friend Anthony Benezet, who, having frequently 
met with us and assisted us in the trust committed to us, now kindly offered to attend daily 
and give his assistance to David in the sch'ol." 

With reference to the capacity of the children gathered in this school, the testimony of 
those who examined it was that it was equal to that of other children. Jacob Lehre suc- 
ceeded David Estaugh in 1774, the latter having resigned, "finding the employment too 
heavy." In 1775 the committee agreed to admit 10 or 12 white children, because there was 
a probability that the school would otherwise be small in the winter season, and in April 40 
colored and six white children were in the school. No record of the transactions of the com- 
mittee from the early part of 1777 to 1782, because, as is stated, " a part of this period was 
remarkable for commotion, contending armies takiag, evacuating, and repossessing this 
city, and schools kept within the compass thereof were generally for a time suspended." 
John Haughton was the teacher at the latter period, and continued in that service five years, 
when he resioued on account of failing health, and his place was filled by Anthony Bene- 
zet, with "the entire approbation of the committee," until his death, in May, 1784. Just 
before his death he addressed the following to the " overseers of the school for the instruc- 
tion of the black people:" 

"My friend Joseph Clark having frequently observed to me his desire, in case of my 
inability of continuing the care of the negro school, of succeeding me in that service, not- 
withstanding he now has a more advantageous school, by the desire of doing good to the 
black people makes him overlook these pecuniary advantages, I much wish the overseers of 
the school would take his desires under their peculiar notice and give him such due encour- 
agement as may be proper, it being a matter of the greatest consequence to that school that 
the master be a person who makes it a principle to do his duty." 

The overseers decided that "the strongest proof of their love and good-will to their departed 
friend, they think, will be to pay regard to the advice and recommendation contained in the 
said letter." 

In 1784 William Waring was placed in charge of the larger children, at a salary of £100, 
and Sarah Dougherty of the younger children and girls, in teaching spelling, reading, sew- 
ing, &c., at a salary of £50. In 1787 aid was received from David Barclay, of London, in 
behalf of a committee for managing a donation for the relief of Friends in America; and 
the suui of £500 was thus obtained, which, with the fund derived from the estate of Ben- 
ezet, and £300 from Thomas Shirley, a colored man, was appropriated to the erection of a 
school-house. In 1819 a committee of "women Friends," to have exclusive charge of the 
admission of girls and the general superintendence of the girls' school, was associated with 
the overseers in the charge of the school. In 1830, in order to relieve the day school of some 
of the male adults who had been in the habit of attending, an evening school for the purpose 
of instructing such persons gratuitously was opened, and has been continued to the present 
time. In 1844 a lot was secured on Locust street, extending along Shield's alley, now 
Aurora street, on which a new house was erected in 1847, the expense of which was paid 
for in part from the proceeds of the sale of a lot bequeathed by John Pemberton, Additional 



378 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

accommodations were made to this building, from time to time, as room was demanded by 
new classes of pupils. 

From a report published by direction of the committee of the "schools for black people 
and their descendants," it appears that up to the year 1867, covering a period of over 96 
years, about 8,000 pupils had been instructed in these schools. In 1866 there were upwards 
of 4,000 colored children in the city of Philadelphia of the proper school age, of whom 1,300 
were in the public schools, 800 in seminaries supported by charitable bequests and volun- 
tary subscriptions, and 200 in private schools. 

In ]849 a statistical return of the condition of the people of color in the city and districts 
of Philadelphia shows that there was then one grammar school, with 463 pupils ; two public 
primary schools, with 339 ; and an infant school, under the charge of the Pennsylvania 
Abolition Societ}', of 70 pupils, in Clifton street ; a ragged and a moral reform school with 81 
pupils. In West Philadelphia there was also a public school, with 67 pupils ; and, in all, 
there were about 20 private schools, with 300 pupils; making an aggregate of more than 
1,300 children receiving an education. 

In 1859, according to Bacon's " Statistics of the Colored People of Philadelphia,'' there 
were 1,031 colored children in public schools, 748 in charity schools of various kinds, 211 
in benevolent and reformatory schools, and 331 in private schools, making an aggregate of 
2,321 pupils, besides four evening schools, one for adult males, one for females, and one for 
young apprentices. There were 19 Sunday schools connected with the congregations 
of the colored people, and conducted by their own teachers, containing 1,667 pupils, and 
four Sunday schools gathered as mission schools by members of white congregations, with 
215 pupils. There was also a "Public Library and Eeading Room" connected with the 
"Institute for Colored Youth," established in 1853, having about 1,300 volumes, besides 
three other small libraries in different parts of the city. The same pamphlet shows that 
there were 1,700 of the colored popul£y;ion engaged in different trades and occupations, rep- 
resenting every department of industry. 

CHARITY, BENEVOLENT, AND REFORMATORY SCHOOLS. 

In 1822 an "Orphan's Shelter" was established by an association of women " Friends ;" 
in 1850 a " House of Refuge" for children found guilty of offenses against the law ; in 1355 
a "Home for Colored Children;" and in 1852 a high school or "Institute for Colored 
Youth." In 1858 the Sheppard school was established at the House of Industry. 

lu a historical memoir of this society, published in 1848, it is stated that " the con- 
dition of the colored population of the city and adjoining districts, although far in 
advance of what it was at the organization of this society, vs also a subject which still occu- 
pies its close attention. The schools already instituted for the education of colored children 
have largely contributed to benefit the people as a class, and will demand the vigilant attett' 
tion of the society, under whose fostering care it is hoped much may be effected towards the 
elevation of the colored youth of our city. It would not be difScult to point to many fami- 
lies amongst them whose intelligence and moral standing in the community is justl.y refer- 
able to the early training they received in these schools, and it has aflbrded encouragement- 
to many members of this society to hear the acknowledgment of many respectable individ- 
uals, that to these schools they were, under the divine blessing, mainly indebted for their 
success in life. Hence, also, has arisen that thirst for knowledge amongst the colored pop- 
ulation which has led to the formation of societies for promoting the exercise of their intel- 
lectual faculties, and for the pursuit of literary and scientific subjects." 

The teachers of the Institute for Colored Youth, and of all the private schools, are of their 
own complexion ; the others are generally white. No register is kept in any school denoting 
standard of scholarship, nor is there any system of rewards for exciting emulation. 

One of the results of the education of this class of the population has been to elevate their 
self-respect and to promote habits of thrift and economy, as well as to break up the habit of 
congregating in so large numbers in the narrow and crowded streets of the city, and to 
create a desire to possess houses and gardens in the suburbs. As they have become educated 
they have risen more and more from the condition of mere day laborers into that of skillful and 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 379 

industrious artisans and tradesmen, until in 1867 it was found, as a result of statistical 
inquiry, that they Avere engaged in more than ]30 distinct occupations, having a fair repre- 
sentation in all the principal mechanical industries of the city. 

From an inquiry instituted in 1837 it was ascertained that, out of the 18,768 colored people 
in Philadelphia, 250 had paid for their freedom the aggregate sum of $70,612, and that the 
real and personal property owned by them was near $1,500,000. There were returns ot 
several chartered benevolent societies for the purpose of affording mutual aid in sickness and 
distress, and there were 16 houses of public worship, with over 4,000 communicants. 

SCHOOLS OF THE PENNSYLVANIA ABOLITION SOCIETY. 

The Pennsylvania Abolition Society established a school for children of the blacks, in 
1794, taught by a well-qualified black teacher. In 1809 they erected for the use of the 
school a house at a cost of $4,000, to which, in 1815, they gave the name of " Clarkson 
Hall." In 1813 a board of education was organized, consisting of 13 persons, with a visit- 
ing committee of three, who were to visit the school once each week. In 1818 the board 
of education, in their report, speak in the highest terms of the beneficial effect of the Clark- 
son schools, which they say " furnish a decided refutation of the charge that the mental 
endowments of the descendants of Africa are inferior to those possessed by their white 
brethren. We can assert, without fear of contradiction, that the pupils of this seminary will 
sustain a fair comparison with those of any other institution in which the same elementary 
branches are taught." 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS FOR COLORED CHILDREN. 

In 1820 this society applied to the comptrollers of the public schools to obtain for the 
children of colored parents a share of the school education to which they were entitled by 
the law of Pennsylvania providing for the schooling of all the poor children of the com- 
monwealth at the public expense. In 1822 the comptrollers, admitting that the benefits of 
the law should be extended to the colored as well as to poor white children, opened a school 
in Lombard street for the education of the children of both sexes of indigent persons of 
color ; and in 1841 a primary school was opened in the same building. In 1833 the " Unclassi- 
fied school" in Coates street, and from time to time afterwards several additional schools of 
the same class in West Philadelphia were established. These schools are maintained in 
ihe same way as the public schools generally. 

INSTITUTE FOR COLORED YOUTH. 

By the will of Richard Humphreys, a member of the Society of Friends, who died in 1832, 
the sum of $10,000 was devised to certain trustees, to be paid over by them to such benevo- 
lent society or institution as might be established for the purpose of instructing "descend- 
ants of the African race in school learning in the various branches of the mechanic arts 
and trade, and in agriculture." At this time the idea of giving instruction to the colored 
race was very unpopular, even in Philadelphia, and no society was formed to carry out the 
design of Mr. Humphreys until five years afterwards. Thirty members of the Society of 
Friends then formed themselves into au association, and took measures to establish an insti- 
tution in accordance with the design of the legacy. lu the preamble to the constitution 
adopted by them they say : 

"We believe that the most successful method of elevating the moral and intellectual char- 
acter of the descendants of Africa, as well as of improving their social condition, is to extend 
to them the benefits of a gooil education, and to instruct them in the knowledge of some 
useful trade or business, whereby they may be enabled to obtain a comfortable livelihood by 
their own industry ; and thiough tliese means to prepare them for fulfilling the various duties 
of domestic and social life with reputation and fidelity, as good citizens and pious men." 

To enable the youth to receive instruction in " mechanic arts and agriculture," the asso- 
ciation, in 1839, purchased a piece of land in Bristol township, Philadelphia county, and 
educated a number of boys in farming, and to some extent in shoe-makiug and other useful 



3^'0 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

occupations. In 1842 the institute was incorporated; and in 1844 there was an addition 
to its treasury of $18,000 from the estate of another member of the Society of Friends, 
Jonathan Zane, and several other small legacies. After the experiment of the combined 
literary, agricultural, and manual labor school for a time, in consequence of certain unfavora- 
ble circumstances, it was finally concluded, though with much I'egret, in 1846, to sispend 
the experiment for a time ; and the farm and stock were sold, the only endeavor of the mana- 
gers to carry out the objects of their trust, during the next six years, being by apprenticing 
colored lads to mechanical occupations, and maintaining an evening school for literary edu- 
cation. 

In IBIiO a day school was contemplated, but not established for the want of a proper build- 
ing until 185], when a lot was secured in Lombard street and a building erected, in whicb 
a school was opened in the autumn of 1852 for boys only, under the care of Charles L. 
Eeason, of New York ; but in the same year the girls' school was opened, the pupils being 
selected from those of a standing above that of the ordinary schools. 

These schools proved successful, giving a good English and classical education to m.an_y 
active youth, thus fulfiUing the design of Mr. Humphreys in qualifying many useful teachers, 
of both sexes, who are now scattered over the coimtry engaged in elevating the character oi 
the colored people. The growing want of the school for increased accommodations was met 
in part, in 1863, by the appropriation of $5,000 to a building fund, from the estate of Josiah 
Dawson, who had been a member of the corporation. Soon after two other donations oi 
$5,000 each were made by Friends, provided $30,000 could be raised by the board to com- 
plete the building fund. This step was immediately taken and resulted successfully. 

The institute under the charge of Professor E. D. Bassett, (recently appointed United 
States commissioner and consul general to Hayti and San Domingo, ) a graduate of the State 
Normal School at New Britain, Connecticut, would compare favorably with any institution 
of the same class and grade in the city. According to the last published catalogue there 
were on the rolls of all the departments of the institute 223. In the boys' high school there 
were 52; in the girls', 100 ; in the boys' preparatory school, 35; and in the girls', 36; total, 
223. The library of the institute contains about 2,500 volumes. The total number of grad- 
uates of the institute is 48, of whom 44 are now living. Of these, 32 are engaged in teaching. 

AVERY COLLEGE, ALLEGHENY CITY. 

We are indebted to Professor Vashon, who was for a time connected with this college as 
professor, for the following notice of this institution, and of its founder and benefactor, Kev. 
Charles Avery : 

Immediately after entering the main gateway of Allegheny cemetery, in Pittsburg, Penn- 
sylvania, the eye of the visitor is arrested by a piece of sculpture which, representing a man 
erect upon an elevated pedestal, and attired in the costume of the present day, is indisputa- 
bly the most noted of all the artistic adornments of that resting place of the dead. This 
lifelike statue recalls, in its finished details, the well-known personal appearance of the one 
whom it is designed to commemorate, the late Rev. Charles Averj-, a native of the State of 
New York, but during the greater part of a long and honored life a resident of western 
Pennsylvania. Starting in life without any of the aids of fortune, he became, through 
efforts always characterized by the greatest probity, the possessor of ample wealth ; and 
never, perhaps, was wealth more worthily bestowed ; for, in his hands, it was but the 
means of doing good. His private charities were cheerfully and lavishly dispensed; and, 
among his public ones, may be mentioned the building of at least two neat and commodi- 
ous churches for the Protestant Methodist connection, in which he was a local preacher. At 
his death, too, which occurred in January, 1858, his estate passed, by his last will, into the 
hands of his executors, who were enjoined, after satisfying various testamentary provisions 
in favor of his widow and other surviving relations, to devote the residue of his estate, amount- 
ing to $300,000, to educating aad chi'istianizing persons of the African race. One-half O' 
this residue was directed to be employed in behalf of that class upon the continent of Africa, 
and the other half for the benefit of such as were in this country. It is understood that, as 
to the first half, the executors made choice of the American Missionary Society as the instru- 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 381 

mentality for its employment : and that they themselves have, in the execution of their trust 
as to the second, made large donations to Oberlin College, Lincoln, and Wilberforce Uni- 
ven-'ities, and other institutions that are earnestly laboring for the educational advancement 
of our colored population. 

But the statue before mentioned is not the proudest monument to the memory of the Rev. 
Charles Avery. That monument is to be found in Avery College, an institution which is 
located in Allegheny City, Pennsylvania, and of which he was the sole generous benefactor. 
Having obtained an act of incorporation for it from the legislature of Pennsylvania, in 1849, 
he donated to the trustees named in its charter a portion of land upon North street, extend- 
ing from Avery to Liberty street, and running back over 100 feet. Upon this land he had 
caused to be erected a handsome, substantial, and well-finished brick edifice, admirably 
suited to the purposes for which it was intended. The amplitude of this edifice may be 
inferred from the following brief description of it : 

Its ground floor is divided qff into a lecture room and two recitation rooms ; and its second 
story into four rooms, two pf which are fitted up for school purposes, a third set apart for 
the use of literary societies, while the remaining one, elegantly carpeted and furnished, is 
arranged as a library and apparatus room. There is still a third story, loftily ceiled, which 
is appropriated to the use and occupancy of a congregation belonging to the African Metho- 
dist Episcopal Zion connection, and which is known as the Avery Mission church. The 
entire structure is surmounted by a gracefully proportioned cupola with its clock and bell. 

Mr. Avery donated to this offspring of his generosity a complete set of apparatus needful 
to illustrate all the various branches of natural science, physics, chemistry and astronomy. 

Mr. Avery generously met the wants of the new institution by directing the selection and 
purchase of about 700 volumes, comprising books of reference, scientific treatises, histories, 
travels, and works of general literature by standard British and American authors. The 
selection was judiciously made ; and thus a small but excellent library was established for 
the benefit, not only of the college students, but also of any of the colored people of Pitts- 
burg and Allegheny cities. This library was increased by the addition of about .300 vol- 
umes more at the death of the donor's widow, in 1665. Besides this library, Mr. Avery 
also donated a collection of about 1500 volumes of such text-books as are used in the insti- 
tution. This latter collection is knbwn as the Avery College Beneficent Library, and is 
open to the use of students upon the payment of a small fee per term. 

For the support of this institution the lamented founder provided an endownment of about 
$25,000, which has thus far, through safe and profitable investment, suificed for that end. 
The board of trustees charged with its control consists of nine members, of whom three are 
white and the rest colored. The following gentlemen constitute this board at present^ viz : 
Dr. C. G. Hussey, president ; Rev. John Peck, vice-president ; Alexander Gordon, treasurer ; 
Samuel A. Neale, secretary ; P. L. Jackson, E. R. Parker, Barclay Preston, Matthew Jones, 
and A. I. Billows. 

Avery College was first opened for the admission of students in April, 1850, with the Rev. 
Philotas Dean, A. M., and M. H. Freeman, A. M , as senior and junior professors. Upon 
the retirement of Professor Dean, in 185(5, Professor Freeman became the i^rincipal, and con- 
tinued to act in that capacity until the latter part of 1863, when he was succeeded by Georo-e 
B. Vashon, A. M. Both of these gentlemen had as an assistant Miss Emma J. Woodson, 
a graduate of the institution. After the resignation of Professor Vashon, in July, 1867, the 
operations of Avery College were suspended until April, 1868, when its corps of instructors 
was reorganized as follows, viz : 

Rev. H. H. Garnett, D. D., president and professor of history, rhetoric, logic, mental and 
moral philosophy, and political economy ; B. K. Sampson, A. M., professor of mathematics, 
natural sciences, and languages ; Miss Harriet C. Johnson, principal of the preparatory and 
ladies' departments ; and Miss Clara G. Toop, teacher of vocal and instrumental music. All 
of these ladies and gentlemen, with the exception of Professor Dean, are colored persons. 

In its religious aspect Avery College is free from any sectarian organization ; but its 
charter provides that all its ofiicers shall be professors of Christianity. Its discipline is 
strict, yet mild and parental ; and its courses of study, collegiate and academical, which are 



382 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

tie same as are ordinarily adopted by other colleges and academies in our country, are open 
tn worthy persons of color of either sex. The number of its students at present is upwards 
of 7U, of whom the greater portion are females. The tuition fee is put down at the low rate 
of $2 per terra ; the academical year commencing on the 2d Monday in September, and 
being divided into three terms of 15, 13, and 12 weeks, respectively. 

Avery College has had a number of graduates from its academical course, but none as yet 
from its collegiate department. It is, however, fully empowered to confer the usual degrees 
in the arts and sciences ; and there is now reason to hope that, in the course of a year or 
two, it will be able to reckon several baccalaureates among its alumni. 

ASHMUN INSTITUTE—LINCOLN UNIVERSITY. 

At a stated meeting of the Presbytery of New Castle, October 5, 1853, after discussion, it 
was determined that "There shall be established within our bounds, and under our super- 
vision, an institution, to be called the Ashmun Institute, for the scientific, classical, and 
theological education of colored youth of the male sex." 

In pursuance of this determination, J. M. Dickey, A. Hamilton, R. P. Dubois, ministers, 
and Samuel J. Dickey and John M. Kelton, ruling elders, were appointed a committee to 
carry out this determination, by collecting funds, selecting a suitable site, and erecting plain 
and convenient edifices for the purpose ; also, to take steps to procure a charter from the 
State of Pennsylvania. On the 14th of November following this committee agreed to pur- 
chase 30 acres of land for $1,250, appointed a sub-covnmittee to prepare a copy of the charter, 
and took other measures for carrying out the plan. 

At the session of the legislature in 1854 the charter was granted, establishing ' ' at or 
, near a place called Hinsonville, in the county of Chester, an institution of learning for the 
scientific, classical, and theological education of colored youth of the male sex, by the name 
and style of the " Ashmun Institute." The trustees of this institute were John M. Dickey, 
Alfred Hamilton, Robert P. Dubois, James Latta, John B. Spottswood, James M. Crowell, 
Samuel J. Dickey, John M. Kelton, and William Wilson. 

By the provisions of this charter the trustees had power " to procure the endowment of 
the institute, not exceeding the sum of $100,000;" " to confer such literary degrees and 
academic honors as are ^jsually granted by colleges ;" and it was required that " the insti- 
tute shall be open to the admission of colored pupils of the male sex,' of all religious denomi- 
nations, who exhibit a fair moral character, and are willing to yield a ready obedience to the 
general regulations prescribed for the conduct of the pupils and the government of the 
institute." 

Oft the 31st of December, 1856, the institute was formally opened and dedicated : and 
retained the name first given in its charter until the dedication of the new chapel, May 23, 
1867, when the name "Lincoln University" was given. In the address of the president of 
the trustees, on that occasion, he says : " We were compelled, on the day of our first dedica- 
tion, to go to Africa for a name; we could designate our new institution for the colored man 
by no name of any one who had labored for his freedom or for the salvation of his soul, but 
as foreshadowing his removal to Africa as his home. But now we take another name, the 
name of the martyr whose emancipation proclamation has not only closed the black man's 
days of bondage, but become the prelude to his full citizenship." "By the name, Lincoln, 
therefore, we call this chapel and this university, and dedicate both to the Triune God, 
Father, Son and Holy Ghost." 

The board of trustees at present consists of 21 members, chosen by the Presbytery of New 
Castle. The officers of the board are a president, secretary, and treasurer. The faculty 
consists of the president, professors, and tutors. The present faculty in the coilegiato 
department consists of Rev. I. N. Randall, president ; Rev. Alonzo Westcott, Rev. E. R. 
Bower, Rev. E. E. Adams, and S. B. Howell, M. D., professors of mathematics, Greek, 
belles 'lettres, and natural sciences, respectively; and G. Geddes, M. D., tutor in Greek, 
and Latin; and Albert D, Minor, tutor in mathematics. 

The number of students, as reported by the catalogue of 1868-9, was 114, of whom 14 were 
in the theological department, 17 iu the preparatory class, and 83 in the collegiate depart- 



IN EESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 383 

meiit. Of the students now in the university, 48 are preparing for'tlie ministry and 41 for 
teaching. The institution has a small library of about 1,200 volumes ; and is dependent 
upon donations from its friends for additions to it. 

Eighty thousand dollars have recently been added to the endowment fund, securely 
invested, and devoted to the following objects : $20,000 for the endowment of the presidency, 
and named the Mary Dickey professorship ; $20,000 contributed by Hon. W. E. Dodge, 
and named the Dodge professorship of sacred rhetoric : $20,000 conveyed in invested funds 
by J. C. Baldwin, esq., of New York city, named the Baldwin professorship of theology ; 
and $20,000 assigned by the trustees of the Avery estate, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, and 
named the Avery professorship of Lincoln University. 

RHODE ISLAND. 

Out of a population of 174,620, in 1860, there were 3,952 free colored persons in Rhode 
Island, and by the census in 1865 these had increased to 4,087. As far back as 1708 the 
blacks constituted one-fourth of the whole population. Their social position and standing 
here has at all times been better than in any other portion of the country. During the war of 
the Revolution the negroes were permitted to enlist in the Rhode Island regiment, and many 
of them did so and received their freedom. At the close of the war, February 23, 1784, an act 
was passed providing that all children born after the first of March following of slave mothers 
should be free. By the first constitution of Rhode Island, which went into operation in May, 
1843, the negroes were allowed to vote on the same conditions as the native American white 
citizens, and since that date they have enjoyed all the facilities for progress which the right 
of voting could give. 

In the year 1828 a separate school was established, on their own petition, in Providence, 
with one male teacher, although the children were not forbidden to attend any of the public 
schools in their vicinity. By an act of the legislature in 1864 all separate schools for colored 
children were abolished. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

South Carolina had, in 1860, a population of 703,708, of whom more than one-half were 
blacks, viz : 402,406 slaves and 9,914 free, or a total of 412,120. This State took the lead in 
legislating directly against the education of the colored race; in 1740, while yet a British 
province, its assembly enacted this law: "Whereas the having of slaves taught to write, or 
suffering them to be employed in writing, may be attended with inconveniences. Be it enacted, 
That all and every person and persons whatsoever, who shall hereafter teach or cause any 
slave or slaves to be taught, or shall use or employ any slave as a scribe in any manner of 
writing whatever, hereafter taught to write, every such person or persons shall for every 
such offense forfeit the sum of £100 current money." 

^ In 1800 the State assembly passed an act, embracing free colored people as well as slaves 
in ite shameful provisions, enacting " That assemblies of slaves, free negroes, mulattoes, and 
mestizoes, whether composed of all or any such description of persons, or of all or any of the 
same and a proportion of white persons, met together for the purpose of mental instruction 
in a confined or secret place, or with the gates or doors of such place barred, bolted, or locked, 
so as to prevent the free ingress to and from the same," are declared to be unlawful meetings ; 
the officers dispersing such unlawful asseaiblages being authorized to " inflict such corporeal 
punishment, not exceeding 20 lashes, upon such slaves, free negroes, mulattoes, and, 
mestizoes, as they may judge necessary for deterring them from the like unlawful assemblage 
in future." Another section of the same act declares, " That it shall not be lawful for any 
number of slaves, free negroes, mulattoes, or mestizoes, even in company with white persons, 
to meet together and assemble for the purpose of mental instruction or religious worship 
before the rising of the sun or after the going down of the same." This section was so 
oppressive that, in 1803, in answer to petitions from certain religious societies, an amending 
act was passed forbidding any person before 9 o'clock in the evening " to break into a place 
of meeting wherever shall be assembled the members of any religious society of the Si ate, 
provided a majority of them shall be white persons, or other to disturb their devotions, unless 

-4 oLo^uM^ ^-^t*^ 






384 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLOKED POPULATION 

a warrant has been procured from a magistrate, if at the time of the meeting there should 
be a magistrate within three miles of the place ; if not, the act of 1800 is to remain in full 
force." 

It was not, however, till nearly a third of a century later that the State took open and 
direct action against the education of its free colored population under all circumstances. 
On the 17th of December, 1834, the climax of infamy was attained in an act, of which the 
following is the introductory section: 

" Section 1. If any person shall hereafter teach any slave to read or write, or shall aid or 
assist in teaching any slave to read or write, or cause or procure any slave to be taught to 
read or write, such person, if a free white 'person, upon conviction thereof shall, for each 
and every offense against this act, be fined not exceeding $100 and imprisonment not more 
than six months ; or if a free person of color, shall be whipped not exceeding 50 lashes and 
fined not exceeding |50, at the discretion of the court of magistrates and freeholders before 
which such free person ot color is tried ; and if a slave, to be whipped, at the discretion of the 
court, not exceeding 50 lashes, the informer to be entitled to one-half the fine and to be a 
competent witness. And if any free person of color or slave shall keep any school or other 
place of instruction for teaching any slave or free person of color to read or write, such free 
person of color or slave shall be liable to the same fine, imprisonment, and corporeal punish- 
ment as by this act are imposed and inflicted on free persons of color and slaves for teach- 
ing slaves to write." 

The second section, following up the detestable purpose of the act to doom its victims to 
besotted ignorance, forbids with severe penalties the employment of colored persons as 
" clerks or salesmen in or about any shop, store, or house used for trading." The third 
section makes it a grave misdemeanor "to sell, exchange, give, or in any otherwise deliver 
any spirituous liquors to any slave except upon the written and express order of the owner 
or person having the care and management of such slave. This section completes the 
infamy of the measure, in placing the dispensing of mental instruction to a slave in the 
same category of crimes with that of selling them intoxicating liquors, as is seen in the 
penalty which declares that "any free person of color or slave shall for each and every such 
offense incur the penalties prescribed for free persons of color or slaves for teaching slaves 
to read and write." All these acts, including the old province act of 1740, stood in full force 
when the rebellion came. 

SCHOOLS FOR THE PREEDMEN. 

The following account of the efforts to establish schools for colored children since 1861 was 
drawn up by Professor Vashon : 

This State, famous in American annals as being the most determined advocate of the 
servitude of the African race and foremost in the secession movement made to secure its 
perpetuity, was, through the retributive workings of Divine justice, the next one after Vir- 
ginia to witness the efforts of philanthropy in behalf of its oppressed free colored residents 
and of its peeled, broken, and imbiuted bondmen. It is true that South Carolina had never, 
like other slave States, formally prohibited by law the maintenance of schools for free col- 
ored persons; but, by a statute enacted December 17, 1834, it had forbidden any individ- 
ual of that class to keep such a school, and it visited with severe pains and penalties any one 
guilty of the offense of teaching a slave to read or write. The thick clouds of moral dark- 
ness thus formed were destined, however, to be rent and dissipated by the fierce-flashing 
lightnings of war, and that, too, before secession was a year old. In the month of Novem- 
ber, 1861, the Port Eoyal islands were captured, and, on the 8th day of the following Jan- 
uary, the Eev. Solomon Peck, D, D., of Boston, with the sanction of the military authori- 
ties, opened a school at Beaufort. In the latter part of the same month Mr. Barnard K. 
Lee, jr., a superintendent of "contrabands," opened another one at Hilton Head. The 
destitution upoii which these schools cast the first cheering ray was indeed forlorn. All oi 
the whites had fled from these islands, leaving there about 8,000 negroes, steeped in igno- 
rance and want. Their deplorable condition appealed strongly to the officers of the govern- 
ment for relief, and did not appeal in vain. Early in January, 1862, Edward L. Pierce, esq., 
was sent out by Secretary Chase, of the Treasury Department, to examine the condition oi 
the abandoned plantations on these islands ; and, about the same time, the Kev. Mansfield 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. S85 

Fiencli was deputed by the governinent to examine tlie conditic-a of the negroes alonp- the 
■whole southern coast. Ho was accompanied by a teacher of the American Mission Associa- 
tion, who opened another school at Beaufort on the 1st of February, 186'i. About the 
middle of the same month other schools were opened on Hilton Head island by three teach- 
ers whose services had been secured in reply to appeals addressed by Mr. Pierce to the Revs. 
E. E. Hale and J. M. Manning, D. D., of Boston. Upon Mr. French's return he brought 
with him letters from General T. W. Sherman and Commodore Dupont urging the benevo- 
lent of the north to bestir themselves in behalf of the destitute within the limits of their com- 
mand. In response public meetings were held at once in Boston, New York, and Philadel- 
phia, which resulted in the formation of three freedmen'.s aid societies, viz, the Boston Edu- 
cational Commission, on February 7th ; the Frecdmen's Relief Association, at New York, on 
February 22d; and the Port Ro^'al Relief Commission, on March 3, 1862. On the same 
day that this last society was organized in Philadelphia .52 teachers, missionaries and super- 
intendents (40 men and 12 women) sailed from New York for Port Royal. Twenty-nine of 
these (25 men and 4 women) were under the commission of the Boston society. To these 
persons transpcrtation and boarding were furnished by the government, which also, after a 
short time, paid the salaries of the superintendents. Upon their arrival at their field of labor 
schools were immediately established, the salaries of the teachers being paid by the societies 
which had sent them out. Other teachers were soon sent out by the Philadelphia society, 
and, in the following June, 86 persons were reported in the field. On the 28th of the last 
mentioned month this work was transferred to the War Department and placed under the 
•supervision of General Rufus Sa.xton, then military governor of South Carolina. 

Words would fail to depict the noble devotion and self-sacrifice of these sea island teach- 
ers as they carried on their philanthropic labors during the remaining years of the war. 
With a courage worthy of comparison with that of their brothers on the tented field, they 
remained at their posts, braving all the perils and privations of their situation. Heaven 
smiled upon tlieir efforts, and, although they were called upon to instruct beings whom 
oppression had degraded almost to the intellectual level of the brute, they were enabled to 
attain to rcsuks which might be triumphantly compared with those of other educators in far 
more favorable spheres. Those results are their highest praise, and doubtless the same God 
v.ho blessed their labors will also bestow upon them their merited reward. 

With the capture of Charleston a new and extended impulse was given to educational 
work in South Carolina. Immediately thereafter Mr. James Redpath was appointed super- 
intendent of education for that city, and entered upon his duties with laudable energy and zeal. 
On the 4th of March, 1865, he took possession of the public school buildings and reopened 
them for the use of black and white children in separate rooms. He invited all former 
teachers of these schools to continue their labors, and sent at once to the northern societies 
for experienced teachers to aid in their reorganization and instruction. Within a week's 
tim.:! he reported 300 white children and 1,200 colored ones as being in attendance. The 
societies which he liad appealed to became responsible for the salaries of the southern teach- 
ers, of whom 68 were employed, a large proportion being colored. Other teachers were sent 
on from the north, and, at the expiration of the school term in July of that year, an enroll- 
niout of 4,000 pupils was reported. 

The creation of the Freedmen's Bureau, March 3, 1865, with General O. O. Howard, the 
indefatigable and impartial friend of white and black, as Chief Commissioner; the recom- 
mendation of the national council of Congregational churches, held in Boston in the follow- 
ing June, that $250,000 should be raised for the work among the freedmen, with its indorse- 
ment of the American Missionary Association as an agency providentially fitted for its 
employment, and the final concentration of the various freedmen's aid societies of the north 
and west into the American Freedmen's Union Commission were all circumstances pro- 
ductive of salutary effects upon the schools in South Carolina as well as elsewhere through- 
out the south. The several societies already mentioned in this paper have since been known 
as the New England, New York, and Pennsylvania Branches of the Union Commission. 
The increase in the number of schools established and of teachers employed by them in 
18G7, proved that their energy and efficiency were not diminished by their coalition. South 

25 



386 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

Carolina lias been fortunate, too, in having, in the person of Mr. Reuben Totnlinson, a State 
iiiperinteudent of education under the Freedmen's Bureau, an of&cer whose hearty co-ope- 
ration and sympathy with the various agencies at woi'k there rendered its schools as great a 
siiccess as the means at command would permit of. And, although a comparison -of these 
schools in ]868 with their condition in the preceding year shows a falling oif, that result is 
attributable to the greater poverty of the freedmen themselves rather than to any diminution 
of effort or zeal on the part of their friends. In spite of this falling off, t-he following state- 
ment, made in March, 1868, by Mr. Arthur Sumner, a teacher employed by the New Eng- 
hmd branch, makes quite an interesting exhibit of the schools in Charleston at that time : 

The Shaw school, (New England branch F. U. C.,) 360 pupils. 

Mr. F. L. Cardozo's school, (American Missionary Association,) 3G-0 pupils. 

Z:on Church school, (Presbyterian, ) 525 pupils. 

Franklin Street school, (Episcopalian,) 665 pupils. 

Tivoli Garden school, (Baptist,) 150 pupils. 

Morris Street school, (municipal,) 500 pupils. 

It is to be remembered that to the 2,560 children then in those schools are to be added 
about 500 others who belonged to private schools. And, speaking with reference to educa- 
tional matters in the entire State, it is also to be remembered that this sketch of the South 
Carolina schools is by no means a perfect measure of the enlightenment there. The Rev. 
J. W. Alvord, general superintendent of schools under the Freedmen's Bureau, made 
the following statement in his third serai-annual report, January, 1867 : " From iaformation 
at our command, it is safe to assert that at least 30,000 colored persons, men, women, and 
children, have learned to read during the last year." And there is no doubt that every year 
since the cJose of the rebellion the number of colored persons Avho have learned to read 
and write in South Carolina has been far in excess of the number reported as attending the 
schools. 

In conclusion, the following description, copied from a Cfiarleston paper, of a school 
recently established there and dedicated with appropriate exercises on May 7, 18C3, may 
prove interesting : 

THE AVERY INSTITUTE, CHARLESTOX. 

"This new and handsome school building is named in honor of frhe late Rev. Charles 
Avery, of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, from whose bequest .$10,000 were given to the American 
Missionary Association, and applied by it to the purchase of the lands on which this edifice 
stands, and to the erection of a mission home. The normal school ed'iSce was built for the 
association by the Freedmen's Bureau at a cost of $17,000. 

"The building is 88 feet long, 68 feet wide, 50 feet high, and to the top of the flag-staff, 
90 feet. It is raised on brick pillars, with spacious brick basements and a large cistern 
underneath. On the first floor are four large class rooms, two for the first class of boys and 
two for the first class of girls. Two of these rooms are of double size, divided by sliding 
glass doors, and intended, when built, for the preparatory and higher classes of a normal 
department. Each of the class rooms is capable of accommodating from 50 to 75 pupils, 
and is fitted up with handsome desks. The hall-way is also furnished with convenient clos- 
ets and racks for the reception of hats, cloaks, &c. On the second floor is a commodious 
assembly hall, with four long rows of seats, and a desk and platform for the principal. On 
this floor are also two large class rooms, and running round the walls of the class rooms is 
a composition blackboard. On either side of the building are spacious piazzas running the 
entire length, and opened upon from the class rooms. The building is finely ventilated on 
a new and improved plan." 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 387 

Tbc following tables exhibit the statistics of the colored schools from 1865 to 1868: 
Nuvihcr of schools, teachers, and pupils, 1865 to 1868. 



Number of schools. 



Year. 



Xumber of teachers. 



Number of scholars. 



Day. ] Night. Total. I White. Colored 



^1 

iefi.5 I I 48 ! [52 

1865 ..I I 113 ; 98 

liT'^ I 1-24 36 ' 160 1 139 

1868 87 26 i 113 138 



Total. Male. 



764. 
88 T.. 



r7f 

188 

&34 j 7,963 

200 ! 7, 167 



Female.! Total. 



<*■ 



i 10,000 I 

I 12,017 I 

8,687 16,650 l 13,289 
7, 733 ; 14, 900 9, 606 



Sttidies and expenditures, 1867 and 1868. 





Number of scholars 


in different studies pursue 


d. 


Expenditures in 
of schoolt 


suppor* 






bb 










p 




Year. 




.5 \ "^ . 




>> 


a 


t, "£ 


a 


^ 






o 

J3 




a 


c 


B 


^1 

tUg 


a 


G; 






.= 


^ -SS 


'S 


to 


.a 


K S 


v.. 


c 


CS 








< 






^ 


.a 






o 




< 


H 


!? 


O 


< 




« 


e 


^ 


1867 


3 750 


5 835 


fi 1C* 


9 902 


2 850 


8, 934 


574 


$12, 200 


$80, 800 
50, 162 


$93, 000 
57, 000 


1868 


1,898 


4, 097 C, 107 


5, 918 


3,602 


6,810 


442 


6,838 



TENNESSEE. 

There were in this State, in 1860, 283,019 colored persons, out of a population of 1,109,801, 
of whom 27.5,719 were slaves and 7,300 free. 

The territory constituting the State of Tennessee was a part of North Carolina until ceded 
to the United States, in 1790; and the laws of North Carolina then in force were to continue 
till superseded by the legislation of the proper authorities. Among the laws which continued 
in force down to 1821 was one enacted in 1741 by North Carolina, forbidding the whipping 
of "a Christian .servant naked, without an order from the justice of the peace," on penalty 
of 40 shillings ; and another, enacted in 1779, punishing " the stealing of slaves with inten* 
to sell them" by "death, without benefit of clergy." Another law enforced in Tennesser 
was that of 1787, that " if any free negro or mulatto shall entertain any slave in his or hei 
house during the Sabbath or in the night, between sunset and sunrise," he or she might be 
fined $2 ,50 for the first two and $5 for every subsequent ofi^ense. Tennessee became a State 
in 1796, and in 1799 an act was passed " to prevent the willful and malicious killing of slaves." 
There was no specific act forbidding the assemblies of slaves until 1803, when such assem- 
blies were forbidden, witjiout a written permission from the owner, imder a penalty of $10. 
In 1806 "any white person, free negro, or mulatto" attending any such unlawful meeting, 
or "harboring or entertaining any slave, without the con.sent of the owner," might be fined 
not more than $20 nor less than $i 10 for each offense : and the negroes so found were to receive 
" 15 stripes on the bare back, well laid on, under the direction of the patrol." In 1831 "all 
assemblages of slaves in unusual numbers or at suspicious times and places, not expressly 
authorized by the owners," were to be deemed unlawful. 

In 1836 an act was passed concerning incendiary publications and speeches, forbidding 
"words or gestures, with intent to excite any slave or free person of color to insubordination, 
insurrection, or rebellion;" also " the circulation or publication of seditious pamphlets," the 
penaltj^ for which was confinement in the penitentiary from 5 to 10 years for the first and 
from 10 to 20 years for any subsequent offense. 

The revised code of 185S retains all these severe restrictions. 

In 1838 a system of common schools was established, according to which the scholars were 
designated as " white children over the age of six years and under 16 ;" but in 1840, in the act 



S88 



LEGAL STxiTUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 



amendiDg this system, discrimination of color is not mentioned, but it is provided that '' all 
children between the ages of 6 and 21 years shall have the privilege of attending the public 
schools ;" and the act of ]862 also comprehended all children. This State never enacted any 
law positively forbidding the instruction of colored people ; but, notwithstanding the language 
of the law, the benefits of the common school system were confined exclusively to white chil- 
dren. The school fund of the State was composed of the proceeds of certain school lands, 
bonuses from the banks and other incorporated companies, from licenses, fines, and taxes, to 
Avhich the free colored people contributed no inconsiderable share. The fund, in 1858, con- 
sisted of $1,500,000 deposited in ^ Bank of Tennessee, together with property given by 
will for the purpose ; the proceeds of sales or rents of escheated lands, or lands bought by 
the State at tax sales, and of the personal effects of intestates having no kindred entitled by 
the laws thereto ; besides taxes on certain mineral lands. 

In March, 1867, an act was passed "to provide for the reorganization, stipervision, and 
maintenance of free common schools," which declares that the school fund for annual dis- 
tribution shall consist of the school funds already provided by law, together with a tax of 
two mills on the dollar of all taxable property, and an addition of 25 cents to the poll-tax pre- 
viously levied by law, which fund shall be for "the benefiE of all the youth of the State." 
The distribution of the income of this fund is made in proportion to the numbei- oJ school 
children in each district. By the same act the boards of education and other officers having 
authority, in each district or city, were authorized and required to establish within their 
respective jurisdictions one or more special schools for colored children, when there are more 
than 25, so as to afford them the advantages of a common school education, the schools so 
established to be under the control of the board of education or other school oiiScers having- 
charge of the educational interests of other schools. If at any time the number of children 
attending the school should fall below 15 for any one month, the school may be discontinued 
for a period not exceeding five months at one time. 

The following statistics give the condition of fche colored schools for th* years specified: 

Number of schools, teachers, and pupils, 1866 to 1868. 



Year 


Number of schools. 


Nnmber of teachers. 


Kttmber of sehofers. 




Day. ! Kight. 


Total. 


White. 


Colored. 


Total. 


Male. 


Female. 


Total. 


Avera 
tends 

Per c 


1866 


! -J 


42 
128 
17S 






125 
154 
203 






9,114 
9,451 
10, 770 


6 279' 68' 




ioa ig 

146 1 32 


Ill 
131 


43 
72 


4,215 
5,190 


5,206 
5, 580 


6 377 6? 


1868 


7, 758 71 



Studies and expenditures, 1867 and 1868. 





Number of scholars 


in different studies pursued. 


Expenditures in support 
of schools. 






tb 


1 






a 






Year. 




■H 13 . 
r3 Oj T- 




>> 


.9 


tH ^ 


a 


TD 






a, 


C3. 


S '^ 


a 


p. 
a 

Ed 

o 


g 






o 


3 

o 




•< 


H 




^ cs 


< 




« « . 


b* 


1867 


1,344 


4,501 
4, 507 


3, 691 


3,306 


2,092 


3,308 
4,609 


557 


110,152 [$61,575 
12,235 .59.426 


$71, 72T 


1868 


1,509 


4,615 


4,023 


3,168 


691 


71,661 











TEXAS, 

In I860 there were in Texas 182,921 colored people, out of the whole population of 604,215, 
Df whom only 355 were free, 182,566 being slaves. 

Slavery existed in Texas while it was a Mexican province, but different from that in the 
United States. In a decree of the congress of Coahuila and Texas, September 15, 1827, it 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 389 

i-s provided that "in each change of owners of slaves, in the nearest succession even of heirs 
apparent, the tenth part of those who are to pass to the new owner shall be niannmitted," 
the manumission being determined by lot. This provision is to be understood only in con- 
nection with the fact that slaves in Mexico were transferred with the real estate. By the same 
decree it was declared that " the ayuntamientos, under the most rigid responsibility, shall 
take particular care that free children, born slaves, receive the best education that can be given 
them, placing them, for that purpose, at the public schools and other places of instruction, 
wherein they may become useful to society." The ayuntamientos correspond to mayors and 
aldermen. aA 

In 1827 there was another decree that the slave who, for convenience, wished to change his 
master should be permitted to do so, " provided the new master indemnify the former for what 
the slave cost him, agreeably to the consequence." 

In 1836, in accordance with the express provisions of their constitution, the congress of 
Texas made the penalty for introducing any "Africans or negroes" into the republic, except 
from the United States, to be an offense to be punished with "death, without benefit of 
clergy;" and by the same act the introduction of Africans or slaves from the United States, 
except such as were legally held as slaves in the United States, was declared to be piracy, 
and punishable in the same manner. In 1837 it was enacted that "free Africans and descend- 
ants of Africans" who were r-esidiug in the republic at the date of the declaration of inde- 
pendence might remain free. At the same time a law was passed forbidding any slave or free 
person of color from using insulting or abusive language to or threatening any white person, 
under a penalty of "stripes, not exceeding 100 and not less than 25." In 1840 free persons 
of color were forbidden to immigrate into the republic, under a penalty of being sold into 
slavery ; and the same act gave two j'ears' time for all free persons of color to remove from 
the republic, at the same time providing that those found in the republic at the expiration 
of that period might be sold as slaves. In 1841 and in 3845 a few were excepted from the 
provisions of this act by special enactment. This was the nature of the legislation in 1845, 
when Texas came into the Union. 

At the first session of the legislature of the State of Texas, in May, 1846, an act was nassed 
forbidding any one to allow slaves to go at large more than one day in a week, except at the 
Christmas holidays, the penalty being a fine of not more than $100. "All negroes and 
Indians, and all persons of mixed blood descended from negro ancestry, to the third gener- 
ation, though one ancestor of each generation may have been a white person," were declared 
incapable of being witnesses, " except for or against each other." The last act of leo-islation 
relating to the free colored people, previous to the rebellion, was one in 1851 permittino- one 
Thomas Cevallas, a free man of color who had resided in the State since 1835 and been 
wounded in the defense of the country, "to remain a rei5ident of the county of Bexar." 

There is nothing in relation to the education of .colored people, free or slave, on the statute 
books of the State. As the free colored people were geueralh' banished, there was no neces- 
sity for aiiy enactments in regard to their education. 

The new constitution of the State, adopted in the convention April 2, 18G6, declares that 
"Africans and their descendants shall be protected in their rights of person and property by 
appropriate legislation." The legislature, in 1866, took care to protect the school fund of 
the State, so far as it remained, and took measures to establish a system of common schools. 
But by an act passed in 1867, providing for the education of indigent white children, it 
appears that the " system " is not entitled to be called a common school system. It provides 
that " the police courts— at their discretion — of the several counties may levy and collect a 
tax annually, not to exceed one half of the State tax, and upon the same subjects of taxation, 
(Africans and the descendants of Africans, and their property, excepted,) to be applied 
solely to the education of indigent tchite childrcn.^^ 



390 



LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 



The following tables, compiled by Professor Vashon, exhibits the condition of the schools 
under the superintendents of the Freedmen's Bureau : 

Number of schools, teachers, and scholars, 1865 to 1868. 





Number of schools. 


Number of teachers. 


Number of scholars. 


8)9 


g 


Year. 


Day. 


Night. 


Total. 


White. 


Colored. 


Total. 


Male. 


Female. 


Total. 


^ 


1865 


10 


6 


16( 

90 

102 

76 


^ 




10 
43 

98 

81 






1,041 
4,590 
4,198 
2,604 






1866 














1S67 


68 
51 


34 
25 


58 
55 


40- 
26 


1,960 1 2.238 


2,923 
2,176 


6£ 


1868 


1,235 


1,369 


8? 



Studies and expenditures, 1867 and 1868 





Number of scholars ia different studies pursued. 


Expenditures in siipporl 
of schools. 


Year. 


1 
.a 
n. 

< 




§-§ 

< 


a 


.a 
c 

Si 

o 


S 
< 


ll 


s 

9 

P 

pq 


o 


"3 


1867 


682 
254 


1, 765 

888 


1,696 
1,183 


1,607 
1, 259 


486 
602 


1,263 
1,077 


77 
240 


$11,340 
2,093 


$823 
5,739 


$12, 16S 
7,835 


18G8 



VIRGINIA. 

By the census of 1860 the population of Virginia, including the territory since occupied 
"as West Virginia, was 1,596,318, of whom 548,907 were colored, and of these 490,865 were 
slaves and 58,042 were free. 

To Virginia belongs the bad pre-eminence of having been, if not the birthplace and nursery, 
the great commercial mart of involuntary domestic servitude, and of having fixed the legal 
status of slavery in the slave States of this Union. By the several acts already cited the 
information and culture which are the results of travel, the free intercourse with others more 
Intelligent and refined, the printed page, the living views of educated teachers and preachers, 
the choice and practice of varied mechanical, as well as agricultural labor, and all the 
inspiring motives of political privileges and the responsibilities generally of business and of 
family and social position, were denied. 

Fifty years after the introduction of slaA'es into Virginia, Sir William Berkley reports the 
population of the province at 40,000, of whom 2,000 were black slaves. Continual importa- 
tions from Africa, increased the number rapidly, and in the reign of George the First alone 
not less than 10,000 were brought into the colony. At the beginning of his reign, out of the 
population of 95,000 in the colony, 23,000 were negroes ; and in 1756, when the population 
reached 293,000, the negroes amormted to 120,000. But in that early day the church of 
Virginia was careful to give to the slaves the benefit of Christian instruction, inasmuch as 
an act was passed October, 1785, declaring "that baptism of slaves doth not exempt them 
from bondage." 

The difficulties in the way of instructing the slaves, even when permission was given, as 
in this early period, were very great, since Sunday was the only day of rest for them, and 
the great distances of the plantations from each other made it impracticable for a teacher to 
keep up any systematic plan of visitation. In addition to this was the indifference or oppo- 
sition of most planters, who considered the negroes as little above the brutes, and that to 
attempt to give them moral and intellectual culture was worse than useless. 

REV. MORGAN GODWYN AND EARLY LABORERS FOR THE SLAVE. 

Virginia was not without early witnesses to the evils of slavery and advocates for the 
amelioration of its condition. Rev. Morgan Godwyn, who was a student of Christ church, 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 391 

Oxford, aud for several years an ordained minister of tlie Church of England, m "Vire:iuia, 
and ai'ierwards for a few years in Barbadoes ; and Eev. Jonathan Boucher, rector of Hanover, 
and subsequently of St. Mary's parisli, in Virginia, and dean of Queen Ann's parish, in 
Maryland. 

Godwyn, in a pamphlet published by him in London, in 1680, and written while he was 
in Barbadoes, entitled "The Negroes and Indians' Advocate, suing for them admission into 
the church, t&c.," in the preface of this work, states that his efforts to baptize and train 
cegroes in the knowledge of Christian truth had been opposed; (1) by those who declared it 
to be impracticable ; (2) by those, who regarded it as a Jjfork savoring of Popish supereroga- 
tion, and utterly needless; ans! (3) by those, the most numerous, who condemned it as likely 
to be subversive of their own interests and property, and strove to put it down by ridicule. 
The planters vindicated their treatment of the negro by saying that, although he bore the 
resemblance of a man, he had not the qualities of a man— a conceit of which Godwyn boldly 
asserts, "atheism and irreligion were the parents, and avarice and sloth the foster nurses." 
The Quakers of that time also upbraided the church for the continuance of the evils oi 
slavery, and issued "a petty reformado pamphlet" on the subject, in which the question 
was asked, "who made you ministers of the Gospel to the white people only, and not to the 
tawneys and blacks also ?" 

Godwyn, in his sermon, maintains the following propositions: " (1) that the negroes, both 
slaves and others have naturally an equal right with other men to the exercise and privileges 
of religion, of which it is most unjust in any part to deprive them; (2) that the profession of 
Christianity absolutely obliging to the promoting of it, no difficulties nor inconveniences, 
how great soever, can excuse the neglect, much less the hindering or opposing of it, which 
is, in effect, no better than a renunciation of that profession ; (3) that the inconveniences here 
pretended for this neglect, being examined will be found nothing such, but rather the con- 
trary." 

The delivery of this sermon exposed its preacher to the most barbarous usage, and another 
of the clergy, who, upon another occasion, urged from tlie pulpit the like duty, was treated 
witli seventy by the planters. The negroes, also, in consequence of these efforts ou the part 
of the clergy of Barbadoes to help Uiem, were exposed to still more brutal treatment. In 
one case a negro, whose crime was neither more nor less than receiving baptism on a Sunday 
morning at his parish church, from the hands of the minister, was reproved by the brutish 
overseer, and given to understand " that that was no Sunday work for those of his com- 
plexion ; that he had other business lor him, the neglect whereof would cost him an after- 
noun's baptism in blood, as in the morning he had received a baptism with water ; which he 
accordingly made good. Of which the negro afterward complaining to the minister, and he 
to the governor, the miserable wretch was forever after so uinnercilully treated by that inhu- 
man devil, that, to avoid his cruelty, betaking himself to the woods, he there perisiied." 

Godwyn represents that the persevering, " officious" Quaker incurred the enmity of the 
authorities of the island, who secured in IGTG and JG7B the passage of several acts for the 
express purpose of preventing Quakers, under severe penalties, from bringing negroes to 
their meetings. One of these acts (1676) contained a clause that no person should be 
allowed to keep a school unless he tirst took an oath of allegiance and supreuiacy ; a pre- 
caution perhaps not impolitic in a colony where labor was of more utility than learning. 
The clergyman who administered the rite of baptism in the case referred to was obliged to 
I'indicate himself in a tone of apology for having done that act of ministerial duty. 

To Morgan Godwyn belongs the credit of having first borne his testimony against the 
lawfulness of trading in the persons of men ; although Bishop Sanderson, about the same 
period, gave his testimony against it, as well as Baxter, in his Christian Directory, where he 
gives rules for the mastere of slaves in foreign plantations to give their slaves instructions. 

Mr. Godwyn also published a sermon in 168.3, entitled "Trade Preferred before Religion," 
which was first preached at Westminster Abbey, and afterwards in divers churches in Lon- 
don, and dedicated to the King. In- this dedication he states that the end and design of his 
discourse was "to stir up and provoke your Majesty's subjects abroad, (and even at home 
also,) to use at least some endeavors for the propagation of Christianity among their domestic 



392 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

slaves and vassals." In his preface he notes the spreading of the leprosy of mammonism 
and irreligiou, by which the efforts to instruct and Christianize the heathen were paralyzed, 
and even the slaves who were the subjects of such instruction became the victims of still 
greater cruelty ; while the ministers who imparted the instructions were neglected or even 
persecuted by the masters. 

Among the mptives presented for the English people and the English church to take up 
the subject of instruction of the slaves were the following, as set forth in his own language 
as printed : " This ought to be reformed in respect of the dishonor from thence redounding 
to our church and nation and even tdphe whole Reformation. First, to the church ; for it occa- 
sions her enemies to blaspheme. Hence a certain Romanist demands of us, where are the 
indefatigable missioners sent by you to the remotest parts of the icorld for the conversion oj 
heathens? a, noble functiomcherein the Catholic (that is their Roman) church only and most 
histly glories ; whilst you like lazy drones sit at home not daring to icet afoot, Sfc. And by 
another it is objected against both ourselves and our equally zealous neighbors, that never 
anything for the -propagation of Christianity in foreign parts hath by either nation been at any 
time attempted. And from thence a third person very roundly infers the nullity of cnr church 
and religion, viz : Because we have no zeal, therefore no faith, and therefore no church 
nor religion among us.'''' 

"Again, when the great industry of our people in New England shall be rehearsed, their 
converting of nations, turning the ichole Bible into the Indian tongue ; their college built and 
endowed for the education of Indian youth; their missioners sent forth and lands 'purchased for 
their maintenance ; and all this out of a barren soil some 60 years since no better than & rocky 
wilderness ; whilst ours, out of better conveniences and more happy opportunities, {swch are our 
grateful returns !) have not produced the hast grain of hai-vcst to God's glory in those parts; 
but upon all occasions shifting it o^ with the unfitness of the season and pretending that the 
time is not come; Yii-oc\a,\m.mg it impracticable and impossible, though effected by others of 
smaller abilities ; or, like Solomon''s sluggard, setting up lions and tigers in the way ; raising 
obstructions and creating difficulties, when upon experience there are no such to be found. 
Now when these mighty works shall be hereafter rehearsed, how will that glorious name of 
the Church of England stand as it were in disgrace, not only among those primitive worthies 
who at first so cheerfully entered upon this work and afterwards endured the heat of the day ? 
but when compared even with these moderns, whom we bespeak as schismatics and idolaters, 
yet do each of them give those testimonies of thwr zeal and charity which are equally 
requisite and would be no less commendable in us also." 

JONATHAX BOUCHER. 

The evils of slavery, both in its moral and economical aspects, were clearly seen and for- 
cibly presented by Rev. Jonathan Boucher, in a discourse " On the Peace in 1763," preached 
in Hanover parish, King George's counfey, Virginia. After pointing out the objections to 
war, Mr. Boucher dwells on the advantages, pursuits, and duties of peace. Among the latter 
he urges an immediate improvement in the present practice of agriculture, by which all the 
varied advantages of climate and soil are neglected for the culture of a single staple, which, 
he says, he is "at some loss how to characterize, either as a necessary of life or a luxury. 
A necessary it certainly is not, since it can neither be used as food nor raiment ; neither is it 
a luxury, at least in the sense of a gratification, being so nauseous and offensive that long 
habit alone can reconcile any constitution to the use of it," Such culture as is now going 
on, he adds, in the language of Scripture, will "make a fruitful land barren, for the wick- 
edness of them that dwell therein." He sums up his views on this part of the subject by 
citing the opinion of "an ancient," who, in drawing the picture of a happy people, says : "It 
is necessary peace and good laws should prevail ; that the ground should be well cultivated ; 
children well educated ; and duo homage paid to the gods." 

The next duty of a state of peace, he says, is to attempt the civilization of the Indian 
tribes, whom, he says, the white men have made it a kind of religion to exterminate; but 
whom he believes "it is in our power to convert into freemen, useful subjects, and good Chris- 
tians." He concludes thus: " But Indians are by no means the sole or chief objects of our 



IN RESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. 393 

pr&sent attention ; the united motives of interest and humanity call on us to bestow some con- 
sideration on the case of those sad outcasts of society, our negro slaves ; for uiy heart would 
smite me, were I not, in this hour of prosperity, to entreat you (it being their unparalleled 
hard lot not to have the power of entreating for themselves) to permit them to participate in 
the general joy. Even those who are the sufferers can liardlj' be sorry when they see wrong 
measures carrying their punishment along with them. Were an impartial and competent 
observer of the state of society in these middle colonies asked, whence it happens that Vir 
ginia and Maryland (which were the first planted, and which are superior to many colonies, 
and inferior to none, in point of natural advantage) ar% still so exceedingly behind most of 
the other British trans-atlantic possessions in all those improvements which bring credit and 
consequence to a country ? he would answer — they are so, because they arc cultivated by 
slaves. I believe it is capable of demonstration that, except the immediate interest which 
every man has in the property of bis slaves, it would be for every man's interest that there 
were no slaves ; and for this plain reason, because the free labor of a free man, who is regu- 
larly hired and paid for the work he does, and only for what he does, is, in the end, cheapei 
than the extorted eye-service of a slave. Some loss and inconvenience would, no doubt, 
arise from the general abolition of slavery in these colonies ; but were it done gradually, with 
judgment, and with good temper, I have never yet seen it satisfactorily proved that such 
inconvenience would either be great or lasting. North American or West Indian planters 
might, possibly, for a few years, make less tobacco, or less rice, or less sugar; the raising ol 
which might also cost them more ; but that disadvantage would probably soon be amply 
compensated to them by an advanced price, or (what is the same thing) by the reduced 
expense of cultivation." * * * " If ever these colonies, now filled with slaves, be im- 
proved to their utmost capacity, an essential part of the improvement must be the abolition 
of slavery. Such a change would hardly be more to the advantage of the slaves than it would 
be to their owners. An ingenious French writer (Iklontesquieu) well observes, ' the state of 
slavery is, in its own nature bad; it is neither useful to the master nor to the slave. Not to 
the slave, because he can do nothing through a motive of virtue ; not to the master, because, 
by having an unlimited authority over his slaves, he insensibly accustoms himself to the want 
of all moral virtues, and from thence grows fierce, hasty, severe, voluptuous, and cruel.' 

" I come now, in the last place, to exhort you not to disappoint the pious wishes which 
our pious king had iu thus publicly summoning us to hai^ the Lord of lords and King oj 
kings tcitk songs of deliverance, for ha,\mg given his people the blessing of peace.'' "And 
notwithstanding all that a discontented party has said, or has written, on the idea that the 
conditions of the peace arc inadequate to our great success, so far as they concern us we can 
have no objection to them." 

SCHOOLS IN NORFOLK AND RICHMOND. 

Of all the States in the American Union, Virginia is, on several accounts, peculiarly asso- 
ciated with the history of the colored people of this country. Upon its shores, in 1620, a 
Dutch vessel landed the first cargo of human merchandise that had ever been brought from 
the ill-fated continent of Africa into a British colony. Through the slave labor thus intro- 
duced, its eminent agricultural resources were developed during the following century and a 
half so largely that, at the epoch of the Revolution, it ranked first in importance among the 
13 original constituents of the confederation since known as the United States of America. 
Its slave population, too, had increased to such an extent as to enable it to supply from its 
excess of laborers the requirements of the other slaveholding States ; and thus Virginia became 
and continued to be, during all the days of servitude, the great breeding slave mart of the 
Union. 

But the curse thus destined to work so much ill both to Africa and America did not prove 
to its immediate victims one of eutuely unmitigated severity. In Virginia, as elsewhere, 
the relation of master and slave soon led to the existence of a class in whose veins the blood 
of the oppressed was mingled with that of the oppressor ; and, in behalf of this class, the voice 
of nature did not m many cases plead iu vain. Besides, the constant and daily intercourse 
rf slaveholding families with that porti.u of their property known as house servants was 



394 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

frequently illustrated by such marked instances of devoted fidelity upon the part of the latter 
as appealed successfully for a grateful recognition from their owners, in return. To these 
fortuu»T,te individuals, either the offspring or the favorites of their masters, the rudiments of 
a common education were often imparted. Through manumission, too, and the privilege 
granted to slaves to purchase their freedom, quite a large free colored population was added 
to society in Virginia ; and, in Richmond, Norfolk, and other of the principal cities, a few 
schools were tolerated for the benefit of this class. These schools were generally taught by 
colored persons who had acquired sufficient education for that purpose ; and, through their 
instrumentality, a knowledge of r€»,ding and writing and the other common branches of 
learning was quite extensively disseminated. About 40 years ago there v^^ere two excellent 
schools of this description in the city of Petersburg, one of which was taught by a Mr. Shep- 
herd, and the other by the Rev. John T. Raymond, a Baptist minister, living in Boston, 
Massachusetts, in 1869. 

These schools existed for several years, although in the midst of a continually growing 
feeling of dissatisfaction in regard to them on the part of the white portion of the commu- 
nity. It was suspected that, in addition to the influence which they might have in render- 
ing the slaves discontented, they were also the means of enlightening some of them, as well 
as their free brethren. This led to the enactment by the general assembly of Virginia, on 
the 2d of March, 1819, of a law prohibiting " all meetings or assemblages of slaves, or free 
negroes, or mulattoes, mixing and associating with such slaves, at any meeting-house or 
houses, or any other place or places, in the night, or at any school or schools for teaching 
them reading and writing, either in the day or night." For the violation of this law any 
justice of the peace was authorized to inflict the penalty of 20 lashes upon each and every 
offender against its provisions. But, although the instruction of slaves was thus guarded 
against, schools for free colored people were still allowed until the occurrence of Nat Turner's 
insurrection had aroused terror and dismay throughout the entire south. Then public opin- 
ion almost universally demanded the prohibition of these establishments. Accordingly, on 
the 7th day of April, 1831, the general assembly of Virginia enacted a law with the following 
among other provisions, viz : 

" Sec. 4. And he it enacted, That all meetings of free negroes or mulattoes at any school- 
house, church, meeting-house, or other place, for teaching them reading or writing, either in 
the day or night, under whatsoever pretext, shall be deemed and considered an unlawful 
assembly ; and any justice of the county or corporation wherein such assemblage shall be, 
either from his own knowledge, or on the information of others of such unlawful assem- 
blage or meeting, shall issue his warrant directed to any sworn officer or officers, authoriz- 
ing him or them to enter the house or houses where such unlawful assemblage or meeting 
may be, for the purpose of apprehending or dispersing such free negroes or mulattoes, and 
to inflict corporal punishment on the offender or offenders, at the discretion of any justice of 
the peace, not exceeding 20 lashes. 

" Sec. 5. And he it enacted, That if any white person or persons assemble with free negroes 
or mulattoes at any school-house, church, meeting-house, or other place, for the purpose of 
instructing such free negroes or mulattoes to read or write, such person or persons shall, on 
conviction thereof, be fined in a sum not exceeding $50, and, moreover, maybe imprisoned, 
at the discretion of a jury, not exceeding two months. 

" Sec. 6. And be it enacted. That if any white person, for pay or compensation, shall assem- 
ble with any slaves for the purpose of teaching, and shall teach any slave to read or write, 
such person, or any white person or persons contracting with such teacher so to act, who 
shall offend as aforesaid, shall, for each offense, be fined at the discretion of a jury in a sum 
not less tham $10 nor exceeding $100, to be recovered on an information or indictment." 

Upon the revision of the criminal code of the Commonwealth of Virginia, the laws already 
referred to and quoted were retained, with a few alterations, under the head of "Offenses 
against tlie public policy." Nor was this law prohibiting colored schools a mere brutum 
fuhnen, as it was made apparent in 1854, when Mrs. Margaret Douglass, a white ladj^, born 
in South Carolina, was imprisoned in the common jail of the city of Norfolk for having vio- 
lated its provisions, although ignorant of their existence when she begau her school, in 1851. 



IN feESPECT TO SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION. S95 

That vindicatiou of the laws may have served its purpose by putting a stop to auy open 
Instrnction of colored children ; but, from the time of the first prohibition until then, schools 
for that purpose were secretly maintained in the principal cities of Virginia, although the 
colored aspirants after knowledge were constrained to keep their books and slates carefully 
hidden from every prying eye, and to assume the appearance of being upon an errand as 
they hurried along and watched their chance to slip unnoticed into the sedulously concealed 
school-room. Such was the thirst for enlightenment on the part of the proscribed children 
of Virginia, and such the determined severity of that State towards them, at the very time 
when she was beginning to awaken to the necessity of securing the benefit of a common 
scliool system for her white people. 

SCHOOLS FOR FREEDMEN. 

It was reserved for Virginia herself to abrogate all this iniquitous legislation by her con- 
senting to become a party in the movement to break up the federal Union. It was reserved 
for her shores, that had witnessed the inception of the wrong, to behold also the first step in 
the expiation. In the close neighborhood of the very spot where the first cargo of slaves had 
been disembarked stands the little brown building that served as the first school-house for 
the freed men. Securely it nestled under the guns of Fortress Monroe, with the military 
power of the nation pledged for its maintenance. Six months had not yet elapsed since the 
clouds of war had gathered when this earliest sunbeam of a dawning civilization burst 
through to relieve their gloom. On the 17th day of September, JS6I, the school v.as opened. 
It had an appropriate and, at the same time, a competent teacher in Mrs. Mary S. Peake, a 
lady of whom one of the ancestors on the maternal side might possibly have come over to 
this country on the Dutch vessel already alluded to. The honor of its establishment is due 
to the American Missionary Association, which had labored, even before the war, for the 
educational advancement of the colored people in Kentucky and elsewhere, and whose keen- 
eyed philanthropy eagerly caught sight of this "opening of the prison-house to those who 
were bound." 

With the advance of the Union armies in the ensuing years of the war the labors of these 
friends of humanity kept steady pace.. In 186*2 their eiforts in the State of Virginia secured 
the establishment of four additional schools, one of which was at Norfolk, two at Newport 
News, and the fourth one opened in the old court-house at Hampton. Besides establishing 
these they sent books to another school, begun by a colored man in Suffolk. They were 
aided, too, in their noble work by the Boston Education Commission, organized in the early 
part of that year under the presidency of the late Governor John A. Andrew. This latter 
association sent south more than 70 teachers, three of whom opened schools at Norfolk and 
Craney island. 

The year 18G3 was ushered in by the emancipation proclamation of President Lincoln, 
which conferred legal freedom upon all the slaves of the nation except those of certain specified 
localities, and actual freedom upon all such as might come within the lines of the national 
armies. The consequent enlargement of the area of philanthropic labor was followed by a 
corresponding increase in the number of earnest and efficient laborers. Hundreds of ladies, 
tenderly nurtiu'ed, and refined by all the accomplishments of modern culture, hastened to this 
field, now whitening for the harvest, and, braving privation and the vicissitudes of war, 
eagerly enrolled themselves among the teachers of the freedmen. In the State of Virginia 
the schools already established increased largely in the number of their pupils, while many 
others were opened in different localities to meet the importunity of those newly liberated 
thirsters after knowledge. The abandoned homes of "the first families" were in many 
instances pressed into the service of their former bondmen, and their elegant mansions were 
occupied — like that of ex-Governor Henry A. Wise — as schools for colored children and 
homes for their instructors. It is safe to say that the number of these schools, including those 
held at night, was at least 50. One of them, in the city of Norfolk, was so large within the 
first week of its establishment as to compel the employment of 15 colored assistants, and, in 
the course of the year, its attendance attained to the number of 1,200 pupils. In the follow- 
ing year — 1864 — additional schools were opened and the force of teachers at least doubled. 



396 



LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLOEED POPULATION 



The pecuniary outlays necessitated by these operations were cheerfully made by numerous 
freedmcn's associations throughout the north, acting generally as auxiliaries to the two 
agencies already mentioned. 

The year 1865 was marked by the fall of Richmond and the close of the rebellion. The 
3xtended opportunity thus offered for philanthropic labors was straightway embraced, and 
schools were opened at every feasible point. The aid of the government also was secured 
for their maintenance. On the 3d of March, of this year, the Freedmen's Bureau had been 
created by act of Congress, and through the kind ordering of an All-wise Providence, Major 
General O. O. Howard, the gallant Christian soldier, was, in the following month of May, 
assigned to duty as its Commissioner. In his circular No. 2, dated May 19, 1865, he said : 
"The educational and moral condition of the people will not be forgotten. The utmost 
facility will be offered to benevolent and religious organizations and State authorities in the 
maintenance of good schools for refugees and freedmen, until a system of free schools can 
be supported by their organized local governments." But the co-operation of the Commis- 
sioner with these benevolent agencies did not stop here. He gave them efficient aid by 
turning over for school purposes the disused government buildings, and those seized from 
disloyal owners, which were under his charge ; by affording transportation for teachers, books, 
and school-furniture, and by assigning quarters and rations to all engaged in the work of 
instruction, at the same time that protection was given to them through the department com- 
manders. By his directions, too, the " refugee and freedmen's fund " was used to assist in the 
maintenance of schools supported, in part, by the freedmen themselves, and in each State 
superintendents of schools were appointed, whose duty it was " To work as much as possi- 
ble in connection with State officers who may have had school matters in charge, and to take 
cognizance of all that was being done to educate refugees and freedmen, secure protection 
to schools and teachers, promote method and efficiency, and to correspond with the benevo- 
lent agencies which were supplying his field." Thus, under the beneficent administration 
of General Ploward, this bureau has been, in the matter of education, as in many other 
respects, of efficient service to the freedmen, and has helped to prepare them for a right exer 
;i3e of the franchises with which they are now invested as citizens. To bring about this 
result, too, the vai"ious religious denominations of the country have all labored, to a greater 
or less extent, with commendable zeal ; and to aid in securing it, the American Freedmen's 
Union Commission, which unites in its organization the various undenominational freedmen's 
aid societies of the land, with the exception of the American Missionary Association, has shown 
itself the worthy co-adjutor of that body. This commission was formed on tjie 16th day of 
May, 1886, and its object, as stated in its constitution, is "To aid and co-operate with the 
people of the south, without distinction of race or color, in the improvement of their condi- 
tion, upon the basis of industry, education, freedom, and Christian morality." 

In all the advantages that have been mentioned the State of Virginia has participated, 
and, as a consequence of the several influences at work, its schools have increased in num- 
ber, and have prospered greatly, every year since the close of the rebellion. True, they have 
had to contend witii much prejudice and opposition on the part of a large majority of the white 
population. But there is reason to believe, from present indications, that these hostile sen- 
timents are gradually diminishing, and that many, who are biRcrly opposed to the political 
equality of the negro, admit the expediency and justice of providing for his education. 

The following tables, which present a statistical view of these schools for the last three 
years, will, on examination, give a very satisfactory exhibit of their increase, cost of main- 
tenance, and the advancement of the pupils in the several studies pursued during that period : 

Number of schools, teachers, and pupils, 1866 to 1868. 



Year. 


Number of schools. 


Number of teachers. 


Number of scholai-s. 


"S d 

fcn ^ 


a 


Day. 


Night. 


Total. 


White. 


Colored. 


Total. 


Male. 


Female. 


Total. 




1866 






123 
251 
264 






200 
295 
Ml 






11,784 
16,115 
16, 708 


8,951 
10, 890 
11,816 


76 


1^67 


195 
23y 


56 
45 


197 
206 


98 
155 


8,076 
8,180 


8,039 
8,528 


68 


1866 


71 











IN EESPECT TO SCHOOLS AXD EDUCATION, 



Studies and expenditures, 1867 and .1868. 





Number of scholars in different studies pursued. 


Expenditures in support of schools. 


Year. 


a 

< 


to 
n 

1 
1 


13 . 


1 


.a 
c 

C5. 

O 
C 
O 


o 

•■a 

o 

a 
•5 


II 


Bo freedmen. 


o 




1867 

1868 


1,986 
1,U97 


7,953 
7,532 


5,102 
0,750 


7,119 
8,240 


4, 221 
0, 214 


G, 409 
7,877 


960 

754 


*|7, 3'^2 13 
12, 472 15 


*|85, 792 57 
84, 079 28 


^^•$93,144 70 
93, 551 43 



* Estimated upon reports of the Bureau Superintendent of Education, for six months of the year. 

A brief account of two normal scLools recently established will form an appropriate con- 
clusion to this sketch of school matters among the colored population of Virginia. The first 
of these iu the order of their establishment is — 

THE RICHMOND NOUMAL AND HIGH SCHOOL 

This institution was opened for the admission of pupils in October, 1867, having been duly 
incorporated, with a board of trustees consisting of five members, by charter granted by the 
cncuit court. The principal building, which is a handsome new brick edifice, erected at a cost 
of about $5,000, is 52 feet long by 32 feet wide, and two stories in height. Substantially built 
and amply provided with school furniture of the best modern styles, philosophical apparatus 
valued at $350, and a judiciously selected library of about 500 volumes, it is rendered still 
better adapted to its purposes by having its different rooms adorned with historical paintings 
and other works of art. It accommodates 100 pupils, whose studies arc directed by the prin- 
cipal, Mr. Andrew Washburn, aided by two assistant teachers. The course of study pre- 
scribed is that wh:ch is usual in our normal schools ; and the moral effect of the institution 
is apparent, not only in the wholesome instruction and discipline afforded to its pupils, but 
in its influence upon the community at large, awakening the nobler aspirations of colored 
youth, and diminishing the blind and unreasoning prejudice entertained against them by 
their white fellow-citizens. This school derives its support from the normal school fund ot 
the English Friends, the Pcabody fund, the city council, and the Freedmen's Bureau. Tha 
ulterior design of its founders is to prepare competent teachers for the hoped-for public school 
system, which is to follow in the train of reconstruction in Virginia. 

TlIE HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE, 

of which Mr. S. C. Armstrong is principal, is also designed to take part iu raisico* up teach- 
ers ; its purpose (as stated in a circular issued shortly after its establishment) being to prepare 
'• youth of the south, without distinction of color, for the work of organizing and instructino- 
schools in the southern States." It was opened in April, 1868, under the au.spices of the 
American Missionary Association, and was duly incorporated in the following September. 
It is also a manual labor school, and connected with it is a farm of 120 acres provided with 
all the appliances needful for the instruction of its students, in both the theory and the prac- 
tice of the most profitable methods of agriculture. 

All of the house-work, too, in the boarding department is performed by the female students. 
The circular further states that "this 'Whipple farm' lies upon Hampton Eoads. The 
school and home buildings, valued at $20,000, occupy a beautiful site upon the shore. 
They are so furnished and arranged as to offer to the students the helps to right livino- which 
belong to a cultivated Christian home." There is a three years' course of study, embraciuo-, 
among other branches, English grammar and composition, arithmetic and bookkeeping, 
geography and natural science, lectures, physiology, agriculture and agricultiu-al chem- 
istry, with analysis of soils and experiments by pupils, &c., Sec. Opportunities for 
enabling students to acquire experience in imparting instruction are enjoyed through actual 
teaching in the Butler and Lincoln model schools, which are in the vicinity of the institu- 
tion. Thus far this new enterprise has been attended with the most gratifying results. 



398 LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION 

Its students have earned, upon an average, a small amount per week above expenses to 
them; and its gross sales of produce in the northern markets have been over $2,000, It 
possesses, too, the well-selected nucleus of a library; for enlarging which, as well as for 
providing scientific apparatus, together with cabinets of minerals and of natural history, it 
hopes to find the means in its own income, aided by the generous co-operation of friends. 

The following report to the American Missionary Association, drawn up by President Hop- 
kins, of Williams College, Massachusetts, calls special attention to this institution : 

I. Location. — In this there is a historical fitness. It is within the capes, and not far from 
the spot where the first slaves brought to this country were landed. It is where General 
Butler first refused to deliver up the fugitives, calling them " contraband of war," and whero 
a city of refuge was provided to Avhich they thronged. by boat loads, and Avagon loads, and 
in caravans, and were housed and fed by the government. It was here, too, that the first 
school for freedmen was established. It was tlie site of the hospital barracks of McClellan's 
and Grant's armies, where fifteen thousand sick and wounded were under treatment at one 
time, and the farm connected with the institute includes the United States cemetery contain- 
ing the bodies of nearly six thousand United States soldiers, together with the granite mon- 
ument to those martyrs in the cause of freedom, which is in full view from the institute, 
Not far distant is seen the flag of Fortress Monroe, and it is within sight of the spot where 
the battle was fought between the Monitor and the Merrimac, 

The location has also advantages as regards convenience, economy and the coast. It is 
accessible by water, and so by the cheapest possible transportation, from the region of the 
Chesapeake Bay, of the Potomac, York and James Rivers, and of the Pamlico and Albe- 
marle Sounds, a region including a colored population which has been, if it be not now, 
of greater relative density than any other. With a steamboat landing on the farm it has 
ready access to the principal sea-board cities of the North, both as markets and as sources of 
supplies. It is also relatively beautiful, having the advantages of sea breeze and oppor- 
tunities for sea bathing. The place was indeed formerly the seat of a large female seminary, 
and was a summer resort for health and recreation. 

II. History. — As has been said, this was the site of the first school for freedmen, and here 
the Butler school is still kept in the large building originally built for it on the premises, 
and is taught by pupils from the institute. This, however, did not involve the idea of the 
institute as a normal school and a seminary of a high order. That was originated by General 
Armstrong, who had charge of the freedmen's bureau at this point, and who first compre- 
heii'ded the facilities afforded by the place, and the greatness of the work that might be done 
here. At his suggestion, and chiefly through his efforts, the American Missionary Associa- 
tion heartily co-operating, the estate now called the Whipple Farm, including a hundred and 
twenty-five acres of excellent land, together with the mansion used by the United States 
officers for their headquarters, the Butler school-house, and the hospital barracks, was pur- 
chased. The whole cost, including improvements, has been about $45,000. 

III. Object and plan. — The object of the institute, as stated in its act of incorporation, is 
" to prepare youth of the South, without distinction of color, for the work of organizing and 
instructing schools in the southern States." Its object is the diffusion throughout the South, 
where normal and agricultural schools have not been established as yet, of the best methods 
and advantages of education; and if the benefit of the colored people be more immediately 
anticipated, it is only from the apprehended ^rnwillingness of others to avail themselves of 
the advantages of the institute. Whatever provision may or may not be made for the gen- 
eral education of the South, it is clearly among the most imperative duties both of the North 
and of the South to provide in the best manner practicable for the enlightenment, the more 
perfect christianization, and the full manhood of the freedmen. This is now the point of 
trial for this nation before Him who has begun to vindicate the rights of a long-suffering 
people, and scarcely more for their sakes than for our own. and for the sake of the whole 
African race, should this duty be accepted by us. 

But if the duty be accepted, it is not seen how it can be performed without some institu- 
tion which shall combine, as this institute proposes to do, education and training vyiih oppor- 
tunity for self-help. In these two, education and self-help, we have the object and plan of 
the institute. It would provide a body of colored teachers, the best and the only availa- 
ble agency for the work, thoroughly trained, not only in the requisite knowledge and in the 
best methods of teaching, but also in all that pertains to right living, including habits ot 
intelligent labor. Emotional in their nature, unaccustomed to self-control, and improvident 
by habit, the freedmen need discipline and training even more than teaching ; and the insti- 
tute would avoid the mistake sometimes made on missionarj' grounds of so training teachers 
as to put them out of sympathy with the people in their present condition and in the strug- 
gle that is before them, if they are to rise. It would, therefore, make much of the feature 
of self help, not only as relieving the benevolent from a burden, but as inspiring self-reli- 
ance, and as tending to a consistency and solidity of character that are especially needed. 
It would aim at reaching (and to be effectual it must reach) those who cannot pay their way 
except by their own labor. 



LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 399 

With these views a large agricultural interest has been organized both for instruction and 
profit. So far this has succeeded well in both respects, and with suitable management it 
cannot fail to do so in future. The soil is rich and varied, adapted both to fruits and vege- 
tables. On the farm are large quantities of muck and sea mud and fish guano from the 
neighboring fisheries. It is intended to make the- culture varied, and to introduce improved 
metnods to be put in practice wherever the pupils may go. The farm, thus furnishing food for 
the school, iu connection with the adjacent fisheries, which make living cheap, will enable 
the poorest youth to meet all his necessary expenses, and, at the same time, receive good 
educational advantages. This department is under the superintendence of Mr. F. Richard- 
son, who is admirably qualified for the position. 

The farm is for the men ; but, as at the North s.o at the South, and more and more, the 
teaching is to be done by the women. an&I for tlieir education and training too ample pro- 
vision cannot be made. Young women at the institute are on equal footing iu all respects 
with the young men, except that their opportunities for supporting themselves by tlieir own 
labor are not as good. Something, much, indeed, has been done. An industry has been 
organized by which the pupils are paid for making up garments, which are sold at a small 
profit. This is beneficial in every way. About twenty can also be employed the greater 
part of theyear in teaching. This department needs and should receive efficient aid. 

IV. Present condition and prospects. — Of these we do not hesitate to speak with satisfac- 
tion and high hope. The school was opened in April, 1368, and there have since been sixty- 
six pupils in attendance, of whom fifty-two were boarders. Of these, eight have been em- 
ployed as teachers in freedmen's day schools, doing, under careful superintendence, the work 
done iu previous years by northern teachers, and giving good satisfaction in it, and thus, 
wiiile keeping up with their classes in the normal school, paying their necessary expenses. 
Three hundred children have thus been taught during the past year by under-graduates 
of the institute, and it is expected that twice that number will be thus taught during the year 
to come. In the present vacation, including July and September, twelve pupils have gone 
out to te^ch, and will not have less than five hundred children in their schools. 

The closing examination and exercises of the school indicated a thoroughness and faith- 
fulness on the part of tha teachers that nothing but missionary zeal could have inspired. 
Hitherto the teachers of the institute have all been ladies, and here, as in many places 
throughout the South, northern ladies of high character have done and arc doing a most 
Christian and heroic work, looking for their richest reward in the thanks of the lowly and 
the smile of Him who came that the Gospel might be preached to the poor. On the part of 
the scholars there was indicated a diligence and proficiency quite remarkable, and that 
would have done credit to students similarly situated of any race or color. Not only has the 
teaching been diligent but of the highest order, and the results correspond. There was great 
correctness in reading and spelling. Nearly all wrote a good hand, and the blackboard 
exercises in map-drawing, with the new method of triangulation, would have been creditable 
to the pupils of any normal school at the North. The whole results furnish the fullest 
encouragement to future effort. 

We are thus doing for the freedmen through this institute, with such modifications as their 
condition demands, just what we are doing for ourselves in those States that are furthest 
advanced iu education; and if the southern people could but wisely co-operate, the experi- 
ment with the freedmen could at once be fairly made. Fortunate in its position, and com- 
prehensive in its aims, the institute is adapted to do a great work for the African race, both 
iu this and their fatherland. It is just the agency needed through which benevolent indi- 
viduals and the fund of Mr. Peabody, now bo magnificently enhirged, may work. In the 
plan of it nothing is wanting ; to carry it out, executive ability and business talent of a high 
order will be needed, especially at first. These we think it now has in those at the head of 
each of its departments, and we heartily commend the enterprise to the confidence, to the 
prayers, and to the benefactions of the good people of the whole country. 

WEST VIRGINIA. 

The legislature of West Virginia, at its first session, December 9, 1863, passed an act for- 
bidding slaves to be introduced into the State or removed from it, with intent to deprive them 
of the right to freedom guaranteed by the constitution. An act was also passed at the same 
session establishing a system of free schools, providing for the enumeration of " all the youth 
between the ages of 6 and 21 years, distinguishing between males and females." The 
township boards of education were authorized and required to establish one or more separate 
schools for free colored children when the whole number enumerated exceeded oU, the 
schools so established to be under the control of the board of education ; but when the aver- 
age attendance of free colored children was less than 15 for any one month, the school might 
be discontinued for a period not exceeding six months at one time ; and the money raised on 
the number of free colored children, in case the attendance was less than 15 and the num- 
ber enumerated was less than 30, was to be reserved to be appropriated for the education of 
colored children in such a way as the township should direct. 



400 



LEGAL STATUS OF THE COLORED POPULATION. 



In 1865 the school law was revised, and the word "free" in connection with the colored 
people was struck out. In 1866 township boards of education were authorized to furnish 
school-houses for their respective towns, and to levy a tax, not exceeding $7 on the $300 
of the taxable property for that purpose; but this proviso was added: "Provided colored 
children shall not attend the same school or be classified with white children." 

The following- tables exhibit the condition of the freedinen's schools : 

Number of schools, teachers, and scholars, 1867 and 1868. 





Number of sclioolts. 


Number of teachers. 


Number of scholars. 


V a 


a 


Year. 


Day. 


Night., 


Total. 


White. 


Colored. 


Total. 


Male. 


Female. 


Total. 


^ 


18ii7 . ... 


10 
11 


2 
1 


12 

12 


4 
4 


8 
8 


12 

12 


295 
32G 


380 
3U4 


575 
630 


486 
545 


84 


1S68 


se 









St It fifes and 


expend 


ture of 


schools 


1867 and 186S 










Number of scholars in different studies pursue 


d. 


Expended in support 
of schools. 


Year, 


1 


si 
1 


CD in 


.3 


tJO 




0) 

.a 


a 


o 


"3 




Oh 


C3 


-5 ■-' 


^ 


§ 


'S 


bC.5 


>> 


(>i 


c 




< 


H 


< 


o 


< 


w 




« 


H 


i8G7 


. 48 
56 


287 
395 


143 
198 


299 
387 


247 
375 


278 
392 


23 
33 


S30 
861 


$5, 915 
6,315 


$5, 945 


1868 


7,176 







WISCONSIN. 

\ This State had a population in 1860 of 775,881, of whom only 1,171 were colored. There 
^re no constitutional or legal restrictions upon the colored people which are not shared alike 
%: the whites. The colored people exercise the franchise in the same manner as others ; 
their children attend the public schools with the white children, there being no separate 
schools for either class. .*> 

VERMONT. 

There were in Vermont only 709 colored persons in 1860 out of a population of 315,093. 
The declaration of rights, after asserting that all men are born equally free and independent, 
concludes as foMows : "Therefore, no male person, born in this country or brought from 
over the sea, ought to be Iiolden by law to serve any person as a servant, slave, or appren- 
tice, after he arrives to the age of twenty-one years, nor female, in like manner, after she 
arrives to the age of eighteen years, unless they are bound by their own consent after they 
arrive to such age, or bound by law for the payment of debts, damages, fines, costs, or the 
like." The constitution declares every man of the full age of twenty-one years, vrith cer- 
tain conditions alike applied to all, to be entitled to all the privileges of a freeman; and the 
laws make no distinction in regard to color. 

NEW HAMPSHIRE. 

There were in New Hampshire in 1860 only 494 colored persons out of a total population 
of 326,073. The constitution of this State makes no distinction in its provisions in regard 
to race or color, and the "bill of rights" declares that "all men are born equally free and 
independent;" but, in face of this declaration, in 1835, when the principal of the academy 
at Canaan udmitted colored pupils to his classes, a mob could be raised, without rebuke 
and without resistance by the town or the State, to remove the building from its site and 
transfer it to a neighboring swamp. 

NEW JERSEY. 

This State had a population in 1860 of 672.035, of Avhom 2.5,336 were colored, and of these 
18 Avcre slaves. By the constitution the right of suffrage is limited to white male citizens of 
the United States of the age of twenty-one years ; but it is provided that the funds for the 
support of public schools shall be appiied for the equal benefit of all the people of the State. 
Colored children are entitled to the privileges of this fund and are admitted into the public 
schools. 



1^^^ <:j2^^.^^.K.o. V/^ (^^7 



SOME. EEFLEOTTONS ON" EACE IN EDUCATION, WITH 
SPECIAL EEFERENCE TO THE NEGEO PEOBLEM. 

By Prof. Wm. Taylor Thom, 

Georgetoivn, D. C. 



It is proper to state, in advance, that the term "negro" will be used 
throughout this paper for the sake of convenience, because, first, 
it is the correct term, " African" being too broad and tending to divert 
the mind away from this country; and because, in the second i)lace, the 
term "colored man" is both somewhat ridiculous in itself, and has the 
very serious objection that it is Uioroughlij misleading, inasmuch as it 
suggests a false ideal. 

The " colored man," as he is known to the northern part of the Crnite<l 
States, is probably a fit subject for the educational experiments to which 
he has been subjected; but he is no more the negro of the southern and 
south-western States than the Enjj;lish aristocracy is the English peoi)le. 
Hence have arisen many misconcei^tions and many grievous mistakes; 
and accuracy of conception, truth, is what we most need and should 
most strive to attain in this, as in other matters. In a government, 
like ours, "of the people, by the people, and for the i)eople," homogene- 
ity in population and in ideals is of far greater consequence than in a. 
monarchy or in an aristocracy. In those governments social caste, 
social customs, social restraints can and do, like outlying defenses, 
withstand assaults on the body politic, which in our government must 
be met and dealt with by the public conscience immediately. For a 
free, intelligent, homogeneous people, that should be a source of safety 
rather than of danger. But our ])ox)ulation is diverse, so miach so as 
to cause violent friction in our midst to be a thing dangerously prob- 
able. It has already caused one convulsion which will not be forgotten ; 
for there is no parallel in recent history to the fratricidal war which 
ended almost exactly twenty years ago. Difierence of race caused that 
strife. That difference still exists, and what it may produce in the 
future if left to itself, no man knows. Hence the greater need for 
homogeneity of ideals to obviate the dangers arising from diversity of 
population. 

Of the great race ideals, that of the Family is, with the exception of 
the Mormon monstrosity, well settled in this countrj^, although in some 
of our States the divorce laws seem contrived purposely to strike at 
this, the very foundation of our national existence. 

But the thoughtful mind cannot, without disquietude, contemplate 
the contingencies which may arise should Mormonism once get a foot- 
hold among the negroes of America, by whom the ideal of the family is 
so frequently and so grossly disregarded. For if Mormonism is making 
such rapid progress among the whites, who have been predisposed 
against it by their laws, by their religious training, by their inherited 
race customs and instinct for a thousand years and more, what couse- 

775 



538 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

quences may not follow upon the dissemination of Mormon ideas among 
a people prone to embrace them from recent ancestral disposition, from 
still more recent slave habits and customs, and bntill protected against 
them by their necessarily crude conception of law and of religion. 

The ideal of Religion as a system of morality is quite uniform in this 
country, in spite of the variations of dogmatic Christiauity, the excep- 
tions being this same Mormouism, and the crudeness of the negro con- 
ception of religion as a matter of emotion and as a matter of morality. 

One Language, the strongest of all national bonds, the greatest of na- 
tional ideals, as containing and modifying all others, our own masteriul 
English, is supreme in our land; but it is not universal. Localities in 
the ISTorth and West are to be excepted, and also, and more important, 
those sections of the southern States where the divergence of the 
negro dialects from the standard of the vernacular is so great as par- 
tially to destroy by dialectic variety the uplifting idealism contained in 
the English tongue, so far, at least, as the negroes themselves are con- 
cerned. 

Family, Eeligion, Speech, these are the three great limitations within 
which the genius of a people moves to work out its social and govern- 
nsental organization and its destinj^ on earth. Their harmonious inllu- 
ence in this country is in danger of disturbance, chiefly from the partly 
involuntary opposition of the negro race in the ways already indicated. 
That opposition must be overcome — education is the best instrument to 
do it. The genius of our race, its mission, is Freedom. Toward the 
realization of that high calling it is i)ressing steadfastly on, as it hns 
been unconsciously doing for ages past. This struggle for freedom has 
become anarchial, if not "anarchy itself, again and again in our history, 
as some new phase of the national existence was developed, or as the 
extension of the principle of freedom was forcibly demanded by or for 
some additional class of population — which is the case here under con- 
sideration. The danger of anarchy lies crouching now at our doors, 
and will lift its bloody head again, should the negro race in America fail 
to learn the full lesson of freedom. True freedom is individual liberty, 
the largest, restrained by individual responsibility, the most exact — 
self-government, in one word. 

Our people received the negro into this country, taught him in the 
stern school of slavery to give up barbarism for civilization, and then 
gave him personal liberty. Has he ever learned of himself, or been 
tau,c;ht by us, the personal responsibility necessary to maintain social 
and governmental freedom? It is more than doubtful. And that is 
the duty which the white race of the United States owes to-day to it- 
self and to the negro race. He must be helped and made to learn the 
lesson of personal resiDOusibility. The development of character is the 
first and highest aim of any general system of education for him. 

'' To know something, to do something, to be something, — that is to be 
educated," has been well said. To do and to be are more important for 
the bulk of mankind, and vastly more important for the negro and his 
interests, than to hiow 'knowledge, as such is for the few, not for the 
many, white or black. 

What, then, is the proper type of public education in the southern 
States for the negro, as a class? It should be evidently on n low plane, 
and be confined to elementary subjects and methods. So much book in- 
struction as is sufiicienfc to give him a fair start as a citizen, that meas- 
ures the present requirement of the State as to mere intellectual fur- 
nishing for the negro as a race. The American people cannot afford to 
let him remain ignorant of less than that. But why not go further"? 

?7a 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 539 

Because, on the other hand, the public, as such, cannot afford to brinfj^ 
upon itself the rislcs consequent upon thrusting too much intellecttial 
leaven, suddenly, into this already fermenting' mass. From the evils of 
dense ignorance we are all suffering now, and have been these twenty 
years j^ast. But the crammiDg of mere ideas into empty heads is not 
the true remedy. Some of the most disastrous experiences of mankind, 
in government and society, have resulted from the undue prominence 
of an idea or the spread ot ideas among a people not possessing the 
substratum of inherited or acquired moral character necessary to modifv 
and counteract the fatal logic of pure idealism. The later history of 
Athens, the histories of the Greek States generally, are illustrations of 
ideas impressed upon peoples and governments, and carried logically 
out to their consequences without regard to the character requii ements 
of a i)eople's growth. Precocious growth and premature decay were the 
result. The French Eevolutiou passed from Justifiable revolt, such as 
the American Eevolutiou was, such as La Fayette hoped for, to merci- 
less massacre because the compound theory. Liberie, Fraternity, Egalite, 
had fired the brains of the masses of Parisian populace, incapable of 
self-control by training or by inherited character. 

The history of Eussia since the freeing of the serfs is, on the side of 
the people, the history of ideas unduly exercising minds whose owners 
are not grown up, morally, to the full conception of liberty, and whose 
notion of it is therefore wrong and full of danger to tbe State and to 
liberty itself. Eussian methods of education seem to be responsible, 
since the utter neglect of proper elementary instruction sends the youth 
of the country to the upper schools with minds incapable of resisting 
the dangerous doctrines wliich they find there. 

The history of negro suffrage in our southern States, up to this time, 
is the story of a superb idea converted by over-hasty api)licatiou into 
a blunder, working out its inevitable course of harm. VVith no pre- 
vious education for this, the highest prerogative of free citizenship, 
with scarcely any instruction in its use since his liberation from slavery 
except that which appealed to his fears or his prejudices, the negro can- 
not know and understand the political, governmental, and social harm 
he does himself as well as others. Let us hope that he will speedily 
learn. That there has not been more outbreak is honorable alike to 
the amiability of the negroes and to the self-control of the whites. As 
time rolls on we see with clearer eyes how great was the loss this whole 
people sustained when Abraham Lincoln fell before a crack-brained 
assassin's pistol. 

Half educated, irresponsible thinking is the root of the nihilism and 
the savage socialism which are threatening the social fabric in Europe, 
and are beginning to make themselves felt in this country. The danger 
to American institutions from this wrong-headed thinking, when the 
negroes shall have ten times their present population, is not to be esti- 
mated, unless in the mean time they be educated, and unless some other 
than merely intellectual elements be made influential in their training. 
IS"aturally the first element which occurs is religious and moral training, 
but with that the community, as such, has in our society nothing to do. 
That teaching, as teaching, is forbidden in direct form ; we must seek 
other means to our end. They are at hand in the kind of training which 
teaches how to be industrious, how to work intelligently; the boy who 
has learned to do something is apt to respect himself as being something. 

The type of iastructioa at the cost of the community, then, jn addi- 
tion to rudimentary " )>ook learning," should be, as far as possible, 
industrial, both in the technical and in the moral sense of the word. 

777 



540 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

There seems no good reason why the State systems of public iustruc- 
tiori should not include industrial institutions of low grade as well as 
agricultural and mechanical colleges ; nor why these low grade insti- 
tutions should not be available for each race; nor why some of the 
public money wasted annually in x>ushing studies beyond the reason- 
able limits of instruction at State expense should not be used in fitting 
the youth of the country for the actual demands of daily life by practi- 
cal industrial training. If the intelligent among the young negroes 
could, along with their rudimentary book instruction, acquire the 
practical information necessary for them to become eventually good 
carpenters, and cooks, and house-maids, and mechanics, and dairy- 
maids, and bricklayers, and hostlers, and dining-room servants; could 
learn something real and tangible about the crops and the soils which 
they are to cultivate, and the horses, and sheep, and cattle which 
they are to tend, undoubtedly the public common school would become 
a,t once a prolific source of blessing to the country as well as to the 
negroes themselves, who are essentially an agricultural people. But 
such a scheme of education, perhaps it is objected, seems to relegate 
the negro, broadly speaking, to the peasant condition. Unquestionably 
it does, and rightly and wisely does ; or rather it recofimzes this Ms act- 
ual condition as Ms proper condition. His proper condition, if he is in- 
capable of rising above it; and his proper condition, too, if his future 
be great. For it is impossible to imagine that the negro race, as a race 
and not as individuals, is to escape or ought to escape the burden 
which has been borne by every people in the history of the world who 
have achieved a commanding position. That he will be helped and fa- 
vored beyond any other race in his struggle to make the most of him- 
self, by being under the influence and protection of a people far in ad- 
vance of his own, is evident. That he should be exempt from working- 
out his own race-salvation himself, is neither to be expected nor to be 
desired. Our forefathers did this very thing for hundreds of years and 
lifted themselves gradually, by dint of the strength and virtues slowly 
acquired during that long time ; our blood kin are doing this very 
same thing to-day in this very country, in England, Scotland, Ireland, 
Holland, and Germany. 

King Alfred set his subjects the example of labor with hand and 
brain; William Shakespeare worked for his living; Ben Jonson was a 
bricklayer; John Bunyan was a roving, half-starved tinker ; stalwart 
John Smith toiled and bled for the Virgin Land ; George Washington 
worked for years surveying trackless forests ; Abraham Lincoln mauled 
rails. It is in the sweat of such men's brows that our race has earned 
the bread upon which it has grown so great. For the negro race to 
escape this probation would mean to condemn them to rapid lapse back 
to barbarism, perhaps to extermination at the hands ot the whites. 
Unless they know how to work and do work, their destruction seems a 
natural consequence. The history of the American Indians makes fur- 
ther insistence on this jioint unnecessary. 

Freedom has usually been earned slowly, at the cost of such toil and 
blood as, in comparison, would laugh to scorn the worst features of 
American slavery. In this case, freedom came as a sudden gift, and 
in a way tending to disturb, if not destroy, character. Therefore let the 
negro race prove itself worthy of freedom by earning it over again, yet 
without ever again losing it. No amount of philanthropic good- will can 
do for them what they alone can do for themselves ; but good-will and 
wise guidance can and should give them the help and encouragement 
not inconsistent with the i)riuclple of self-heli). Some of the negro's 
77d 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS. 541 

^vorst enemies have been among his most unselfish but misguided 
IVicnds. lu the education of a i^eople the blunder as to method is usually 
fatal for the generation which makes it, though reaction is possible, and 
blunders many and weighty have been made about this people. I pause 
to note a brilliant exception. Not among the blunderers stands Gen- 
eral S. O. Armstrong, of the Hampton Normal Institute in Virginia, 
who, so far as my information goes, is doing a more excellent work for 
and with the negroes than any man in the South. He teaches them to 
study, and he teaches them to work, and to respect themselves because 
they have duties and recognize them and perform them. It is a pleasure 
to refer to him and to his sensible and successful methods. 

In this light alone does the solution of the negro problem look hope- 
ful ; that is to say, by means of a system of education confined, for the 
masses, to rudimentary instruction in text-books, supplemented by such 
instruction and training in industrial handicrafts, in real worlc, as will 
be practical and effective for the individual and for the community. 
This, of course, need not exclude provision for those proving them- 
selves, capable of higher things. But private enterprise and philan- 
thropy will provide for that, should the State not do so. That has been 
the history of education in this country, so far, and will continue to be^ 

It is by this means alone, further, that there can be formed, soon 
enough, a " better class," an " upper society," among the negroes them- 
selves, who will become the natural leaders of their race, as has been 
the case with other races in the past. To the formation of this •' better 
class" foreseeing men are looking with hope as the means of averting 
trouble and disaster between the two races. 

As long as the negroes follow the lead of designing, selfish white men, 
so long must the antagonism of conflict continue, and so long must the 
negroes be thrown back upon their own race instincts and upon what 
is worst in the civilization of the whites. That is most unfortunate for 
them. Such a better class implies property, intelligence, and the sense 
of responsibility accompanying them. Under its lead the negro race 
will become more and more American and less and less African, since 
the very fact of the existence of these native leaders will show that they 
have themselves attained the white man's standpoint in attaining and 
successfully maintaining their own position. Led by this class, helped 
by the whites, the negro race may hope for the attainment of ideals 
homogeneous, perhaps identical, with those of the Anglo-American rulers 
of this country ; not well otherwise ; nor otherwise does harmonious co- 
existence of the two races seem probable. The formation of that class 
means the partial solution of the negro problem. 

The history of the United States is that of a tremendous experiment 
in government, and on an enormous scale. The negro element is In 
itself a vast experiment in civilization, and its presence renders the 
general experiment much more complicated and difficult. It is the sin- 
gle element in our population containing dangerous tendencies which 
are distincthj race tendejicies. The Indians are too few to affect us ma- 
teriall}'. The American-born child of European immigrants is, gen- 
erally speaking, an American, the difference of race not being marked 
enough to prevent such rapid absorption. Not so with the negroes of 

• The Report of tlie Commissioner of Edncatiou for 18S2-'p3 shows fifty-six normal 
schools, forty-three institutions for secondary instruction, eighteen universities and 
colleges, and twenty-four schools of theo.logy.for the exclusive beuetit of the negro 
race, wliich have been established and are supported by private persons or associa- 
tions. That enumeration does not include the million-dollar Slater Fund, nor other 
large contributions made since the report was compiled. 

779 



542 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

the southern States. Eace, previous condition of servitude, ingrained 
habits, all tend in the other direction. And besides, amalgamation un- 
der existing conditions \\'ould be most disastrous to both races. The 
peaceful solution of the problem depends upon the partial destruction 
of the inherited African spirit, by its absorption into the American 
spirit — upon the firm establishment of American race ideals as the com- 
mon standard for ail Americans, white and black, in the practical needs 
of life and of citizenship. That process is now going on; to hasten it is 
most desirable. For the completion of that iDrocess, lapse of time is 
necessary, and earnest, persistent, sober adaptation of means to the end 
in view, as contingencies may arise. 

The limitations of the discussion of Eace in Education in this paper, 
it will be seen, are twofold : as to the States representing the white race, 
the assumption that it should give the negroes rudimentary instruction 
and industrial training ; as to the negro, the assumption that, as a race, 
he should not be carried forward in mere intellectual instruction too fast. 
These limitations are arbitrary; they are in fact a compromise between 
the whole public and a part of it. They do not possess that logic of 
system, so dear to the theorist. But it is believed that the ideas herein 
set forth are thoroughly in accord with the method of our Anglo-Ameri- 
can race, which has ever shown its wisdom in dealing with great ques- 
tions by recognizing plainly that life is not logic, either for the state or 
for the individual. The history of England a,nd of the United States is 
one long succession of compromises between social theories and princi- 
ples, either made to avoid impending logical results or brought about by 
means of those logical results. This paper moves, then, in the national 
course of procedure which is tentative, which would allow the race ele- 
ment time and opportunity to do its own work. That only is true liberty 
which is developed freely by a race itself. It cannot be made to order 
at once by a proclamation, by a school system, or by anything else ; 
but it can be cultivated, helped forward, educed. The actual liberty of 
the negro is not true liberty, not American liberty. The proper educa- 
tion which will cultivate in him this true freedom, and at the same time 
train him to meet all its requirements, to use it and not to abuse it — that 
is a great part of the greatest problem before the American people to- 
day. To quote the language of a great thinker: 

You are undertaking the greatest political experiment that has ever been performed 
by any people whatever. You are at this j)i'esent centenary a nation of forty mill- 
ions of people. At your nest centenary rational and probable expectation may 
look to see yon two hundred millions, and you have before you the problem whether 
two hundred millions of English speaking, strong-willed people will be able to hold 
together under republican institutions and under the real despotism of universal 
sutirage ; whether States' rights will hold their own against the necessary centraliza- 
tion of a great nation, if it is to act as a whole, or whether centralization will gam 
the day without breaking down republican institutions. The territory you cover is 
as large as Europe, as diverse in climate as England and Spain, as France and Eussif), 
and you have to see whether with the diversity of interests, mercantile and other, 
Avhich arise under these circumstances, uatioual ties will be stronger than the ten- 
<lency to separation ; and as you grow and the pressure of population makes itself 
mauifest, the spectre of pauperism will stalk among you, and you will be very unlike 
Europe if communism and socialism do not claim to he heard. 

Great will be your honor, great will be your position, if you solve [the i^roblem] 
righteously and honestly ; great your shame and mi ery if you fail. But let me ex- 
press ray most strong conviction that the key to success, the essential condition to 
success, is one and one only: that it rests entirely upon intellectual clearness and 
upon the moral worth of the individual citizen. Education cannot give intellectual 
clearness. It cannot give moral worth, but it may cherish them and bring them to 
the front. 
780 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PAPERS, 543 

Lot every lover of our country take earnestly to heart Professor Hux- 
ley's words of wisdom. 

Education, intellectual and moral, is the greatest need of a free, self- 
governing ]>eoi)le. But it must be education adapted to the conditions 
of the |)eoi)Ie's life. When these conditions change the type of popular 
education can be changed or enlarged. One-sided or over-hasty intel- 
lectual growth is dangerous. Semblance becomes mistaken for sub- 
stance. The negroes are essentially an agricultural race. Their edu- 
cation should proceed in accordance with that fact. Thereby will they 
be enabled to rise most surely to whatever attainment their race may 
be capable of under its very advantageous surroundings. Their educa- 
tion at present ought to be chiefly agricultural and industrial; such 
education must be to them power and not a delusion. Unfortunately, 
as a <;lass, they already regard the mere smatterings of primary tuition, 
the simple going to school, as education. Let us beware of setting np 
for them a "• fetich" to worship in mere school instruction, especially now 
just as our institutions in the higher education seem, under the wise 
lead of Washington and Lee University in Virginia, and of Harvard 
University in Massachusetts, on the point of breaking away from the 
too exclusive \vorship of the "college fetich," by substituting for it the 
cultivation of our mother tongue and of the sciences which i>rop civili- 
zation. 

In conclusion, the ])oint of view of this paper is American; it is 
neither Southern nor Northern, for educational questions know no such 
territorial limitations; and it is believed that the views herein set forth 
are in consonance with the present imperative needs of American pop- 
ular institutions. Plain language has been used to m-ake plain state- 
ments, not to imply censure nor to make harsh criticisms. The aim of 
the i>aper is educational, not controversial; to elicit truth, not to make 
a ])oint ; to avoid a race conflict, not to stir up strife. If anything con- 
tained in it should be found helpful in furthering the great interests 
which have called us together from so many parts of our common country, 
the purpose of its writing will be fulfilled. 

781 






MEMORANDUM EBSP 
FORM EXAMINATIOU 

EDUCATION DEF 
TARIO/OANADA. 



OTING SIMULTANEOUS AND UNI- 

S UNDER REGULATIONS OF THE 

ARTfMENT FOR THE PROVINCE OF ON- 



By 

Secf^tarv to the Ed 



ALExiNDER Marling, LL. B., 

ication Department, Ontario, Canada. 



iuations in the literary and 



In the Province Vf Ontari) there are uniform and simultaneous exam- 



scientiflc course required as a condition of 



obtaining certificate 
ary) schools 

The candidates who^ 
schools, and after a per 
in the brainches that 
teach the several subjects 
tically tested 

The certificates granted 

The preliminary or non 
July. The question papers 
aminers appointed by the j 
tion of the Minister of Educa 
Prof. G. P. Young, of Univ 
inspectors of normal and hig 
schools. 

Suitable regulations are mhd' 
the presiding examiner for CLiss 
locality being a pubhc school 



of qua ification to teach in the public (or element- 



hese are eligible for admission to training 

such attendance they are examined chiefly 

re distinctly professional, their ability to 

a public school course being also prac- 

of Class III (lowest), Class II, and Class I. 

fessional examination is held annually in 

e prepared by a central committee of ex- 

vincial Government on the recommenda- 

on, the present committee consisting of 

ity College, Toronto, as Chairman, the 

phools, and certain inspectors of public 

for the conduct of the examinations, 

I and Class III examinations in each 

nspfector or a substitute approved by the 



Minister. The papers are co ifidei^tially printed in the Education De- 
partment and transmitted to 
examinations at about one hu 
is usually a high (secondary 
prepared at those institutions 
ply to receive and distribute ijhe pape 
servanceof theregnlations, an ' 
Department in Toronto. The 
tee, assisted by about forty s 
ommendation of the Ministeri 

If a candidate is reported Iby the comi 
amination, he is awarded a ttrelimiuary 



the keveral inspectors, who conduct the 
idred Venters. The place of examination 
school the candidates being generally 
The (^uty of the local examiner is sim- 
, to preside, to enforce the ob- 
t the answers to the Education 
e then referred to the commit- 
also appointed on the rec- 



i totransi 
answers 
ub-examin< 



ce 



allow him to 



ttee to have passed this ex- 

tificate of Class II or Class 

ndertake teaching until he 

model school, and received 



III, which does not, howeven 

has been trained and examiu d at the count 

his full (or professional) cert ficate 

Those awarded Class II a : the non-profess\onal examination are ex 
empted from further examination in these saibjects as a preliminary 
condition of admission to th4 provincial normaRschool, to be trained for 
the Class II professional (or full) certificate; bik they are required, as 
well as the Class III candidiites, to undergo traxuing: and examination 
before the local examiners ^t the county model 
78? 



hool, for the Class HI 




INTEIWfATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 49 

ProfessorNHoggwas followed by Mons. B. BuissoN, Eepresentative of 
the French Ministry of Education at the Exposition, who/presented a 
paper on " Th6 Recent Reforms in Public Instruction, an^ especially in 
Primary Instruction, in France." (See p. 111.) 

Before enterin'g on the subject of his paper, M. Bnij^son, as delegate 
of the French Government and representative of several public and 
private educationsk institutions which took part in/the Exposition, as- 
sured the members of the International Congress that he was the 
bearer of a warm and hearty message of symp^hy to them, and was 
commissioned to salute in a spirit of true brot)ierhood the teachers of 
America in the name 6f the teachers of France 

After the reading or^. Buisson's paper th^ session adjourned. 

JVENTH SES 

The Seventh Session of me Congress was held in Tulane Hall, Friday, 
February 27th, at 2 p.m., Dr. M. A. N;bwell in the chair. 

The first thing in order onythe programme was the presentation of a 
paper by Miss Alice C. Fletcher, entitled " An Historical Sketch of 
Indian Civilization and Educataon." (See p. 508.) 

The Chairman announced as »ext in order on the programme a paper 
by Dr. T. W. Bicknell, entitlesa\" History of Educational Journalism 
in New England." (See p. 51//.) 

Upon the completion of tile reading of Dr. BicknelPs paper, it then 
being 4.15 p.m., the session^adjourne* 

^EIGHTH SE^ION. 

The Eighth Session^of the Congress waa held in Tulane Hall, Friday, 
February 27th, at 8^0 p.m.. Dr. M. A. Newell in the chair. 

The first paper Announced was read by Dr. L. G. Barboue of Vir- 
ginia, on " Competitive Studies and Resultant Prizes." (See p. 532.) 

After the reading of Dr. Barbour's paper, the Chairman announced a 
paper on " Race in Education," by Prof. W. T. Thom of Virginia. (See 
p. 537.) — ' 

Dr. E. E. White said at the conclusion of Professor Thorn's paper : 

I have been deeply interested in the paper just presented, and I rise 
to say that I do not feel entirely competent to speak on this great prob- 
lem. The more I understand it, the more deeply I am impressed with 
that feeling. It is a problem requiring great wisdom, but there is one 
assertion in that paper which I think is an inadvertence, yet I have 
heard it once or twice, and that assertion is that moral education has 
no place in the public school. The paper assumed that position — that 
the moral education of the negro was to be treated as impossible under 
our American system of free schools. 

As many of you know, for a good many years I have been quite 
familiar with American educational ideas and features. One of the 

287 



50 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

questions on which American teachers as a body are agreed, is that fehe 
vital moral training of the pupils of the public schools is its highest 
commission and its supremest duty, and we never concede that the work 
of the public schools is not open to this class of education, and it is 
vastly better that this generation of scholars shall go out alive to truth 
and virtue and honor and God, than that they should go out trained in 
the best methods in the scholastic phase of education. I go further. 
We never concede the point that virtue bas no place in education. It 
is true that there have been some appearances which would indicate 
that religious influences would disappear, but that is exceptional. So 
far as my experience goes, the education of the schools is Christian. 
The great body of American educators bring to-day the influence of 
religion into the school. It may be that religion is not taught directly 
in the school, but everywhere, with few exceptions, there is the recog- 
nition of God as the supreme authority. There is the recognition of 
man's duty toward God everywhere, in the school. The conscience of 
our youth is fortified with religious influences. We do not teach de- 
nominational theology, but the recognition of God and the influence of 
religion must be in every school if you are going to have any vital moral 
training. Our whole system of moral training must be vitalized by 
religious influences breathed by the teacher from his life and spirit into 
it. I repeat that I think that statement of the paper was an inadvert- 
ence. The American school does not ignore the importance of vital 
moral training. 

Hon. G. J. Ore : I feel a little as though I should like to trespass on 
the regular order. I feel so deeply upon this question that I rise to say 
a few words. There never has been a people put in the position of the 
people of the South. We feel this question much more deeply than our 
brothers coming from the other quarters of the nation can feel it. The 
question of what shall be done with the negro is the greatest question 
among us. The negroes are in our houses, they mingle with our chil- 
dren, they are of us, and this is our i^roblem. It is the greatest ques- 
tion that has ever been considered in this country, or perhaps in any 
other. I agree with Dr. White. If you teach these people simply in- 
tellectual training, and the moi^al training is neglected, no one can tell 
the result. One great help to training that race is wanting. They 
know nothing of the family and its influences. The Bible teaches me 
that the family is at the foundation of the Christian Church. You can- 
not build up a church and make it such a church as it ought to be until 
all the obligations growing out of it are observed at home by the head 
of the family. The family rests at the bottom of everything in the 
Church, and at the foundation of everything valuable in the State. 
This feature has been entirely wanting. The moral training given in 
the homes of the American people has been what has saved this country 
in the past. These people have been without it, and we know the result. 
We know the morals of that people. I have not heard a paper during 

288 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS PROCEEDINGS. 5i 

the sittings of this body that was so very valuable, so full of sugges- 
tions, that discussed this greatest question of all questions with so 
much temperateness and in such a philosophical way. While saying 
this, I must also say that it was wanting, I think, just at the point Dr. 
White mentions. My notion of the treatment of that people is that the 
Christian Chur(;hes, all of them, must come in and labor with them, in 
order to form a proper sentiment among them and give them a relj^ious 
training. Let us give them an intellectual training, and let every 
church come in and labor in their moral training. This is the missionary 
field of the churches. I have felt that myself in relation to this people. 
They have no truer friend upon this great continent than myself. Their 
presence among us incites this matter of national aid. But for their 
presence we would not ask any help, we would be able to manage that 
question ourselves. In my own State 1 believe we have 128,000 whites 
over ten years of age who are unable to write, and 392,000 colored, mak- 
ing a grand total of 520,000 out of a population of one and a half million. 
They call Georgia the Empire State of the South. She is a State great 
in resources, great in achievements, great in many directions, and, as 
the census shows, great in illiteracy. The Southern States, as I have 
said, are the States that are affected immediately by the presence of 
this population among them. I have been studying this question for 
years past ; for seven long years I have been laboring in the cause of 
national aid to education ; I have gone to every assembly of citizens 
where it was discussed ; I have used all the influence I could in its favor. 
It is because I feel that we have a problem with which we are unable 
ourselves to deal. It is beyond our power to grapple with it, and a wise 
man hath said, " Hope deferred maketh the heart sick." I did hope 
that the present Congress would help us by the passage of the Blair 
Bill, but information comes to us from the Capitol that we are not to 
have it. Will you agree with me here to begin anew in that direction? 
Will you promise to take hold and labor with us ? 

I ask you as brethren to give us help. I feel that I can say that there 
is no longer a Korth and a South, no longer two sections. We are one 
people. While I say that, let me say a few words more in the same con- 
nection. I wish to make an appeal to you tonight that you take the 
same ground upon this question, which we feel to be essential. I said 
a while ago that this was our question. True, Massachusetts and Min- 
nesota and all the States are interested, and if we go down we drag 
them down; we either sink or swim together; but while this is true, we 
are more immediately affected, and we will go down first. What I wish 
to say is this : — Numbers of us are studying the question. We are do- 
ing all that can be done, and we ask you simply for help. We feel 
that whatever is done must be put in the hands of some one. Now 
I do not object to discussion by my brethren from the North. They 
can give us valuable suggestions. But let me say to-night that it isim- 

289 



52 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION. 

possible, for you to understand this question as those of us who are 
connected with it understand it. 

I should not feel that I was fully qualified to deal with the question 
of how the city of Boston should be managed in her school interest. I 
should feel that my friend Dr. Bicknell and others understood that 
•question better than I did. But reared on Southern soil, and having 
mingled with the population from my earliest infancy to this hour, I 
thinlf I know them. There are certain things connected with the ques- 
tion that no man can know who has not been a long resident among 
them. The Southern States are the States to work out this great ques- 
tion. We welcome aid from abroad, we feel that you are acting mag- 
nanimously when you rise up and help us. I think I understand the 
temper of the people of my own State, and I feel just as well assured as 
I can be of anything that is not an actual occurrence, that they would 
not accept outside help unless they are left to work it out themselves. 

He who assumes to put conditions upon us will injure the people 
whom he seeks to benefit. I feel that we ought to be trusted. Let me 
say what I said to Senator Blair. I found him with a bill creating a com- 
mission, and I said this to him in reply to a conversation : "I am known 
all over the South as an advocate of universal education. I have labored 
in that field for thirteen years, but if you jiass such a measure as that 
I tell you the people would not accept the tendered aid ; it would be re 
jected." Twelve months ago, as a member of the sub-Committee of Edu- 
cation and Labor that traveled over this Southern country, he tele- 
graphed me to come to the Parker House in Atlanta, as they wished to 
examine me. I went and was examined for an hour and a half. When 
I finished giving that testimony he said : " When 1 was here a few years 
ago 1 felt that we could not .trust the South. I have been traveling 
over your Southern country. I have had men before me representing 
all conditions of society, and I feel thoroughly convinced that I was 
wrong in my estimate." He went back to Washington and framed a 
bill which the great majority of people in my State will accept gladly. 

Professor Thom: I desire to correct a misapprehension. As far as 1 
gathered from the remarks of the gentleman who followed me, it seems 
to have been understood that I was not in sympathy with the work 
done by the several denominations in the South. It is exactly this 
which I do appreciate. If I may be allowed to say so, I think they 
have wisely pursued the right course, and I am heartily in sympathy 
with them. 

Professor Baktholomew next delivered an address, in which he 
made some remarks on educational progress in Kentucky ; he said : 

The work in Kentucky is to be judged by its results; and when you 
come to our State and see the results produced, that is suffi(;ient to de- 
termine the character of the work. There is no man in this country to- 
day who stands higher morally than does Albert S. Willis, of Kentucky, 
and he is a graduate of the public schools of Louisville. We met with 

290 



INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EDUCATORS ^PROCEEDINGS. Od 

opposition, but education was the victor; and when the Superintendent 
of Public Instruction made his report, after an earnest contest of nearly 
eighteen years, then it was that the existence of great illiteracy was 
demonstrated; then it was that the people appointed a convention to 
meet at Frankfort, out of which grew the inter-State convention of Louis- 
ville, and the State of Kentucky called to its aid in the solution of this 
problem gentlemen who are here to-night, the Chairman, Professor 
White, Mr. Hancock, Mr. Harris, and gentlemen from the South. 

A committee was appointed to memorialize Congress in reference to 
Federal aid to assist us to bring our people up to the jjroper standard, 
and Kentucky to-night ex^tends to you her profoundest gratitude for the 
work which you have done in influencing the State Legislature, which 
gave to the State a new law which has incorporated all good features, 
which has established systems of instruction, and which takes an in- 
terest in favor of popular education. If you will pardon me, I want to 
say something in regard to ray native State, and I want to mention one 
point here which seems to me works in beautifully in reference to tbe 
discussion just had. If you are agreed that popular education is nec- 
essary for the white man in order that he may properly be prepared to 
exercise citizenship, how does it come to pass that the white man should 
have it and not the negro ? If it is necessary in one case, it is necessary 
in the other. In Kentucky a colored man stands upon the same level 
as a white man. 

I desire to say that we are proud of our system of public instruction. 
The city of Louisville has its primary schools, its intermediate schools, 
and its high schools, extending to the same level for each race, except 
that the negro is in a separate school. The same qualifications for 
teachers are required, the same rules are in force, the same course of 
study is pursued, and the same salary is paid; and I believe that the 
public school system of the city of Louisville to-day is built upon a foun- 
dation which will reflect honor and credit upon itself and upon the State. 

It is not necessary for me to enlarge further in reference to the pro- 
visions which have grown out of the last convention held at Louisville. 
Nearly everything recommended by that convention was incorporated 
in the new school law. It only remains for me, in the spirit of our great 
son, Henry Clay, to place the hand of the northern brother in the hand 
of the southern brother, and say that the teachers of this country are the 
saviors of this country, and that in the work of removing illiteracy and 
elevating the intellectual and moral standards you must adopt the motto 
of my State, " United we stand, divided we fall." 

Dr. Hancock, from the Committee on Kesolutions, reported the fol- 
lowing resolutions, which were unanimously adopted : 

To the International Congress of Educators : 

The undersigned committee, appointed to draw up suitable resolutions to express 
the pleasure and interest which the members of this body have derived from their in- 
spection of the extent and perfection of *hi8, the largest of world expositions ever 

291 



54 EDUCATIONAL CONVENTIONS AT NEW OELEANS EXPOSITION. 

held, and to set forth in fitting terms their gratification at the friendly zeal and as- 
sistance manifested by its managers in the cause of education, which has thus been 
enabled to offer for study so complete a display of educatioual work and appliances* 
hereby offer the following resolutions : 

Besolved, That this Congress bears its testimony to the fact that the "World's Indus- 
trial and Cotton Centennial Exposition is not only more extensive in its buildings and 
space occupied, but may claim precedence on the far more just grounds that it has ap- 
plied the skill gained by former experience in similar expositions in such a way as to 
bring together all the valuable devices heretofore discovered for showing to the eye 
at a glance the resources of a country, the quality and peculiarities of mechanical 
construction, and usefulness of goods and machinery, offering in this respect an exhi- 
bition of new phases and aspects of national wealth not before thought possible to 
make objects of display. 

Besolved, That this Congress expresses its feelings *of grateful acknowledgment to 
the managers of this Exposition for the recognition they have extended to education 
as one of the important elements of national strength and development, especially as 
related to industry and the production of wealth. 

Besolved, That this Congress hereby returns its sincere thanks to the citizens of New 
Orleans, to the members of the Louisiana Educational Society, the New Orleans Teach- 
ers' Association, and especially to the President, trustees and officers of the Tulane 
University, for the warm hospitality and obliging attention with which they have wel- 
comed it to their city and provided it with all the facilities for holding its sessions. 

JOHN HANCOCK. 
WM. T. HAKRIS. 
J. W. DICKINSON. 

Dr. M. A. Newell then read a list of papers which were received by 
the Congress, but which were not read. 

Dr. M. A. Newell then said : 

Before we adjourn I wish to express my personal thanks to the mem- 
bers of the Congress for the great kindness they have shown me in the 
arduous task I had in making the necessary arrangements, and also my 
gratitude to the citizens of New Orleans for the attention which I have 
received from them. 

At the conclusion of these remarks, at 10 p. m., the Congress adjourned 
sine die. 
292 



DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 123 

FIFTH SESSION. 

Thursday Evening, February 25, 1886. 

W. E\Sheldon, Ohairmaii of Committee on Resolutions, reported 
the follow)>ng preamble and resolutions in memory of the^eath of John 
D. Philbricfiyof Massachusetts, which were unanimoijmy adopted by a 
rising vote : 

Whereas, we theNjfficers and members of the Departmeat of Superintendence of 
the National Educational Association having learned of/ihe death of John Dudley 
Pliilbrick, LL.D., of Massachusetts, who for more tha^n twenty-five years has been 
an active and enthusiastic member, and an ex-Presidfiiit of the Association, and desir- 
iug to place upon record \pr appreciation, estee^, and love of him, adopt the fol- 
lowing: 

Resolved, That this associatido mourns the Le^ss of one of its most devoted and in- 
telligent workers in the cause ofVpopular ediJcation. As a teacher, superintendent, 
and writer upon educational topicsrfor mo;?© than a third of a century, he has ranked 
among the foremost educators of thia^omitry. Wise and discreet in counsel, ener- 
getic and euthusiastic in action, helppl^and sympathetic in his relations with his co- 
workers, he has left behind him a r&6ord>&ill of inspiration and worthy of imitation. 

Besolved, That the cause of geii«'al education has sustained a heavy loss in being 
deprived of the zeal, energy, au^wisdom whrt^h have pre-eminently characterized his 
long career. 

Besolved, That the Department of Superintei^ience especially desire to recognize 
the eminent services of Mr. Philbrick in their special field of educational work, in 
which he labored for nearly a quarter of a centuryVachieving not only a national, 
but a world-wide repntation as a superintendent of jmblic instruction. 

Besolved, That tnese resolutions be entered upon thX minutes of this association, 
and that a copv/of them be sent to Mrs. Philbrick, to wijjom we tender our incere 
sympathy in^Jier great bereavement. 

W. E\SHELDON, 
^ ANDREW J. RICKOFF, 

R. W. STEVENSON, 

Committee. 

The following address was then delivered by the Hon, S. M. Finger, 
of North Carolina: ^^_^^^ ^ (N^e . ^:^ Vu Z, \ v-vq,. 

THE EDUCATIONAL AND RELIGIOUS INTERESTS OP THE COLORED 
PEOPLE OF THE SOUTH. 

Since the storms that beat upon our ship of state subsided, we tind 
her anchored in the harbor of freedom and equality of all men before 
the law. Twenty-one years have elapsed, and as the clouds clear away, 
it becomes us to take our reckonings. Almost a generation has passed 
away, and other men control, other ideas prevail. It is wise that we 
lay aside all sectional feelings, and without crimination or recrimination 
discuss all the great problems that confront us, and especially the ne- 
gro problem, which, I submit, is perhaps the most difficult of them all. 
I desire to have it understood that in anything I shall say it is furthest 
from my purpose to offend any man, white or black, north or south. 



124 CIECULAES OF INFOEMATION FOR -1886. 

Born and reared in the South, having a southern ancestry ante-dat- 
ing the Eevolution of 1775, the son and the grandson of an owner of 
slaves, I have had opportunity of studying the negro in his home in 
the South, before and since the late war between the States. 

Educated in New England, and having had business intercourse with 
the people of the northern section of the Union, I have had opportu- 
nity of studying the negro in the North also, both before and since his 
freedom. 

Add to this the circumstance that I was taught by my father to look 
with suspicion upon the institution of slavery, and that consequently 
I had a degree of sympathy for the slaves. 

In view of these facts, I trust that I can enter upon the discussion of 
the negro question with freedom from i^rejudice against the colored 
people, and with sufficient opportunity to have learned something about 
them from actual contact and. to enable me to keep up with changing 
public sentiment about the negro, both North and South. 

But with all these opportunities to study and observe the negro, I 
am free to confess that I do not know that I fully understand him ; and 
1 cannot, with satisfaction to myself, forecast his future or form a defi- 
nite conclusion as to his capabilities. So far he is an undetermined 
quantity in the problem of civilization. Whether the size of his brain 
and his other peculiarities mark him as the white man's natural infe- 
rior, or only emphasize his want of opportunity, is an unanswered ques- 
tion, and it must remain an unanswered question until he shall have 
been tried and cultivated for more than one generation. 

It is, however, but fair to state that when we consult history, any 
claim of the negro, or of any other of the .colored nations, to equality in 
intellect or force of character with the Indo-European nations, rests up- 
on a very slender foundation. History shows that the Aryan family of 
nations overcame all other nations with whom they came in contact. So 
far as the negroes in Africa were concerned, the grand, ancient civili- 
zation around the shores of the Mediterranean sea did not stir them. 
While the Egyptians built the pyramids and their magnificent cities; 
while the Carthaginians grappled in successful conflict with the Eomaus ; 
while the Greeks and Eomans made their arts of war and their fine arts 
felt and known throughout the then known world; while in later days, 
even down to the present, civilization and Christianity have been devel- 
oped by the European and American people, — while all these things have 
been going on, the negroes in Africa have never, to any considerable 
extent, been aroused by them, notwithstanding in modern times special 
eftbrts have been made to civilize and Christianize them. History 
is against the claims of the negro to equality with the white nations. 
He would seem to be immovable, incapable of progress, except as he is 
brought into immediate personal contact with the whites. 

However this may be, the white people of the southern section of the 
United States, as well as those of the northern, desire to give him a fair 



DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 125 

trial. In this there seems now to be very fair unanimity of sentiment. 
So far as the thing to be done is concerned, there is not much diversity 
of opinion. He is a citizen, equal before the law to any other citizen in 
all the States of this Union. The conclusion is, therefore, irresistible 
that he must be educated, intellectually, industrially, and religiously, 
not alone for his benefit, but for the protection of our government. 

But when we come to consider hoiv this is to be done, intelligent and 
good people have different plans and theories. These plans and theories 
have foundation, in the minds of those who hold them, according to the 
glasses through which the negro is seen. One man sees in him capa- 
bilities equal to those of the white man, and he fits his plans and theo- 
ries of education to his estimate of the negro's natural ability. Another 
man sees the negro as an inferior being, and he fits his plans and 
theories to his belief. Still another man sees him as an untried and 
unknown factor in civilization, now far behind in intelligence, morality, 
and religion, and so his ideas as to how to educate him take shape. 

It is exceedingly interesting to watch these ever changing and devel- 
oping views about the negro himself, and the consequent ever changing 
and developing plans and theories as to what is the best way to deal 
with him and educate him, both for his own benefit and for the benefit 
of the white people. Indeed, the whole matter would be amusing if we 
could forget the exceeding importance of the problem. 

One man says. The race line is providential, and therefore it ought 
to be perpetuated. Another replies that the race line has already been 
broken down, and he goes on to argue that all laws that favor the sep- 
aration of the races in schools, and all laws that forbid intermarriage 
between the races, ought to be repealed. He says that no harm would 
come to the body politic by allowing intermarriage, because there would 
be very little of it anyhow. Thus one of the reasons urged why inter- 
marriage should not be forbidden, serves to show that legitimate social 
instincts have been given to the races by their Creator, which will per- 
petuate the race line in spite of law. Still another man says. This race 
question can never be settled until by intermarriage between the races 
the white race is made to absorb the colored race; and he advocates 
mixed schools and mixed churches, because h» thinks this policy will 
lead to mixed marriages. I repeat that these different views would be 
amusing, if it were not for the momentous consequences involved in 
the adoption of a correct policy — such a policy as will be right in the 
highest sense of that word, and as will be for the best interests of both 
races. 

Whether or not the negro is naturally equal or inferior to the whites 
is disputed, but his equality or inferiority need not now enter into the 
discussion as to how he should be educated. In a practical point of 
view, there is common ground enough to stand upon. The ground upon 
which this discussion should proceed is his real status now. We should 
recognize his intellectual and moral condition as it u, and not too eagerly 



126 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1886. 

inquire what it will be after some generations of training shall have 
been given him. The future will take care of itself if we faithfully take 
care of the present. 

Let us now inquire what his real status is. I do not think that any 
man who has not lived in the South for many years and observed the 
negro in his country home, as well as in the cities and towns, will be 
likely fully to understand his real condition, intellectual, moral, and 
religious. He may read all the literature touching upon it; he may 
travel through the South, and even sojourn for years in the South, and 
not comprehend it. Far the greater jjart of the negroes live in the 
country, on the plantations, and a traveler would be apt to form his 
opinions by what he saw in the cities and towns, where the most intel- 
ligent of the negroes congregate, and where their eduQational and relig- 
ious oi>portunities are better than in the country. One who sees the 
negro in the cities and towns only will fail fully to comprehend his con- 
dition, even if he is free from any preconceived opinions about it. 

Consider the case as it is. A race of the most barbarous people on 
the face of the earth, and perhaps the most ignorant, brought to the 
United States but a few generations ago at most ; sunk into the lowest 
depths of heathenism ; bound in all their worship by the most abject 
fear and degrading superstition ; subjected to slavery without any effort, 
worth the name, to cultivate their intellects; suddenly released from 
their bondage in the condition of j)aupers; suddenl}-^ made citizens 
equal before the law to their old masters, who had been civilizing and 
developing for a thousand years; taught for twenty years in the bad 
school of politics; embittered against their former owners and for a 
time virtually ruling them; with only a few years of limited education 
by the impoverished South — with this history and this treatment, what 
in the very nature of the case must be their condition and disposition 
now, even if we assume their natural equality with the whites? Let 
any intelligent man free himself from any preconceived notions and 
answer as his reason dictates. 

We could but expect them to be ignorant still; averse to labor, and 
so still living in poverty; ruled largely by superstition and fear in their 
worship; without providence for the future, spending their earnings, 
day by day as they receive them, if not for the necessities of life, for 
its pleasures and frivolities ; inclined to immorality; the present gener- 
ation, in large part, growing up in idleness and worthlessness, because 
of their surroundings and home life. - 

These surroundings and home life are, as a ruLe, of the most unfavor- 
able kind. In the country, as well as in the cities and towns, in many 
cases whole families — fathers and mothers, brothers and sisters — live 
in small houses, often containing but one room, the parents exercising 
no restraint, or an impatient and passionate restraint, over their chil- 
dren, and the children having no elevating companionship. Of course 
there are exceptions, but I am not now noting the exceptions. With 



DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 127 

such surroundings in the formative, ftimily life of the colored children, 
before they reach the school age, and with such companionship, they have 
a most unfavorable start for the formation of character. Add to these 
home influences the physical inheritances transmitted to them — inheri- 
tances that are apparent to the sight, and add to these still the inheri- 
tances of mind and soul which are invisible to mortal sight, but which 
are no less real than the physical, and we can have some appreciation 
of the real condition of these children. 

I have drawn the general picture. I am glad that I can note many 
exceptions. As we visit the hotels and barber shops, we find almost 
all the service performed by well-behaved, intelligent, and decent col- 
ored persons, whose very service has brought the elevating contact with 
the white people, just as it does in the northern States. Then, too, we 
have in the South a large number of old negroes, iudustrious and well 
behaved — good men and women. The schools Lave elevated quite a 
goodly number into respectable teachers and preachers, and some have 
advanced in other walks of life. But all of these compose but compara- 
tively a small proportion of the great mass. 

In this connection it should be noted, too, that in those sections of 
the South where the farms were small before the slaves were freed, 
and where the whites labored with the slaves, the negroes are far more 
advanced in intelligence, good manners, and good morals, than are 
those who lived on the large cotton, rice, and sugar plantations. The 
difi'erence is marked both as to the older negroes and their children. 
But I cannot now examine the different sections of the South in detail. 
I have time to draw only a general picture of what the negro's' condi- 
tion is in the South, and I desire to draw it strictly in the light of facts; 
and in making this list of exceptions, I am willing to leave a number 
of blank pages to be filled by any person to suit his section ; and still 
the general picture, as I have drawn it, will be found substantially true. 
I am willing to concede that the negroes, as a whole, are improving 
slowly intellectually, and yet I want to impress the fact that the great 
mass of them are at the bottom round of the ladder of civilization, and 
that there are hereditary tendencies which any proper system of educa- 
tion must take into consideration. 

One of the great mistakes many northern teachers made when they 
came South and took charge of colored schools was not to take note of 
these hereditary tendencies, both physical and mental ; and the result 
was that the moral development of their pupils did not keep pace with 
their intellectual development. Some of these northern teachers, who 
have had charge of colored schools for j'ears, now understand the real 
status of the negro children as to intelligence and character, and they 
hesitate about training their own children in association with them in the 
school- room. 

These teachers had seen the negro in the North only, where the 
brightest of them had found their homes before the War ; where they 
6742— No. 2 4 



128 CIRCULA.RS OP INFORMATION FOR 1886. 

did not number one in fifty of the population ; wiiere, from the very fact 
.of there being comparatively so few of them, contact with the whites 
was a necessity in the daily labor of the negroes, because, wherever they 
turned to find employment, they rubbed against the whites ; where they 
had the very best opportunities that any people so low down in the 
scale of civilization ever had in the whole history of the world; where, 
on account of the comparative smallness of their numbers, they had 
no appreciable effect upon the multitude of superior white people; 
where the one negro child, elevated by constant contact in every-day 
life with white people, had been educated with a multitude of white 
children without any appreciable deleterious effect upon them. These 
teachers, with ideas about the negro formed by what they saw of him 
under such circumstances, came south and expected to deal with him 
in the same way that they had dealt with him north. After years of 
labor, many of them, I think, are discouraged with the slow progress 
their jiupils have made, especially in the development of character. 

Aristotle wisely said, twenty-two hundred years ago, that the same ed- 
ucation would not produce the same virtues in different i^ersons, for the 
formation of character in each person is dependent upon three things — 
nature, habit, and instruction. This was true as applied then to the 
progressive Greeks, and it is true as applied to all people. Shall we 
not recognize it now as applied to the negroes *? Shall we attempt to 
educate the negroes of the South in the same school- room with the 
whites'? Shall we ignore the fact that the nature and hab its of the col- 
ored children are widely different from the nature and habits of the 
white children ? Shall a false philanthropy cause us to attempt to do 
an unnatural and an impossible thing? 

Many things have been done since the War that have been damaging 
to the educational and religious interests of the negro. The passions 
of the hour ran so high that we went to work to advance him to a posi- 
tion far beyond what he was prepared for. He was given the ballot, 
of which he was not worthy. He was taught that to be free he must 
leave his old master's premises, if only to remove to an adjoining plan- 
tation; that he must leave his old master's church and organize a 
church of his own; that education was a jjanacea for all the ills of life ; 
that he must have teachers and preachers of his own color; that the 
southern people would, if they could, i3ut him back into slavery. 

The color line was drawn in this way, and to a large extent it is kept 
up yet. Because of jirejudices growing out of their bondage, and be- 
cause the southern people resisted giving them the ballot at the time 
it was done and in the way it was done, it was easy to align the negroes 
against the whites in politics, and to separate them from the whites 
in every other way. This separation lessened their contact with the 
whites, and set them back in a religious point of view, because of the 
dense ignorance of those who assumed the office of preachers. In this 
respect they yet suffer great loss, for in very many cases their preachers 



DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 129 

are still deaselj^ igiioraut, aud the preaching is unmeauing words — mere 
sound and fury. 

But the prejudices between the two races, which were perhaps stronger 
on the part of the negroes against the whites than on the part of the 
whites against the negroes, are breaking down ; and I do not think it 
will be long until a much better state of feeling will exist between 
them. What I desire specially to say in this connection is, that the 
American people have been pursuing a wrong policy with the negro, in 
that they have placed him in an unnatural state of advancement, and 
have spoiled him. 

The negro's burden as a slave was forced labor ; to him, freedom and 
the ballot and education meant exemption from manual labor, especially 
with such teaching aud treatment as I have alluded to. With all this 
history as slaves and as freemen and citizens, and with their ignorance, 
it could but be expected that many of the negroes would become more 
and more worthless as laborers, and that their children would be trained 
to avoid labor as the curse of curses, and so be more worthless than 
their pareuts. The negro's liead, so to speak, has been turned by the 
very novelty of his new condition. 

In proportion, however, as they have been properly educated and 
have been led to see their condition as it is, and have learned that their 
freedom is secure, and that the white people of the South mean to as- 
sist them to such degree of elevation as they may prove worthy of, they 
become more contented. The state of feeling towards the whites is 
continually growing better. So, too, the white i^eople are more and 
more adapting themselves to the situation. More and more there is 
a settled conviction that not only are the negroes citizens, and here 
to stay, but that they are best adapted to the development of, at least 
the agricultural possibilities -of the South. With a judicious system of 
education, and with just such treatment as they may merit from time 
to time, they will improve and make valuable citizens. Just now it is 
of the utmost importance that a determined effort shall be made to 
properly train the negro children in schools and Sunday schools, and to 
improve the home life of the colored people, and to inspire them with a 
higher idea of the Christian religion. Not only is this of the utmost 
importance, but it is a work of the utmost difficulty, and one in which 
the white people must guide. 

In my judgment we must not only have separate schools for the 
colored people, but also have separate churches ; and these schools and 
churches must be taught and ministered to by colored teachers and 
preachers, so far as colored people will ])repare themselves to fill these 
offices. This is so because both races, as a whole, want it so, and be- 
cause the relative condition of the races makes it a necessity. Any at- 
tempt at a general system of mixed schools and mixed churches would 
be a signal failure. 



130 CIKCffLARS OF INFOEMATION FOR 1886. 

I knojv that some philanthropists claim that no aid should be given 
to schools or churches in the South except upon the condition of open- 
ing their doors to both races. They have a theory that must not be de- 
parted from. Judging them by their words and acts, they believe it to 
be wrong, a sin, to open a school for the colored peoiDle and at the same 
time not allow the white people to patronize it; also that it is wrong 
to open a school for the white people and not allow the colored people 
to attend it. Likewise they hold the same belief in reference to 
churches. They believe in the promiscuous mixing of the races in the 
churches, and in many cases this course is urgently advised. 

The result of this teaching has been a continual clashing of the races, 
and it has threatened to break down the public schools of the South. 

In some sections of the South strong efforts have been made to es- 
tablish mixed congregations for public worship, and the colored people 
have been invited and even urged to join the white congregations, but 
they almost invariably refuse to do it as long as there is a colored con- 
gregation in the neighborhood. I see it stated that quite recently the 
Florida Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church North divided 
on the color line, forming two conferences in the same territory, one 
white and one colored. In making this division it was argued that this 
step had become a necessity for the progress of this church in the 
South. Thus slowly is the truth dawning upon men's minds that these 
races are so different in nature and habits that they are not now suited 
for such associations. 

The colored people really prefer to have their schools and churches 
separate from those of the whites, and the whites demand that their 
schools and churches shall be separate from those of the colored people. 

This disposition of the races to separate from each other is explained 
by those who advocate mixed schools and mixed churches by saying 
that at the bottom of the whole matter is race prejudice. Those who 
advocate separation say that this disposition rests upon legitimate so- 
cial instincts, and not upon race prejudice. Whatever is the true, ex- 
planation, the fact is hardly disputed by any intelligent person, and as 
a fact it must govern our policy. 

The most intelligent of the colored people know that the policy of 
mixed schools would inevitably break down the whole public school 
system of the South, and so deprive them of the educational opportu- 
nities which they now have at public expeuse. They know, too, that a 
policy of mixed schools means that white teachers, and not colored ones,- 
would be employed, if such a policy could be adopted without breaking 
down the schools entirely. They know, too, that mixed churches mean 
white ministers and not colored ones. 

If the colored i^eople are to make progress they must, as far as prac- 
ticable, be thrown upon their own efforts, educationally and religiously, 
as well as in a material point of view. In these particulars the same 
rule applies as in the whole animal and vegetable economy — effort and 



DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 131 

exercise. The colored people can never be made to stand alone unless 
they are encouraged to depend upon their own efforts and resources. 
Mixed schools and mixed churches inevitably take away the occupa- 
tion of colored teachers and colored preachers, and continue the colored 
people's dependence upon the whites. There may be mixed schools and 
mixed congregations presided over by colored teachers and colored 
preachers, but, if so, I do not know where they are. 

I do not mean to say that the colored people are far enough advanced 
educationally, morally, or religiously, to stand alone, and to make fur- 
ther progress in these particulars without the assistance and guidance 
of the whites. Indeed, I am free to say that I do not believe they are. 
I think it is evident now that if all assistance by the whites and all 
contact with them were withdrawn, the colored people, in the aggregate, 
would go backward instead of forward. 

One thing, however, is very much to the negro's advantage : his fac- 
ulty of imitation is very strongly developed. He seems naturally to 
imitate his white neighbors and to follow their guidance, especially when 
he is not controlled by prejudice. Therefore everything but principle 
should be conceded by the whites in order to breakdown all prejudice. 
That done, the whites will have access to the colored people and will be 
able to guide them. Then good examples will be imitated and good in- 
struction will be heeded; then will the whites be able more successfully 
to teach colored teachers and colored preachers, and to gather colored 
children into Sunday-schools and instruct them in the principles of 
morality and the Christian religion. 

But the colored people must be encouraged in every practicable way 
to help themselves. Just as a child, when being taught to walk, does 
not learn to walk, no matter how much its mother may help it, until it 
puts forth its own i^owers and tries to help itself; just so must the col- 
ored people, weak as they are, be led by the whites, but in such way as 
to cause them to try — cause them to call into exercise all their powers. 
In accordance with this principle, I think it best for them to have teach- 
ers and preachers of their own color so long as they may want them. 

By pursuing this course the two races can, I believe, live in the South 
together in peace, each helping the other; and there will be some field 
of intellectual work open to the negro. In this country, where there 
are seven whites to one negro, with such a wide difference between 
them in every way, it is not reasonable to suppose that there can ever 
be any considerable field for intellectual work for the negro unless he 
finds it among his own people. Without some opportunity to exercise 
his intellectual faculties he will soon be discouraged, and lose his appe- 
tite for education, and become a mere serf or peon. Already there are 
signs of discouragement. As the negroes realize that labor is a neces- 
sity, and that education does not free them from it, they relax their 
efforts and are not so anxious to send their children to school ; and under 
any system that it will be practicable to adopt, wo will see more and more 



132 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1886. 

of this as time rolls along. They, however, have a commendable race 
pride. They have always been dependent upon the whites, and the 
whites have always claimed that this dependence was natural and nec- 
essary for the welfare of both races, and have always claimed superi- 
ority, lu more ways than one, since the War, the negroes have been 
taught that they are not naturally inferior to the whites, and that all 
they lack of being equal to the whites is education and a proper sense 
of self-dependence, or rather independence. Even if this is not so, their 
believing it stimulates their race pride and makes them struggle harder 
to advance. This is very much to their advantage upon the principle, 
universally acknowledged, that a faithful trial is half the battle, in every 
enterprise and with all people. I think, therefore, that so long as the 
negroes prefer teachers and preachers of their own race, they ought to 
be encouraged in their preference, provided colored persons will qualify 
themselves for the work ; but there must be a rigid superintendence of 
all school work by the whites. 

From another standpoint I insist that this is the correct i)olicy. The 
negro's prejudice against the whites of the South has been intense for 
two reasons: (1) because he was held in the bondage of slavery, and 
(2) because in the days of reconstruction the whites resisted his being 
allowed to vote. These prejudices will sooner be broken down by al- 
lowing freedom of action in all particulars where no wrong principle is 
involved. To accomplish this end, it is better to allow them reasonably 
competent teachers of their own race, even if, for the time being, better 
qualified white teachers could be employed to serve them. After per- 
fectly friendly relations are established, and after the negroes see that 
it may be better for them to have white teachers, they will seek them — 
then plenty will be found to serve them. 

I have said that there are signs of discouragement among the negroes, 
because freedom, the ballot, and education have not brought the bene- 
ficial results which they so confidently expected. So, too, many of the 
white people are also discouraged. Out of their poverty, the southern 
States are spending for the education of the negroes perhaps as much 
as five million dollars per annum, without satisfactory results. In this 
work both the southern negroes and the southern whites deserve the 
encouragement of Congressional aid. But that question I do not pro- 
pose to argue at length; it seems to me to be a self-evident proposition. 
It will encourage the negroes as well as the whites, and it should be 
given in such way as to allow a part to be used for building and fur- 
nishing school-houses. Comfortable and well-furnished houses are ne- 
cessities, and of such the South is very sadly in need. The aid now 
proposed by Congress is confessedly mainly for the South, and I can 
see no good reason why it should be limited to the payment of teachers' 
salaries. It should, by all means, be put into the school treasuries of 
the States, and be used in common with State funds for all school pur- 
poses. If Congress will consent to encourage the school workers of the 



DEPARTMENT OF SUPERINTENDENCE. 1^3 

South by extendiug- this aid, let it be done iu such ii way as uot to 
hamper them. 

If it were uot for the negroes, the southern States woukl uot need 
this aid and would not ask it, and if it were not for the negroes no 
member of Congress wonld propose it. It is due to the South in com- 
mon fairness, and the people of the South have shown that they are in 
earnest iu educating the negroes aud are worthy of it. I honor north- 
ern meu who favor it, aud I am surprised at southern men who oppose 
it. I honor northern men more who favor it without hami^eiiug re- 
strictions, and I am the more surprised at southern men who oppose it 
when it is proposed that the funds shall be managed by State authori- 
ties. 

So far as the question of civil rights as distinguished from social 
privileges is concerned, that is fast working itself out, and the less 
force ajiplied to it the better. 

It is no unusual thing now in the South to find negroes riding in first- 
class cars with the whites. I have seen negroes in the political con- 
ventions of both political parties; I have seen them serving with the 
whites as jurymen in the trial of important causes. Recently, in a city 
of the South, at the dedication of a public school building, I saw white 
and colored aldermen seated on the same rostrum during the ceremo- 
nies. In all such intercourse proper conduct aud qualifications can be 
made requisites. Indeed, in all social aud semi-social intercourse the 
correct policy is to apply as little force as possible, and let people's 
likes and dislikes and the free spirit of our republican institutions con- 
trol. 

The white people of the South insist rigidly upon but two things as 
to intercourse between the races: (I) That there shall be separate 
public schools for both races, and (2) that there shall be no inter-mar- 
riages between the races. The negroes, or rather the too sanguine 
friends of the negroes, who do noi, know them, will act wisely if they 
will make no contest on these two points. These are matters of public 
policy which the States have a right to control, and about which there 
is almost unanimity of sentiment. 

In this paper I have spoken of education iu a general way onlj^, using 
the term iu its broadest signification. While education iu books, espe- 
cially in the fundamental branches of English, is, perhaps, of prime 
imjiortance, industrial education is of scarcely less importance, aud it 
is pressing for proper recognition in our systems. How and to what 
extent it can be applied for the benefit of the negroes I cannot now dis- 
cuss, more than to say that it is most highly probable that an unusually 
large proportion of them will always find their places on the farms, and 
that therefore special efforts ought to be made to teach them the most 
imprdVed methods of farming. Farm life is itself a very fine industrial 
school, aud as the general farming interests of the South are improved 
the negroes will share largely in the benefits. 



134 



CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1886. 



SIXTH SESSION. 

Friday Morning, February 26, 1886. 

President Easton called the meeting to ord^ at All Souls' Church 
at 10 A. M. Prayer was offered by Prof. J. A/B. Lovett, of Alabama. 

Hon. Warren Higlby, President of the American Forestry Congress, 
read the following i)apeir: 

FORESTRY IN EDtrCATION. 

In appearing before yoii to discuss the subject of " Forestry in Edu- 
cation," and to -advocate the introduction of its study into our Ameri- 
can schools, I am not unmiadful of me fact that the number and variety 
of subjects now taught in the public schools are quite alarming to those 
whose school experience was rounded by the "three R's"j nor do I 
forget that the spirit pervadilng the philosophy of our modern education 
prompts to the suitable introduction of all those branches of knowledge 
that are deemed essential tolche highest usefulness of the citizen. I 
therefore trust that the importance of this subject may soon be so recog- 
nized as to be given a suitable place in the curriculum of public school 
instruction. 

It is a trite saying, but lio le^s a true one, that our public schools form 
the bulwark of our national strength 5 and "Education, the guardian of 
liberty" is a motto whose exalting truth we delight to recognize. But 
how the public schools /shall couiiuue to be the bulwark of our Ameri- 
can institutions, and what education shall be the sure guardian of lib- 
erty, are the grave qoiestions submitted to you for consideration and 
answer. 

It is evident thayt the educatioln of our American youth should be 
directed with reference to their future sovereign citizenship ; that while 
they are trained into an accurate knowledge of the fundamental branches 
upon which science, literature, an 1 philosophy rest, they shall also be 
led to observe tMe working of Nature's laws in her various manifesta- 



tions, and the effects produced by 
Something 01 history and of the 
to be added t(ythe "three R's" by 
exercise of tl/e right of franchise ; 



man's violation of them, 
science of government are necessary 
way of i)reparation for the intelligent 
and instruction in those departments 
of American' economics that most/ nearly touch the j)roductive energies 
of the peop/e and affect most seriously the results of their labors should 
by no means be omitted in the common school curriculum. 

It is not so much the mere knowledge that is gained in the brief period 
of school/life that educates, as the inspiration there given to know more, 
and the/avenues there opened and the means pointed out by which that 
higher /and larger knowledge can be gained through individualj persist- 
ent effort. *► 






CHAPTER VI. 

FREE SCHOOLS AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 

Altbough South Carolina was settled in tlie last quarter of the sev- 
enteenth century, there was no s^^stematic eifort of the people as a 
whole toward providing popular education until 1811. But it is not 
to be inferred from this that there were no educational advantages at 
all. Most of the people were able to educate their own children with- 
out aid, but the middle class needed assistance, although it was not 
large enough to warrant the maintenance of schools throughout the 
country for its especial benefit. The country was sparsely settled, as 
there had been from the earliest foundation of the colony a tendency to- 
ward the formation of large iilantations. Owing to this condition of 
affairs the hand of charity was stretched forth to aid the poor white 
people at an early period. 

EARLY FREE SCHOOLS.^ 

The first free school successfully established in South Carolina was 
founded in Charleston in 1710. Previous to that time the people of the 
State had conceived the idea of establishing free schools, but it was not 
until 1710 that legislative action was taken in that direction. In 1712 
another act was passed, incorporating certain persons under the desig- 
nation of commissioners, for founding, erecting, governing, and visiting 
a free school for the use of the inhabitants of South Carolina, with full 
authority to receive all gifts and legacies formerly given to the use of 
the free school, and to purchase as much land as might be deemed nec- 
essary for the use of the school, and to erect thereon suitable buildings. 
The gentlemen named in this act constituted the first Board of Free 
School Commissioners in the State. 

There was a feeling in favor of popular education with many of 
the leaders. Sir Francis Nicholson, the first Royal Governor, was a 
great friend of learning, and did very much to encourage it, and men 
of wealth bequeathed large sums for establishing free schools. The 
Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts was active in 
founding schools and supplying books. It started a school at Goose 
Creek in 1710, and another at Dorchester in 1724, in response to a peti- 
tion for aid. But as indicating the spirit of the people, it is important 

' For a more detailed acconut of some of these scliools, see Appendix III. 



110 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAEOLINA. 

to notice the act of February, 1722. By this it was provided that jus- 
tices of the couuty courts be authorized to erect a free school in each 
county and x)reciuct, to be supported by assessments on land and ne- 
groes. Such schools were bound to teach ten poor children free, if sent 
by the justices. 

The private donations, also, were liberal for a small colony. Eichard 
Beresford, in 1721, bequeathed six thousand live hundred pounds for the 
education of the poor; in 1732 Eichard Harris bequeathed one thousand 
pounds for the same object; and in 1728 Kev. Eichard Ludlam gave 
his whole estate of two thousand pounds, which with other bequests 
amounted to over fifteen thousand pounds by 1778. "For nearly a 
century four schools were maintained with the proceeds of this latter 
bounty," and they were flourishing up to the War, when the fund was 
finally swept away. There were other funds, but it is needless to refer 
to them, as these are sufhcient to show the state of feeling. There were 
a number of societies organized at intervals down to 1811 that were of 
great assistance in this work.^ In 1798 another attempt seems to have 
been made by the Government, in the appointment of trustees to ex- 
amine free schools in Orangeburg, but with no definite results. 

GENERAL FRANCIS MARION ON POPULAR EDUCATION. 

That there were prominent men who keenly felt the need of popular 
education by the Government is seen in a conversation that General 
Francis Marion, the "Swamp Fox," held with his biographer in 1795. 
The emphatic reference to the Legislature shows that some attempt 
had been made in that body to establish free schools. " God preserve 
our Legislature from such penny wit and pound foolishness. What ! 
Keep a nation in ignorance rather than vote a little of their own money 
for education I * * * Wefoughtfor self-government; and God hath 
pleased to give us one better calculated, perhaps, to protect our rights 
and foster our virtues and call forth our energies and advance our con- 
dition nearer to perfection and happiness, than any government that 
ever was framed under the sun. But what signifies this government, 
divine as it is, if it be not known and prized as it deserves ? This is best 
done by free schools. 

"Men will always fight for their government according to their sense 
of its value. To value it aright they must understand it. This they 
cannot do without education. And, as a large portion of the citizens 
are poor, and can never attain that inestimable blessing without the 
aid of government, it is plainly the duty of government to bestow it 
freely upon them. The more perfect the government, the greater the 
duty to make it well known. Selfish and oppressive governments must 
' hate the light and fear to come to it, because their deeds are evil.' 
But a fair and cheap government, like our republic, ' longs for the light 

1 See Davis's sketch in Haud-Book. 



FREE SCHOOLS. Ill 

and rejoices to come to the light, that it may be manifested to come 
from God,' and well worthy of the vigilance and valor that an enlight- 
ened nation can rally for its defence. A good gov^ernment can hardly 
ever be half anxions enough to give its citizens a thorough knowledge 
of its own excellences. For, as some of the most valuable truths, for 
lack of promulgation, have been lost, so the best government on earth, 
if not widely known and prized, may be subverted." 

There are other evidences that there was a strong interest felt in tbe 
matter even among the great rank and file of the people. Although 
the daily papers of that time contained very little matter of any sort, 
and even less of a local nature, yet there is a complaint in the Charleston 
Courier of October 15, 1803, from a i)rivate correspondent, concerning 
the indifference to education shown by the editor of the paper. "We 
see great incomes made and great incomes wasted, great grandeur in 
equipage and household circumstances; * * * but we do not see 
the country studded up and down with those precious jewels of a state, 
Free Schools.''^ He regretted that everything hinged on politics; even 
the discussion on the yellow fever had taken a diplomatic turn, and we 
might expect to see the whole matter settled by a ruling of the State 
Department. Mr. Barnwell, a member of the Legislature, followed this 
in the next meeting of the Legislature with the introduction of a bill " for 
establishing public schools in the several districts of the State."^ 

FREE SCHOOL ACT OF 1811. 

Matters continued thus until the act of 1811,^ when the people took 
hold of the question. This act was recommended by Governor Henry 
Middleton in his message of November 26, 1811. On the following day 
Senator Strother presented petitions for free schools from citizens of 
Fairfield, Chester, Williamsburg, Darlington, Edgefield, Barnwell, York, 
Saint Stephen, Saint James, Santee, Saint John's, Colleton, and Saint 
Peter's. Hon. Stephen Elliott, of Charleston, was chairman of the 
joint committee, and to him belongs most of the honor of the measure. 
The bill drawn by him i^assed the Senate without a roUcall, and was 
adopted in the House by a vote of seventy-two to fifteen. "The act 
established in each district and parish free schools equal in number to 
the representatives in the Lower House. Elementary instruction was 
to be imparted to all pupils free of charge, preference being given to poor 
ori^hans and the children of indigent parents. Three hundred dollars 
per annum were voted to each school. Commissioners varying in num- 
ber from three to eleven in each district and parish, serving without pay 
and without penalty, were intrusted with their management. Until a 
sufficient number of schools should be established, the commissioners 
were permitted to move the schools annually, but no school should be 
established until the neighborhood had built a school-house. The funds 

1 Charleston Courier, December 26, 1803. ^ statutes, Vol. V, p. 639. 



112 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAEOLINA. 

of the free school might be united with the funds of the public schools. 
The aggregate appropriation was about $37,000 a year." 

Two years after, in 1813, an attempt was made by a large minority 
to repeal the act, but it was saved through the efforts of one of Charles- 
ton's lieijresentatives. The people of Charleston, as a whole, have al. 
ways shown great willingness to uphold the State institutions. Wil- 
liam Crafts, Jr., made a ringing speech in support of the act, and in reply 
to the charge that the population was too sparse in some places to de- 
rive any benefit from it, said : " This evil time will of itself remove, and 
what kind of inference is that which would abolish a general good to get 
rid of a partial eviH"^ It was a fitting monument in after years to 
name one of the public school-houses of Charleston in honor of this 
gentleman. 

The number of schools established the first year was one hundred 
and twenty-three. In 1821 a pamphlet was issued at Columbia contain- 
ing an attack on the system.^ 

Up to 1821, $302,490 had been expended by the State, of which at 
least one hundred thousand dollars had never been accounted for by 
the commissioners. In fact, the reports were so few that there were 
no checks at all on the system. It was probable that the commissioners 
and teachers had an understanding in the expenditure. Careless, ineffi- 
cient teachers were employed, and it was said that " in some of the lower 
districts they have actually converted the schools into gymnastic acad- 
emies, where, instead of studying philosophy in the woods and groves, 
as the Druids did of /)ld, they take delight in the more athletic exercise 
of deer and rabbit hunting ; and that it is a fine sight to see the long, 
lean, serpentine master * * * at his stand, * * * while the 
younger peripatetics are scouring the woods and hallooing up the game." 

But the matter of free schools still attracted attention ; legislative re- 
ports were almost annually made on the subject, and public men were 
deeply interested in the question. Nearly every Governor referred to 
it during his term in at least one of his messages. 

NEED OF A SUPERINTENDENT. 

George McDuffie used the following language in his message of 1835 : 
•' In no country is the necessity of popular education so often proclaimed, 
and in none are the schools of elementary instruction more dej)lorably 
neglected. They are entirely without organization, superintendence, or 
inspection of any kind, general or local, public or private." Governor 
after Governor sent in a stirring message urging an improvement of the 
system. 

It is somewhat singular that nearly all the suggestions referred to the 
need of a central supervising head, corresponding to the present State 
Superintendent. Even as far back as 1822, Governor Thomas Bennett 

' From Mayor Courtenay's Education in Charleston. 

'^Review of pamphlet in North American Review, Vol. XIV, pp. 310-19. 



FREE SCHOOLS. 113 

rt'coumieiidud the iippointment of a "com miss iouer of the school fund," 
and believed that this would realize the anticipated beueQts of the 
"immense sums annually appropriated." In 1838 a committee con- 
sisting of Eev. Stephen Elliott and James H. Thorn well was instructed 
to report to the Legislature after having conferred with the various 
commissioners. They incorporated in their report communications 
irom the commissioners, the whole making a very interesting paper. 
A large part of it consists of the paper bj' Hon. Edmund Bellinger, 
of Darnwell, a graduate of South Carolina College in 1826, containing 
a great deal of information, historical, statistical, and otherwise. In the 
report of Messrs. Elliott and Thornwell, and in many of the communi- 
cations from the commissioners, the need of a State Superintendent is 
strongly emphasized, and this is one of the suggestions formally made 
to the Legislature by the committee. The act itself, as pointed out by 
Ivr. F. W. Alston in 184C, seemed to contemplate the appointment of 
such officer in the twelfth section, in providing for reports from the 
commissioners to "such person as the Legislature may direct." Uenry 
Summer, in a report to the Legislature in 1847, added another to tlie 
list of those favoring this suggestion. The report of the conmiittee of 
the House of Representatives, to whom was referred the Governor's 
message on the subject of free schools, concurred in this view. Finally 
Governor Manning, in 1853, rose to the highest conception of the whole 
question, and recommended the establishment of this central ofitice, de- 
claring that the system "should not be an eleemosynary proffer, * * * 
but rather a fountain flowing for all, at which they may freely par- 
take." 

But a great obstacle to the appointment of such officer came from the 
"combination schools." The act allowed the commissioners to erect 
free schools entirely, or unite with schools already established. The 
teachers of such schools did not wish to have any authority over them. 
Yet in many such schools there was some good. The teacher acted 
ahnost as the agent of a compulsory system. It was to his advantage 
to have as many pupils as possible, and he practically forced the 
children into the school. 

In spite of all the numerous suggestions, however, nothing of im- 
l»ortauce was done. In 1835 Judge Frost introduced an amendatory 
act, providing i)enalties for nonperformance of duty \j^' the commis- 
sioners, but no one was designated to enforce the law. 

REPORT OF 1839. 

Others also urged the appointment of a supervising officer; among 
these were Thornwell and Elliott, who strongly recommended it in 
the report of 1839. The committee of the Legislature reported at this 
time that although deep interest had always been manifesti'd by the 
Legislature, yet there seemed to be a general oj)iniou all over the State 
lllOG— No. 3 8 



114 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 

that the system was a failure. Messrs. Thornwell and Elliott rejected 
the Prussian system on account of the sparseness of the population, 
and the New York system on account of its cost, and also the "manual 
labor system," since such schools had proved "egregious failures in 
almost every instance.-' They recommended the establishment of a 
" teachers' seminary," and the increase of the appropriation to fifty 
thousand dollars. They also showed how the original act was de- 
fective in apportioning the money according to representation in the 
Legislature, which was based on taxation and population. As a con- 
sequence, the richer a district the more schools it had, and the poorer 
the fewer it had. 

But Edmund Bellinger's communication was the fullest. It brought 
out most clearly the defects of the system. Regular returns had been 
made in five years only, and in 1817 thirty-one of the whole forty-five 
failed to report. The amount spent bore no proportion to the scholars 
educated. In 1813 one dollar per scholar had been expended, but in 
1819 about sixteen dollars per scholar. There was no regularity in the 
appropriation for a district. Barnwell County received one thousand 
one hundred and fifty-three dollars in 1825, and only seven hundred and 
twelve in 1826. Edgefield in 1818 received eleven dollars per scholar, 
but Laurens not quite two. The average attendance for the twenty- 
seven years was 6,018, while the average expenditure had been thirty- 
five thousand dollars. No wonder that one of the commissioners re- 
ported that " there is nothing systematic in the whole scheme but the 
annual appropriation for its support." Even in this year of special re- 
ports only one-half of them had made returns. Out of the twenty-two 
whose reports are preserved, it is interesting to note that thirteen fa- 
vored the extension of the system to all children, and of the remaining 
iiiiiB only two or three were emijhatic in restricting its operation to the 
poor children. As illustrating the feeling in the State, nearly all favored 
the study of the Bible, or other religious instruction, in the public 
schools. One was far in advance of the present even, in recommend- 
ing the study of the form of government of the State and the United 
States. These were suggestions that have not been acted on to this 
day. One believed in the efficacy of "manual labor" schools as a so- 
lution of the public school problem. It is interesting to note that an 
attempt is now being made in the State to establish an agricultural 
school. All lamented the ignorance and inefficiency of the average 
teacher, and some strongly favored the establishment of a State nor- 
mal school ; this has not yet been done, as a separate department. 

But the result of it all was " splendid nothings," as Mr. Henry Sum- 
mer said in his report to the Legislature in 1847. So little had been 
done up to that time that this gentleman could incorporate in his report : 
" It was declared on the floor of this hall during the last session of this 
body that the free school system was a failure; and no one contradicted 
it; it seemed to be conceded by all," 



FKEi: SCHOOLS. 



115 



IJ. F. W. Alston liiul uiadc a r(?port to the Agiicultunil Society in 
184.G. Afteiwiiiil, wlieii be was Governor, he einpliasizod tlie iuipor- 
tuiice oT local taxation to supplement ILe State appropriation, eveii op- 
jiosiiii4' a larger appropriation unless the right of local taxation for sup- 
port ol" the schools was introduced. At last, in 1852, a forward stej) 
was taken in tin; increase of the appropriation to seventy-four thousand 
four hundred dollars, just double what it had been for forty years. This 
was only accomplished after a hard struggle, and a close vote in the 
Legislature. 

LATElt STATISTICS. 

Jn order to see the growth of these schools, some statistics of attend- 
ance may be helpful. In 18L'S, seventeen years after theii' iirst estab- 
lishment, there were 840 schools in the State, with 9,03G pui)ils. In 
1810 there were 503 schools with 12,520 pupils. In 1850 there were 724 
free sc^hools with 17, 8.>8 pupils.' 

In 1800 there were 724 schools with 18,015 pupils, while the expeinli- 
lures were $127,530.41. It is interesting to compare these (igures with 
the ap[>roxiu)ate number of children of school age: 



Yiar. 


I'npil.s of 
School Ago. 


Number in 
Freo Schools. 


1830 .. 
1810 .. 
1850... 
1800 .. 

I><80 .. 


51, 000 

52, 000 
50, 000 
00, 000 

101,000 


8,572 
12, 52G 
17, 838 
18,015 
Gl, 2iy 



The tignres for the number of pupils of school age, except for the 
last year, are calculated at something over twenty per cent., as l^r. 
Warren, the statistician of the Bureau of Education, thought that the 
school i)opulation between six and sixteen would be about twenty-one 
per cent. The ligures are for the whites all through, in order to preserve 
the same factor of com])arison. The figures for 1880 are taken from 
the report of the State Superintendent of Education for 188G. From 
the above table one would be .justified in calling the system a failure; 
it was indeed openly (Umounced as a failure all over the State; and it 
was a failure as far as furnishing a general scheme of education for the 
ma.sses. 

ItEASONS FOli THE FAILUIIE OF THE SYSTEM. 

The favoring of paupers was probably the greatest cause of the fail- 
ure of the system. This was i)ointed out time and again by several, 
but the majority were opposed to any change. " The wealthier and 
higher classes * * * will not avail themselves of the free schools. 
* * * The poorer citizens, * * * from pride and delicacy of 
' 15. J. Eamayo. Free Schools iu South Carolina, Johus Ilopkius Studies, I, No. 12, 



116 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 

feeling, will rather keep their cliiltlreu at home altogether than, by 
sending them to the free school, attach to them, as they think and feel, 
the stigma of being poor, and of receiving an edncation as paupers." 

These words of Eev. Mr. Thrnramell, of All-Saints, in 1839, express 
the feeling of both classes toward the system, though but few of the 
prominent men or of the commissioners saw the trouble as clearly 
as this gentleman. Even Mr. Bellinger, who made so elaborate a re- 
port in this year, emphatically called for the restriction to the poorer 
classes, llev. James H. Thornwellj one of the most gifted men of the 
State, was jast as emphatic in limiting the fund to the poor, though he 
never proposed to limit the college to that class, although it was a State 
institution. This spirit was an outgrowth of the class distinction in the 
State, a perpetuation of the antagonism of the two classes. The lower 
classes had sutHcieut pride to reject the proffer. 

But there is one redeeming feature in this sketch of the system ; and 
that is the recognition by some clear-headed observers of the urgent 
need of a general system of schools for all, and not for the pauper classes 
alone. While in different parts of the State many had seen this, on]y 
the commissioners in Charleston had attempted to supply the deficiency. 

FREE SCHOOLS IN CHARLESTON. 

The commissioners in Charleston had seen the intent of the orig- 
inal act, and had set to work to carry it out. Public schools had suc- 
ceeded in Nashville and ISTew Orleans, and why not in Charleston ? 
This is what Mr. Barnard pointed out when he had prepared a commu- 
nication on public schools at the request of Governor Alston, Mr. Mc- 
Carter, and others. The schools in Charleston had followed the general 
course of the others in the State. Under the law, five houses had been 
erected and furnished by the tea^chers, on a salary of nine hundred dol- 
lars. The attendance had been, in 1812,1*00; in 1818, about 300 5 in 
1823, about 320; in 1829, about 407; in 1834, about 525. 

But the Charleston commissioners, especially C. G. Memminger, A. 
G. Magrath, and W. Jefferson Bennett, roused from their lethargy, 
and in the face of bitter prejudice revolutionized the system. They 
worked on a totally different plan. Their aim was to provide schools 
for all, and not for pauper pupils only. In 1855 they built a house on 
St. Philip's Street, at a cost of twenty-five thousand dollars, to accom- 
modate eight hundred pupils. Three years later they erected another, 
on Friend Street, at a cost of thirty thousand dollars. A kind of nor- 
mal school for teachers was formed, to meet every Saturday, under the 
direction of the superintendent of public schools. They also built a 
high school for girls at a cost of twenty-five thousand dollars, of which 
the State paid ten thousand dollars and the citizens of Charleston the 
remainder. The expenses of its maintenance were ten thousand dolhirs 
annually, of which the city paid half, and the State guaranteed the 



FRKE SCHOOLS. 117 

Other half on condition of being i)eriiiitte(l to send ninety pnnils. A 
normal department was attached to this. 

The whole s^'stem was inangnrated with appropriate ceremonies on 
July 4, 185G, when Dr. S. II. Dickson delivered an address. It was 
modelled on the " New York " plan, and tlie heads of the schools were 
brought from the North, so that teachers thoroughly acquainted with 
the system would direct the management. Miss Agnes K. Irving, an 
accomplished teacher from the Orphan Asylum on Randall's Island, was 
made principal of the Orphan Uousc School. The native southern 
teachers were forced to take subordinate pkices at reduced salaries, in 
a short time the number of children in attendance was one thousand 
ibur hundred, and there were more applications than could be granted. 
In ISGO the attendance was four thousand.' 

This was done in the face of strong opposition. " Fair Play " openly 
charged that the change had been made in order that the new board 
might get the benefit of tlie " spoils," and claimed that they had over- 
stepped their limits in setting up common schools^ when the act only 
called foryVee schools. He also called attention to the resolutions ol" 
the last session of the Legislature, which had " re-announced the fact 
that the free schools are for the i^oor." lie concluded by confidently 
venturing the prediction " that the new system, unsupported as it is by 
law, will not succeed." But it did succeed, and according to a writer 
in Barnard's Journal,^ "revolutionized public sentiment in that city, 
and was fixst doing it for the whole State when the mad passions of war 
consummated another revolution." 

GRADUAL IMPROVEMENT IN THE SYSTEM. 

A gradual but slow improvement is evident in the working of fhe 
system. When first begun, no qualifications ibr teachers were required, 
except what each board might imi)0se oC its own will. In 182S a certili- 
cate of qualihcation signed by three persons in the vicinity was required, 
and in 1839 an examination by the commissioners in person. The ap- 
propriations had commenced with thirty-seven thousand dollars annu- 
ally, but in 1852 had been increased to seventy-four thousand dollars. 
And, finally, the great success of the Charleston schools would seem to 
warrant one in believnig that the system would have extended to the 
whole State in a few years. Moreover, the reports of the years immedi- 
ately before the War show an increase in atteudancie. 

SYSTEM SINCE THE WAR. 

During the War and up to 1808, nothing of importance was done in 
the schools. In that year a new Constitution was adopted, and the/ree 
schools were superseded by the public schools. By this act of recon- 

' Davis, in TT.iikT P.nnk, p. 4G2. ^ VoL XXIV, p. HIT. 



118 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 

struction it was provided tbat a State Superintendent, elected bien 
nially, should have the general oversight of the whole system. It was 
also provided that a commissioner for each county, to be elected by 
popular vote, should hav^e oversight, under the State Superintendent, 
of the school matters of the county, while trustees under him were 
appointed for each school district. By this instrument the people ob- 
tained the central supervising officer that so many prominent men had 
wanted for half a century. 

Since the establishment of this excellent system the progress has 
been as fair as one could wish. That most efScieut superintendent, 11. 
S. Thompson, began to work in 1877 to disentangle the schools from 
the mass of debt and ignorance. He labored for six years, and gradu- 
ally built them up. On his elevation to the Governor's chair in 1882, 
Col. Asbury Coward worthily filled his place until the election of Mr. 
J. rr. Rice in 1886. The Superintendent from 1868 to 1876 was J. K. 
Jillson. From the last report of the Superintendent we may get some 
idea of the present condition of the public schools and the progress tbat 
has been made. 

The whole number of children of school age (six to sixteen), by the 
census of 1880, was 281,664; the total enrolment in the schools last 
year (1888) was 193,434. The average length of session is three and 
one half months 5 this is short, but it is as much as the taxes will sup- 
l)ort, and the tax rate is as high as the average in New England. So 
they are doing as much as the people of that section. The number of 
schools is 3,9225 teachers, 4,203. The average monthly compensation of 
teachers is, for males, $26.68 ; for females, $23.80, 

SOME OPPOSITION. 

It can not be denied that there is some opposition to the public 
schools in some retired i)laces, and it is very justly charged that with 
their three months' free tuition they have broken up the old academies, 
while not substituting anything for those excellent training institutions. 
Many openly declare for the abolishment of the public schools on this 
ground; but if they could be improved this opposition would cease. 
There is some opposition also on grounds of religion, but it is no 
stronger than in any other section. 

But a gratifying feature is the increase of the graded town schools, 
supported b^^ local taxation. A constitutional amendment of 1876 had 
imposed a levy of two mills tax for school purposes, besides the poll tax. 
But this was found insufficient for the cities, and under the authority of 
an act so framed as to throw tlie matter into the hands of the property 
holders, several cities have a very improved system of graded schools. 
Some of them, especially in Charleston and Columltia, will compare 
f;i,vorably with those of any section of the country. 

Another encouraging feature is the organization of State normal in- 
stitutes each summer, one for white teachers and one for colored teach- 



FREE SCHOOLS. 110 

ers. These liave bceu held annnally since 1880, witli oue or two excep 
tions. So the outlook on the whole is very encouraging, and hopeful for 
the future. 

PRESENT CONDITION OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM. 

Superintendent J. II. Rice, in his last report (1888), i)resents a hope- 
ful view of the future of the public school system. His cheering words 
give every assurance tliat op[)Osition will eventually cease, and that the 
efficiency of the system will be advanced. 

He says: "There is an increase of 18,417 pupils in the enrolment of 
1888. * * * There is also an increase of 14,03G in the average at- 
tendance, a most notable proportion. The last ten years have been a 
transition period in our educational work. The plans of private indi- 
viduals crumbled to pieces, and many have lamented the decay of schools 
once prosperous. But the State Legislature has been quietly and firmly 
laying the foundations for broader work. South Carolina * * # 
desires that the advantages once bounded by the horizon of private 
effort should be widely diffused through the power and benevolence of 
a great State. The free school has been pushed into every locality." 

He points with pride to the fact that there were one hundred and 
sixty-two more schools on the list than the year before, and refers to 
the ambition of the small towns in the State to establish graded insti- 
tutions. " Winnsborough and Eock Hill have spent about twelve thou- 
sand dollars each on their school buildings, Greenville begins with 
eighteen thousand dollars and * * * Spartanburg levies a tax of 
twelve thousand dollars, with a special local tax for her schools. 
Smaller and larger towns, and country districts the State over, are rap- 
idly putting their money into modern school-houses."' 

WINTHROP TRAINING SCHOOL. 

During the years of trial with the free school system, the inefficiency 
of the average teacher was pointed out repeatedly, and the establish- 
ment of a normal school was urged. This has never been founded, 
chiefly for want of means. But in the last two years, through the 
munificence of George Peabody and the energy of the efficient super- 
intendent of the schools of Columbia, facilities have been provided in 
the Winthrop Training School for training female teachers and thus 
largely meeting the demand. From a letter of John P. Thomas, Jr., 
in 1887, the following sketch of it is taken : 

" The Winthrop Training School was opened in Columbia on Novem- 
ber 15, 1886, in the buildings of the Theological Seminary, whicli 
have been temporarily secured for the use of the school. The school 
was organized under the general powers conferred by law upon the 
board of school commissioners of the city of Columbia. But the school 

» Report for 1888, pp. 5-6. 



120 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 

liiul not been in operation long before the idea was conceived to enlarge 
its scope. With this view, application was made to the General As- 
sembly for a charter. Under the i)rovisions of this charter the school 
will be operated for the benefit of the whole State. The school is named 
in honor of the venerable and philanthropic chairman of the Peabody 
board, and it is by the liberality of this board that the school is mainly 
snpported. It has been in successfnl operation since its oi^ening under 
the following corps : Prof. D. B. Johnson, superintendent ; Miss M. H. 
Leonard, principal ; Miss A. E. Bonham, practice teacher ; Mrs. T. C. 
Ivobertson, teacher of drawing. 

"The school has been attended by twenty-one young ladies. The 
'up-country,' 'low-country,' and middle section of the State have all been 
represented. During the short time the school has been in session, tlie 
following work has been accomplished : the pupils have been taught tlie 
methods of the various classes in the city graded schools, and they 
have had the opportunity to observe, by personal inspection, the prac- 
tical working of these schools and their successful wa^^sof management. 
In addition to this, each training pupil has had a week's practice in the 
school-room, instructing and controlling children, under the direction 
of the practice teacher. 

"Their class work has included psychology, physiology, methods of 
teaching reading, arithmetic, English language, geography, history, 
penmanship, music, drawing, and calisthenics. Lessons on 'forms and 
])lants,' as bearing on i)rimary instruction, have been given. The school 
is open to all those in the State wishing to prepare themselves for the 
teaching profession." 

The generous Legislature of 1887 again showed its public spirit by 
establishing thirty-four scholarships, one for each county, yielding one 
hundred and fifty dollars apiece. They are limited to those who have 
not tlie necessary means, and are chosen by competitive examination 
by the State Superintendent of Education. They may be held for a 
year, and the holders, on completion of the course, are required to teach 
for one year in the common schools of the counties from which they 
come. 

TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 

In addition to the Winthrop school, there are other facilities in the 
State for training teachers. 

There is a normal college, with a two years' course, within the State 
University. The head of it is Dr. E. E. Sheib, of Baltimore, who studied 
for five years in Germany, and received the degree of doctor of philos- 
ophy in pedagogics at Leipsic. Previous to being called to Columbia, 
he w^as for several years president of the State Normal School of Lou- 
isiana. 

Claflin University, at Orangeburg, has also a normal course of three 
years. There is, in addition, a special teachers' class every spring for 



TUAININO OF TEACHERS. 121 

those wlio cannot take tli«> full conrso. Five otlior institutions in tlie 
State also provide normal instruction for colored teachers. 

The Saturday Normal School at Chaileston has a four years' course 
of study, with free tuition. The teachers of Columbia hold monthly 
meetings for the study and investigation of the principles which under- 
lie their science. 

Besides these facilities, there are the State and county institutes, 
which continue for a few weeks during the summer, and an^. conducted 
I>y skilled and experienced teachers. Often there are educators from 
hirge cities, where their opportunities have made them i\cqnainted with 
tlie most improved methods of teaching. These institutes are usually 
very largely attended. 

The State is also entitled to ten scholarships in the Peabody Normal 
School at Nashville. The recipients of this bounty are under obliga- 
tions to teach for a term of years in their native States after grad- 
uation. 

There are other means for pedagogical instruction less definite in 
<;haracter, though their inlluence cannot be doubted. The Carolina 
Teacher, a pedagogical monthly at Columbia, aiul the reading circjles 
voluntarily formed among the teachers, probably reach more of those 
engaged in training youth than the normal schools and institutes can. 

PEABODY AND SLATEE FUNDS. 

South Carolina has been greatly benefited by the appropriations 
from the Peabody and Slater Funds, but especially from the former. 

The awards of these philanthropical bequests have been devoted to 
the aid of the public, graded, and normal schools, teachers' institutes, 
and for scholarships in the Peabody Normal School at Nashville, Tenn. 
South Carolina is entitled to ten of these scholarships, which are con- 
ferred after competitive examination, and yield the holders free tuition 
and two hundred dollars each per annum. It is now the settled poli(ry 
of the trustees of the Peabody Fund to expend the greater portion of 
the income in assisting to train teachers. 

AVhile the total amount received from the Peabody endowment is 
large, the advantage to the State cannot be measured in money. By 
means of these gifts a stimulus is furnished to local effort, and new 
and improved methods of teaching are introduced into i)laces that 
would have known nothing of them but for the exertions of the General 
Agent. 

The prisent Superintendent of Education for the State, in fitting 
words, makes acknowledgment of the debt of gratitude for the noble 
munificence of George Peabody: "I need not again call attention lo 
the beneficent results fiowing from the annual bounty of the Peabody 
Fund. It is difficult for us to see how we should have begun our higher 
school work without this aid, and it is surely true that we would have 
been compelled to abandon our county institutes. * * * Peabody, 



122 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAEOLINA. 

dead, yet lives, radiant in the grateful hearts of bis countrymen, and, 
more valuable than all, sbrined in the many bumble bomes wbere bis 
charity bas lighted the lamp of knowledge." ^ 

The following amounts have been disbursed by the Peabody Fund 
in South Carolina for educational purposes: In 1808, |3,550; 1809, 
$7,800; 1870, $3,050; 1871, $2,500; 1872, $500; 1873, $1,500; 1874, 
$200; 1875,1100; 187G, $4,150; 1877, $4,300; 1878, $3,000; 1879, $4,- 
250; 1880, $2,700; 1881, $4,050; 1882, $5,375; 1883, $4,225; 1884, 
$4,400; 1885, $5,000; 1880, $5,000; 1887, 4;000; 1888, $8,000— making 
a total of $78,250.2 

The Slater Fund has also distributed the following sums: In 1883, 
$2,000; 1884, $750; 1885, $3,500; 188G, $2,700— making a total of 
$8,950.=' 

EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 

The education of the negro is so largely elementary that it more prop- 
erly falls under tlie subject of public scliools tlian elsewhere. 

Slavery came in with the first settlers of the province, and the negroes 
increased rapidly in population, until, by the eighteenth century, they 
outnumbered tlie whites. Coming directly from Africa, they first had 
to learn the language, and embrace the Christian religion. 

The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts was 
active in providing for their spiritual welfare. In 1705 the first mis- 
sionary, Eev. Samuel Thomas, reported that about twenty negro slaves 
regularly attended church in Goose Creek Parish, and others were able 
to speak and read the English language. The first systematic eflbrt 
made for their education was said to be the establishment of a school 
in 1744 by Eev. Alexander Garden, the building of which cost £308 Ss 
6d. This was perhaps for free negroes, of whom there were many 
throughout the State during the time of slavery who owned slaves 
themselves, and were as much affected by the results of the 9th of 
April, 18G5, as the whites. This school was doubtless established by the 
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, since it is 
stated in the Proceedings of the society for 1752, " that a flourishing 
negro school was taught in Charleston by a negro of the society, under 

1 Report of State Superintendent of Education for 1888, p. 18. 

2 All these figures, except for the last year, are taken from the Reports of the United 
States Commissioner of Education for 1885-86 and 1886-87. Those for 1888 are taken 
from the report of the State Superiuteiideut of Education of South Carolina for that 
year. The amount for 1887 does not include the aid furnished by the Agent to pub- 
lic schools in the State. The last Report of the Commissioner of Education gives the 
sum total granted by the Peabody endowment for public schools in the ten States, but 
not the appropriation for each State. So the grand total would probably be several 
thousand dollars larger. 

•'Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1885-86. There is no reference to this 
fund in the last Report, either of the United States Commissioner of Education, or of 
the State Superintendent of Education of South Carolina. 



EDTTCATION OF TTTE NEGRO. 123 

the inspectiou and direction of the worthy rector, Garden, by which 
means many poor negroes were taught to believe in God and in His 
son, Jesus Christ."' 

This good work was farther carried on by the religious training of 
the negroes, on every plantation and in every household. But the idea 
arose that it was dangerous to educate the slaves, and this was strength- 
ened by several insurrections, which, later, caused it to be forbidden by 
law to give the negro instruction in reading and writing. This act was 
passed in 1834, in spite of the earnest protests of many of the leading 
men of the State. But the God-fearing men and women, in defiance of 
the law and of public opinion, boldly taught some of their slaves to 
read, in order that they might know the way of life. A Baptist minis- 
ter was threatened with expulsion from his churcli, but he went on 
with his work and overcame local prejudice. 

But oral religious instruction went forward in every denomination, 
and "experiences "of several hours'length were reverently listened to by 
tlieir devout, educated white brethren, who compared them with the 
visions of Ezekiel and Jeremiah. The two races sat under the same 
preacher and received the sacrament from the same hands. The diiJer- 
ent churches made reports of one race as regularly as of the other. 
Special missionaries, some of them very prominent, were sent to labor 
among the blacks. Every large i)lantation had its own house of wor- 
ship for the slaves. The number of communicants, of marriages, of con- 
verts, of Sunday school scholars, of each race was reported regularly. 

Their condition, while not equal to that of the working classes in the 
North, "compared favora])ly with the lower classes in many countries 
of Europe, at least."^ All the trades requiring skilled labor were in 
their hands, and during lleconstruction they suddenly became orators, 
parliamentarians, and statesmen. With the War came the upheaval. 
The schoolmaster followed the soldier, and in the track of the army of 
destruction were erected the temples of peaceful education. On the 
spot where the first slave set foot on southern soil, two hundred and 
forty-one years later, only five nu)nths after Sumter, was established 
the first negro school. As the northern soldiers pushed their way down 
the Mississippi and gained a foothold on the Atlantic and the Gulf, 
the agents and missionaries of the dilferent churches followed. Among 
the different agencies none were more active than the American Mis- 
sionary Society, and the Ereedmeu's Aid Society of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church. Tlie Baptists also worked vigorously, and the Pres- 
byterians were not behindhand. In all, the amount sent by the benev- 
olence of the ISTorth to the negro in the South, up to the present time, 
is over twenty-six million dollars. 

The first places in South Carolina where negro schools were estab- 
lished were Saint Helena and Beaufort. Northern benevolence, large 



R. Means Davis, iu Ilaml-Book, p. 523. -Ibid., -p. — . 



124 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 

and generous as were its gifts, could never liope to do more tliau es- 
tablish schools at widely distant jioints, and train a few who would be 
an example to the many. The general education of the masses had to 
be done by the loeople of the section, if ever done at all. On the reor- 
ganization of the State government in 1SG8 a public school system was 
]3rovided, as far as the changed conditions would i^ermit. The plan 
was thorough, but the administration during Eeconstruction was ineffi- 
cient. But still the enrolment of the negroes increased from 8,103 in 
1870 to 103,331 in I888.1 

But these schools give only the most elementary instruction, and can 
not give much of that, since the period of instruction lasts only about 
three months in a year. The State was so prostrated financially as to 
be unable to provide schools for advanced instruction, and these would 
probably not have been soon established without gifts from the North. 
The Baptists established Benedict Institute at Columbia, for the educa- 
tion of ministers of the Gospel, and of teachers, male and female ; the 
Northern Presbyterian Church founded Brainerd Institute in 1871 at 
Chester, as a normal school, and also the Fairfield Normal Institute at 
Winnsborough in 1869; the American Missionary Society established 
Avery Normal Institute in Charleston on the 1st of October, 1805 ; the 
Freedmen's Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church North i)ur- • 
chased the buildings of the Orangeburg Female College in 1869, and 
opened Claflin University ; the African Methodist Episcopal Church or- 
ganized Allen University at Columbia in 1881 ; while warm friends at 
the North established other schools, such as the Schofield at Aiken, 
and the Shaw Memorial School in Charleston. None of these, of course, 
conld have a very advanced collegiate course, and most of them do not 
aspire to it, but are contented to give good high school training. One 
of them, however, does furnish a grade of instruction almost equal to 
that of any white college in the State. 

CLAFLIN UNIVERSITY. 

In 1809 the buildings of the Orangeburg Female College (white) were 
bought by Rev. A. Webster, D. D., and T. Willard Lewis. A charter 
was obtained from the Legislature on December 18, 1809, and the in- 
stitution was named in honor of Hon. Lee Claflin, of Boston, Mass. It 
has been largely through his aid and that of his son, the Hon. William 
Claflin, that the University has reached its present efficient state. The 
body of trustees, as provided in the charter, could never be less than 
seven nor more than twenty-one, and was to be self-elective. Section 
five of the instrument contained this provision: "No instructor in said 
University shall ever be required by the trustees to have any i^articular 
complexion or profess any particular religious opinions as a test of 
office, and no student shall be refused admission to or denied any of the 

^ Report of State Superiutendeut of Education, 1888, p. 43. 



EDUCACION OF THE NEGKO. 125 

piivi!cfjes, honors, or degrees of said University, ou accoiiut of nice, 
comi)lexion, or religious oi)iuions wbicU lie may entertain: Provided, 
nevertheless^ That this section, in reference only to religious opinions, 
shall not apply to the theological department of said University." 

The University was opened with a president and three assistants, be- 
sides several teachers in the ])riuiary department; the attendance the 
lirst year was three hundred and nine. In 1872, under the educational 
act of Congress, the State College of Agriculture and Mechanics' In- 
stitute was located at Orangeburg in connection with Clatlin Univer- 
sity, and a farm of one hundred and sixteen acres was provided. In 
1870 the buildings, library, etc., were unfortunately burned, but they 
were soon replaced by structures of brick. Ou the change of party in 
/877, the Agricultural College was made a branch of the State Uni- 
versity, and was retained at Orangeburg in connection with Clatlin 
University. The exi)euses are met in part by an income of $5,800 from 
productive funds of the value of $95,7oO,i portion of the Congressional 
land grant. Other assistance is given by the Slater and Teabody 
Funds, and by the Methodist Episcopal Churcli. 

Tlie departments of the University have been gradually increased. 
In 1877 the normal department was added, and shortly after this the 
gran] mar school, preparatory to the normal departnumt, was estab- 
lished. The mechanical department, sustained by the Slater Fund, 
and the Girls' Industrial Home were soon jirovided, and good indus- 
trial training is furnished. A course in science and agriculture was in- 
stituted, and instruction in the latter is also practical. 

As was to be expected from the condition of the race, the classical 
department is not very fully attended, there having been only eigh- 
teen students in 1880. But tlie work is of a high grade and thorough. 
For aduiission, plane geometry, Caisar, Koman history, Greek grammar 
and history, and the Anabasis are required. The course covers four 
years. Latin and Greek are each studied three years; mathematics goes 
tlirough conic sections, surveying, and mechanics. The other usual 
collegiate studies are included. The faculty now includes a president 
and thirteen assistants, and the attendance in 1880 reached four hund- 
red and ten, all but two being from South Carolina. Both sexes are 
admitted, but there are no white students in the institution. The num- 
ber of graduates reached fifty-three, of whom eleven were in the college 
proper and the remainder in the normal course. The expenses are mar- 
vellously low, being only about Mty dollars for the entire school year. 

The Charleston News and Courier, the largest paper in the State, 
sent a staff correspondent to attend the commencement exercises in 
1888, and gave four and a half columns to the report. The next day a 
column editorial was devoted to the University, in which it was said : 
" Clallin University is truthfully designated as the model University of 
the South for colored people. * * * There were ten thousand persons 

' lleport of the Cominissioner of Educatiou, 1884-85, \>r628. 



126 illGIlEK EDUCATION IN SOUTH CAROLINA. 

at tbe comniencenu3ut exercises. Tbe University luis seventeen teach- 
ers, iburteeiisuperiuteudeuts, aud nine hundred and forty-six students. 
It exceeds in size the famous school at Hampton, Va. More than five 
huudred students actually pay for their own education by the work of 
their hands. In the curriculum are six courses of study, with instruction 
in nine different industries, represented, by the nine special schools of 
agriculture, carpentry aud cabinet-making-, printing, tailoring, shoe- 
making, painting and. graining, blacksmithing, merchandising, and 
domestic economy. The University was founded by Mr, Clattin, of 
Boston, but it is upheld by South Carolina, which gives it both finan- 
cial assistance and moral support." 

Dr. Atticus G. Haygood, who delivered the address, said that it was 
the largest University between the Potomac and the Rio Grande, and. 
the least expensive. 

ALLEN UNIVERSITY. 

This is chietly controlled and managed by the negroes, and it is very 
interesting to note the high aim they have set in their efforts to educate 
themselves. The aim, as set forth by the Eight Rev. W. F. Dickerson, 
is as follows : " To aid in the development of the highest type of Chris- 
tian manhood; to prove the negro's ability to inaugurate and manage a 
large interest ^ * * * to train them not only for the pulpit, the bar, 
the sick room, and school-room, but for intellectual agriculturists, me- 
chanics, and artisans ; * * * to educate, in the fullest sense of that 
comprehensive word, is the work, mission, and cause for the establish- 
ment of Allen University."' 

The race has had to receive its instruction from the whites, so far. 
But as they are educated, they demand thie places for the blacks, and 
very probably they will in a few years be trained by colored teacliers 
alone. In Charleston nearly all the teachers in the colored i^ublic 
schools are white, and in the schools maintained there by northern 
charity the instructors are also of that race. In Allen University, on 
the other hand, the work is done by colored teachers. 
iR. Meaus Davis, Hancl-Book, p. 527. 



APPENDIXES. 



79 



lias heea here over three years, and to-day tl/e boy from school will do better, cleaner, 
ne.iter, qnicker work byVar than the other/boy. One boy learns the trade by imita- 
tion, while the other learns it by reason a/nd study. The boy from the school is more 
precise and neat about hisVvork, grasps a; new idea more readily, looks upon new feat- 
iires of the business with gVeater intelligence, and is better able to direct others and 
to bear responsibilities. H^ias better/command of language and can impart to others 
the ideas he wishes them to abtain. Xvhen a difficult point arises, the school boy will 
labor with it nutil he conquers it, w^ile the other boy will study a while, then give 
it up. Were I to need a clerBL apprentice, or draughtsman, I would and do give the 
Manual Training School boys '^he preference, because I get much better results with 
less trouble. 

The above letter I quote from ray book, The Manual Training School ; its Aims, 
Methods, and Results (D. C. HeVth & Co. Boston, 1887). Chapters V and VI are 
devoted to the "Results." 1 4m Vempted to add, as a final word, the testimony of a 
graduate himself (one out o^two hundred) and the work he is doing. He says : 

The principal part of my/work isUhe making of wood and brass patterns and core- 
boxes, and keeping them in order ; \I also do the greater part of the drawing for the 
shop ; but I am by no means limitedto these, as, for the last three or four days of each 
month, I am called to help get work out, and to help Mr. Jones figure, etc. ♦ » » 
/ usually get the ivork that is out of the ordinary line. 



Your obedient servant. 



C. M. WOODWARD. 



IM^ OwVt). ^^y^\ '"^"^^ 



II. 

THE NEED OF EDUCATED LABOR IJ^ THE SOUTH. 

AN ADDRESS BY W. H. COUNCIL, PRINCIPAL OF THE ALABAMA STATE NORMAL AND 
INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL, MONTGOMERY, ALA. 

[The following address was delivered at a recent session of the Alabama State 
Teachers' Association (colored). As a i)lea for the industrial training of the negro, 
made by one who is himself of that race, it has been deemed to possess sufficient value 
to be published in this connection.] 

Like the Sphinx, which stands peering down through the mists of ages, caste, 
founded upon occupation, is becoming a thing of the past, and will soon be found 
only in the dim and antiquated annals of Egyptian and Oriental aristocracy, mon- 
archy, and oppression. Some of the deleterious atmosphere from this Upas of Ori- 
entalism was borne across the seas to mix with our new civilization; but affinity is 
lacking, and it is being driven out by the beams of our Christianity, which adorns, 
dignifies, and elevates honest labor. Here the honest toiler, faithfully filling his 
spl~ere in life, is a man, the equal of the Chief Magistrate of the nation. 

The professions were long erroneously regarded as the ruling positions in industrial 
society. This place-worship caused manual labor to despise itself. The professions 
have been sought, also, on account of their supposed ease and affluence, and this 
mistaken idea has become a stone of stumbling and a rock of offence to countless 
thousands. 

My paper will be confined to the South, because we are more immediately con- 
cerned about its welfare ; and I hope that I shall not be considered narrow if I limit 
this necessarily brief discussion to the Negro of the South. We are to deal with him. 
It is to him that we must go, holding up high the torch of Christianity, education, 
and industry. In God's name we must bring him into the light of this age of Chris- 
tian civilization. We are to seek him in the attics and damp cellars of the cities ; we 
are to seek him in the fertile valleys and upon the unyielding hill-sides, and pour into 
him the elements of true manhood. 

The conditions of labor in ante-bellum days had a tendency to create a wrong con- 
ception of the responsibility and honor of labor. 

It is true that the planter, surrounded by his htmdreds of slaves, dictated the policy 
of Southern institutions, and beside this planter professional gentlemen were social 
and financial pigmies. The planter was simply a nominal agriculturist. He did 
not even come in contact with his slaves. His children did not labor. The manage- 
ment of his affairs was generally committed to the charge of men who were regarded 
to be of humble birth and station in society. The negro performed all the work, 
until finally nearly all Southern whites came to regard labor as the natural inheri- 
tance of the negro, and they willingly conceded his right to monopolize it. 

Black man was only another word for workman, and this idea, coupled with that of 
slavery, brought manual labor— in fact, labor of every kind— into great dishonor. 

It was a natural sequence of this condition that the negro should regard labor and 
slavery connected by the unholy bonds of thraldom, and ease and leisure and un- 
earned comfort as the concomitants of their divorcement, or the invariably necessary 
80 



APPENDIXES. 81 

atteudauts of emancipation. His ideal freeman was one of leisure, a man who could 
dress well, who stood idly around jjublic places and discussed current events. For 
this reason 1870 found an unnaturally lar^e percentage of the race engaged in politics, 
the ministry, and other supposed easy vocations. Those who are acquainted with 
the history of those timesknow these to be stubborn and stern facts, although painful 
to us. 

But notwithstanding this unreliable and unsettled state of labor, there were cer- 
tain influences which held the negro in the labor market, and which to-day give to 
him the control of a large part of that market iu the South, and I hope he may keep 
this control forever. 

As leaders of the race, as moulders of race character, as guardians of the interests 
of our people, we must strive to prepare them to maintain their present vantage 
ground in the labor market of the South. We want places for our boot-blacks, bar- 
bers, porters, cooks, washerwomen, chambermaids, carpenters, masons, blacksmiths, 
farm hands, manual laborers, and domestics of every kind. 

If we succeed in procuring and securing these for and to our peoi)le, the few minis- 
ters, lawyers, teachers, doctors, and journalists will care for themselves. 

The negro population of Alabama is 600,102. Of this number 39i percent., or 
237,000, are bread winners. Ninety-nine per cent, of these bread winners are engaged 
in agriculture, personal and domestic service, including a small but increasing per 
cent, in mining and manufacturing. It is thus clearly seen that not exceeding 1 per 
cent, of our race iu this State is engaged iu professional i)ursuits. What is true of 
Alabama is true of the whole South. 

Our few professional laborers must realize the fact that they are dependent upon 
the 99»per cent, for support, and not the 99 per cent, ujjon them. But there is some- 
what mutual dependence. The Brooklyn bridge, that mighty consummation of genius 
and architectural skill, has only a few massive pillars and great iron cables. These 
do not make the bridge. But there are hundreds of bolts, bars, screws, nuts, and nails, 
■without which there would be no Brooklyn bridge to challenge the admiration of the 
mechanical world. 

As I have above intimated, the conditions of labor in the South have produced ab- 
normality iu both servant and master classes — employer and employ6. But with the 
new life coming into the New South, superior labor, and greater excellence and com- 
petency will be demanded. In every walk in life more skill and reliability will bo 
required. Purely business principles are becoming the woof of our iudustrial warp. 
The abnormal standard of labor accomplishments is the outgrowth of ante-bellum 
institutions, and has been sustained by the frailest of props, sentimentalism. Those 
institutions being changed by the new conditions and relations of master and servant, 
the laborer of the future must stand or fall on his owu merits. 

Right here iu the South a new element of competition is seeking to enter the labor 
market, formerly mouo]5olized by the negro. The daughters of the ex-masters are 
learning to do work which formerly was performed only by the slaves. The sons are 
becoming expert iu many things which, fifty years ago, were left exclusively to the 
negro. In fact, day by day shows that the negro is no longer conceded to be the sole 
and rightful ruler of the labor market. His heretofore undisputed right of inheri- 
tance is being sharply contested by Southern white boys and girls in every avenue 
"which produces bread and leads to wealth. Besides this competition, there are a 
quarter of a million of able-bodied white men and women, common laborers and do- 
mestics, in the State of New York alone, who would be glad to seek occupations in 
Alabama if negro labor were not preferable. As I have said before, this preference 
for negro labor, at present, has its most powerful support in sentimentality, and the 
influx of Northern people introducing Northern white servants may lead to the dis- 
placement of the negro in such a measure as to drive him from many occupationa 
■which now supply his food and raiment. 

1297— No. 5 6 



82 INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 

Here is food for serious reflection on tlie part of tliose to -whom God has given thi^ 
important work of elevating the negro race in the South. 

What shall we do to keep the negro laborer in the market ? 

We must educate him in the fundamental principles of a common school course ; 
develop his consciousness of truth and justice implanted in every human heart by 
the Almighty, and give him that industrial training which will make him such, a 
factor in our industrial mathematics that he can not be thrown out without serious 
detriment to the labor problem of the South. This education, development, and train- 
ing should proceed, from the earliest intelligential susceptibility, conjointly and sys- 
tematically. In regard to the period of commencement of the training of a child, 
Oliver Wendell Holmes says it should begin a hundred years before the child is born. 
Dr. Josiah Strong says : " If a community produces or fails to produce good citizens and 
able men, the records of the founders will rarely fail to afford an explanation, for the 
influence of the early settlers continues operative until their descendants are dis- 
placed by some other stock." As a body set in motion continues, unless acted upon 
by external influences, to move, so character and principle, good or bad, in a people 
move on from generation to generation, until a new race comes upon the stage, or 
external forces check the old motion and inaugurate reform. This external influence 
and reform is the need of the labor element of the South to-day, in view of the con- 
ditions and relations herein above mentioned. 

The character of education necessary to check these baneful influences and set in 
operation new and healthful energies is no hard question for us to determine, if we 
can thrust aside the delusions and surmount the prejudices of centuries that have 
favored university and college education. 

I do not undervalue the benefits of higher education to the world and science. But 
it is not only not a necessary ingredient in popular education, but it would prove a 
dangerous element under present methods. It always has been, and from its very 
nature and utility, always will be, confined to a puny minority of mankind. 

The negro has poorly developed powers of discriminative judgment, and it is but 
natural that all should want their children taught branches of study without any 
reference to the future occupations of those children, often insisting that the classics 
be included in the curriculum. And strangely enough, many of our teachers are too 
willing to encourage this nonsensical worship of learning for learning's sake. We 
ought not to regard learui ng as an end, but as means to an end. The end of all knowl- 
edge should be the useful and the good. 

In a healthful state of economy demand precedes supply. I fear that this prin- 
ciple is not observed by our universities and colleges. I greatly fear that we are throw- 
ing into the community many young people educated beyond the ability of efi'ective 
assimilation with the balance of the race, and, must I say it ? — educated beyond their 
legitimate sphere according to the demands of the age and the requirements of the 
race. Education in the hands of an evenly and roundly developed constitution, ex- 
panded in the line of truth and industry, is what a new sharp hatchet is in the hands 
of a good boy. It is an instrument to repair and build. But education under other 
conditions is as the hatchet is in the hands of a bad boy, a vicious boy — an instrument 
of destruction and mischief, by which the little criminal cuts and hacks his way into 
the prison and down to perdition. Industrious, virtuous ignorance is preferable to 
idle, vicious intelligence. Industrial training is as necessary to the education of an 
individual as oxygen is to the composition of common air. 

We need not only the theory, but practical industry taught in all of our common 
Bchools. We must instil into the minds of the youth that " Labor is one of God's 
greatest gifts to man ;" that labor has led man from the lowest grades of fetichism up 
to the true God. We want housekeeping taught as well as grammar. We need a 
cook-book in the hands of our girls as well as a geography, the mechanical arts as well 
as history. The battles of Thermopylte, Marathon, Carthage, Babylon, and Waterloo, 
in which only a few millions were engaged and only a few hundreds of thousands 



APPENDIXES. 83 

were left dead and dying upon the field, are not to be compared witli the battle being 
fought to-day for bread by one and a half billions of souls, and where ignorance and 
wrong leave millions of dead and dying upon the field. 

One Cuvier is sufficient to arrange the present animal life into tribes, and marshal 
into beautiful and symmetrical rationality the fossiliferous and fragmentary remains 
of ancient and extinct generations. But the nation needs one half of a million of 
persons to handle the animals required in our market. 

One LinuEeus is sufficient to discover the sexuality of plant life and give to vege- 
tation a phytological classification. But seven millions of beings are needed to cul- 
tivate the plants necessary to sujiply our nation with food and raiment. 

We need comparatively few young men who can grapple physico-theology and 
metaphysical sciences; young men who can take the wings of thought and imagina- 
tion and sound the depths of the universe, measure the breadth of creation, and 
plow through the deep, sublime, serene ocean of limitless thought ; who can grasp 
the flying clouds of erudition, and from them forge shafts of intellectual electricity 
to hurl from the mortars of logic, carrying admiration or consternation, reformation 
or revolution, into the ranks of mankind. But the plodding millions move on as 
they have moved since the human family set out on its plodding march through time, 
and the plodding millions will continue to be plodding millions until matter shall, 
at the command of God, creep back into the womb of nothingness. What most con- 
cerns these millions is the getting of bread — the struggle to occupy middle ground. 
We must teach them a way of getting a living, and of living. We can not hope to 
move the mass at once, but individual training will be found to be the lever by 
which the mass may be raised. Guizot says, " The prime element in modern Euro- 
pean civilization is the energy of individual life, the force of personal existence." 
A learned man has laid down the following educational platform, which I adopt; 
" In order to the common weal there are, in general, four things that an adult man 
or woman ought to know; four things, therefore, that the State ought to see that its 
children have a fair opportunity to learn, namely, to think, to work, to behave, and 
to love their country." 

Does any one doubt that is the correct principle of common school education ? 
Will any one assert that this is the principle adopted and operated in our common 
schools? We have been giving our young people a certain class of learning at the 
expense of the hand and heart, and we have succeeded in throwing into the body 
politic the germs of agnosticism, idleness, and socialism. 

Truth is a cardinal virtue, and should be the foundation of every human pursuit 
and institution. We all are painfully familiar with the appalling lack of this virtue 
among the laborers of to-day. Nine-tenths of our workiugmen never stop to think 
of the importance of faithfully keeping an obligation to begin work at a certain time, 
or fiuish it in a certain style, or complete it at a given hour. How often have our 
blacksmith, carpenter, and shoemaker disappointed us ? Now, we seldom expect to 
liud our roof patched according to agreement. We never expect the work to be 
begun until several days past the appointed time. This lack of truth, and the absence 
of a feeling of high responsibility on the part of the laborer, are a source of great 
annoyance and many losses. These things can not be overcome except by trained 
labor, guided by ethical rules. 

There are two hundred and sixty-five occupations followed by the citizens of thje 
United States. Only ninety-eight are plied in Alabama and most of the other South- 
ern States. With the development of the varied natural resources of the State a very 
large percentage of the other occupations must be introduced, as well as the present 
ones improved. To meet these changes on a high ethical and skilled basis, labor must 
be trained by a wise method of common school instruction vigorously prosecuted. 

The South is being transformed almost magically from the state of desolation in 
which slavery and the War of the Eebellion left it, to the most active industrial 
theatre of the world. On account of the advanced state of the civilization coming 



84 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 

into the South, our labor can not be developed by the old methoda. This n^w wine 
of industrial fermentation will not be safe in the old labor bottles, any more than 
the skin bottles of the first centurv would subserve our chemical experiments of 
to-day. 

If the laborer could have climbea up, step by step, through the centuries with thi» 
high civilization, he might have developed by the old processes. But this civilization 
has burst upon the South like a ilood of golden light from the great sun, without pre- 
monitory dawn and mellow beams, the forerunners of the king of day, and the South 
has become one vast workshop in a single generation. Will any sane man say that 
our future laborer will be prepared to join this industrial procession without indus- 
trial training ? The decision of experience, the judgment of time, dictate the wisdom 
of the popular drift in enlightened countries to industrial education. It is said that 
every member of the imperial family of the German empire must learn a trade. 

When a boy leaves any one of our common schools he should go as well prepared 
to enter the battle of life, on biological principles, as the cadet who passes muster at 
West Point or Annapolis is to defend his country from invasion or to punish a dis~ 
regard of its flag wherever its citizens tread the globe. 

We need, most of all, educated labor to prevent crime. The old adage that an idle 
mind is the devil's workshop is as true as the philosophical axiom that all bodies are 
in space. I heartily agree with the writer who said, "Industrial ignorance is the 
mother of idleness, the grandmother of destitution, and the great-grandmother of 
socialism and nihilistic discontent." If the metaphysical triplicity of man is doubted 
by any, all will readily concede his trinity as to brains, hands, and legs. These, ac_ 
cording to a necessary and universal law of our nature, must be constantly employed, 
and they produce good or ill according as they are engaged. 

The State which fails to educate its children bequeaths to posterity paupers ; the 
State which fails to give industrial training to its youth transmits to posterity pau- 
pers and criminals. 

Statistics show that a lack of industrial education produces more criminals than a 
want of religious, ethical, and intellectual culture. 

Astounding as this statement may appear, the fact is even more amazing. 

Let us examine the records of the State of Illinois for a given year on this point. 
That State maybe taken as a fair representative of the others. The number of con- 
victs in the Joliet penitentiary was 1,492. Of this number only 151 were illiterate . 
127 could read but not write; 1,087 had a fair education ; and 129 were graduates of 
colleges or universities. Therefore 90 per cent, were educated, as the word goes, so 
that their crimes could not be due to the lack of intellectual training. Also 91 per 
cent, had been Sunday-school scholars, and 18 per cent, temperance men. Evidently 
they did not lack religious and ethical instruction. But 77 per cent, had no trades 
or regular occupations, 16 percent, simply "picked up" trades, and only 7 per cent. 
had been systematically taught some trade. 

Here is the root of the evil. Here is the foundation of crime. Here is the fruitful 
source of supply of the inmates of our prisons and alms-houses. Here is an appeal to 
legislators and others having control of the organizing and conducting of our systems 
of education. Here is an appeal, loud and clear, to parent, teacher, patriot, philan- 
thropist, all, to awake and check this mighty rush of our children to the prisons, and 
from them to hell. 

The fact that nearly 20 per cent, of the inhabitants of the State of Illinois are for- 
eio'n born, does not favorably alter the case in the least; rather would it tend to 
aggravate the matter. An analysis of the foreign-born population of Illinois shows 
that nearly 50 per cent, are from the German empire, with its justly boasted common 
school system. 

The fact that Illinois has very destructive labor troubles is certainly significant. 
The germs of anarchj^, socialism, and nihilism are found in industrial ignorance. The 
failure of the South to nip these evils in the bud by a liberal and wise system of com- 



APPENDIXES. 85 

mon schools will produce a race of communistic Brobdingnags, who will defy law 
and stamp order and the sacred rights of person and property under their colossal 
feet. 

The South has ample premonition. The warning notes from France, England, and 
Russia are borne across the sea. In our own country some of the older States, writh- 
ing and bleeding in the clutches of those evil monsters, admonish the new South to 
build her new institutions upon the sui'e foundation of industrial intelligence. Will 
the South heed now ? Fools are taught by experience only, but wise men by the ex- 
perience of fools. 

Chicago (111.) pays |18.93 per year for each pupil attending its public schools. This 
same city pays $33 for each arrest of criminals, but np to the time of the collation of 
these statistics not one cent had been spent in industrial education. The city of Lon- 
don, England, expends annually $385,000 for industrial schools. London had on© 
arrest to every forty-eight of its population, while Chicago had one to every fifteen. 

Must I uncover prostitution, and show that it prevails most in the ranks of the in- 
dustrially ignorant ? Must I spread before you the statistics showing that 95 per 
cent, of illegitimate births are found among mothers wanting industrial training ? 

These are startling facts, but are in accord with the economy of nature. Does not 
the remedy suggest itself to every thinking mind? 

The laborer should be educated — should be trained, in order to protect his own life 
and health, to relieve him of many burdens which accompany inexperience and ig- 
norance, and to enable him to carry law and system into his life and work. 

" How beautiful and glorious to thought is law ! Law governs the sun, the planets, 
and the stars. Law covers the earth with beauty and fills it with bounty. Law di- 
rects the light and moves the wings of the atmosphere, binds the great forces of the 
universe in harmony and order, awakens the melody of creation, quickens every sen- 
sation of delight, moulds every form of life. Law governs atoms and governs sys- 
tems. Law governs matter and governs thought. Law springs from the mind of God." 

This system, this order, this law, this beautiful harmony, must be carried into the 
life of the laborer to insure competency, to guarantee reciprocity, and to sweeten toil. 
This must be done in the school, the training school, the industrial school. 

What would you think of a man unacquainted with machinery assuming the conduct 
of a large mill, or moving carelessly among its wheels, bauds, and shafts? Would 
you not expect each moment to see his body taken up by some swiftly- moving ma- 
chinery and dashed again to the ground a lifeless and mangled corpse ? And do you 
expect a man totally ignorant of the great and wonderful laws and systems and work- 
ings of nature to move unharmed among her machinery or enter her laboratory in 
safety ? 

Carpentering, blacksmithing, shoeraaking, cooking, washing, fire-making, scrub- 
bing, farming, and gardening are all governed by positive and immutable laws. They 
are as much science as mathematics, grammar, or natural philosophy, and should be 
taught with the same care that is bestowed upon these more favored branches. 

There is science and art in fire-making. Has not our breakfast often been delayed 
and the whole day's plans disarranged because there was ignorance of the philos- 
ophy of fire-making? Has not our food often been brought to the table so com- 
pletely divested of its native zest and sweetness that the most rapacious appetite and 
epicurean stomach would at once declare themselves in rebellion against the table ? 
How many thousands go annually to premature graves by this system of cookery the 
great God alone knows. 

Some poor victim of untrained cooks has said, "God sends the victuals, but the 
devil sends the cooks;" and Owen Meredith, in Lucile, exalts cooking thus: 

"We may live witliout music, poetry, and art, 
"We may live without conscience, we may live without heart, 
"We may live without friends, we may live without books, 
But civilized man can not live without cooks. 



86 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 

Who does not detest the work of a "jack-leg " mechanic ? He would starve were 
it not for his cheapness, which is indulged by ijopular ignorance and stupidity. 

A recent writer estimates that more people die of the want of properly ventilated 
homes than of any other cause. Here the science and art of house-keeping has not 
been taught. It is true that the death rate from this cause is two and a half times 
greater among the manual laboring people than any other class of our population. 

Should a girl be sent from the school-room to take charge of a home — to rear chil- 
dren — who does not thoroughly understand the science and art of a thousand little 
but important things connected with her life-work, upon which her happiness and 
the comfort of others, here and hereafter, depend f Would not a knowledge of these 
things be of more benefit than at least half of the geography, grammar, geometry, 
and metaphysical speculation crammed into the mind at the expense of the methods 
of obtaining a livelihood ? 

It is more important for the present generation to understand the uses of the vari- 
ous hand tools, how to build houses, and how to live in them, than to write better 
Greek than Homer, better Latin than Cicero, or recite the transactions of antiquity 
in a more charming style that Xenophon or Herodotus or Csesar. 

From across the great ocean — from Rome — the cheering news comes; **Hi8 Holi- 
ness dealt with the industrial question, speaking unfavorably of state socialism, but 
insisting that governments should make the material interests of the working class of 
the population their care." And thus the cause of the toiling millions gains strength 
wherever thought is led out by Christianity. Let us throw ourselves abreast of these 
advanced thinkers, and endeavor to move the press, the church, and the powers of 
state in behalf of the cause of industrial education, and move the laborer to prop- 
erly appreciate the dignity and responsibility of his calling. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
EDUCATION OF THE COLOEED EACE. 



I.— THE COMMON SCHOOLS. 

The former slave States have a white population of 15,493,323, and a white 
school enrollment of 3,422,785, or 22.1 per cent of the white population. 

The same States have a colored population of 6,954,840, and a colored school 
enrollment of 1,289,944, or 18.5 per cent of the colored population. 

The colored form 30.98 per cent of the total population, but colored pupils 
foj'm only 27.37 per cent of the total school enrollment. 

These figures show that the colored school enrollment is not relatively equal 
to the white. It exceeds the white, as compared with the population, in the 
District of Columbia, North Carolina, and Texas; in the remaining States it 
falls behind the white — in Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and West Virginia 
far behind. 

The ratio of average attendance to enrollment is 03. 3 for white and 62.4 for 
colored in twelve States. 

1073 
ED 90 68 



1074 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1889-90. 



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EDUCATION OF THE COLOKED EACE. 
Table 2. — White and colored teachers^ salaries. 



1075 



state. 


White. 


Colored. 


State. 


White. 


Colored. 




$23. 04 
(b) 
38.25 

661.10 
864. 99 


$21. 05 
(b) 
26.55 

589. 75 
984. 16 


Missouri 


ib) 

$25. 80 
22.95 

(b) 

48.17 
50. 80 

81.19 

38.10 
38.58 

47.67 


(«>) 


Arkansas 


North Carolina : 

Males 


Delawai'e -. 


$22.72 


District of Columbia: c 

Primary and grammar 


Females 

South Carolina 


20.36 
(b) 


schools 


Tennessee -.. 


(6) 


High schools 


Texas: 
Males— 

In community coun- 
ties 

In district counties.... 
In independent dis- 
tricts 


Florida. 




Georgia 








Kentucky: d 

In counties 


32.76 

126.11 
48.2a 

140.50 
86.39 

38.20 

32.18 

386.28 

38.77 
32.09 


37.82 

67.35 
42.77 

83.30 


44.66 
40.33 


In cities- 
Male."? 


53.32 


Females 


Females— 

In community cotm- 
ties 




In public high schools- 


35.12 


Females 


In district counties 

In independent dis- 
. tricts 


34.20 


Louisiana: 

Males 


28.98 

26.24 

364. 88 

26.83 
20.48 


37.97 


Females 


Virginia 




Maryland^ 


West Virginia 


(b) 


(.b) 


Mississippi: d 

Males 




Females 









a Country schools only, 
b Not classified by color. 



c Annual salaries. 
d In 1888-'89. 



AL.\B.\MA. 

Apportionment of funds beticeen the races in Alabama. — The Alabama State dis- 
tributable school fund has heretofore been apportioned among the townships 
and districts according to the number of children of school age, the fund of each 
race being kept separate. This has caused much dissatisfaction. " It is alleged 
that in portions of the Stats the colored race gets well-nigh all the school fund, 
whilst that race pays a very small per cent of the taxes that make up that fund ; 
also that the colored race is as yet, in general, only capable of receiving and 
profiting by an elementary education, which costs comparatively much less than 
that suitable for the white race in its more advanced stages of civilization." The 
State superintendent, without discussing whether these complaints are well 
grounded or not, says that there are individual cases of peculiar hardship, and 
suggests the following plan : •' Let the school fund be apportioned by this office 
to the different counties and townships in proportion to the number of children 
without regard to race, and let th?. township officers apportien the fund to the 
schools of the town.ship in proportion to the number of children who will prob- 
ably attend each school. They, being on the ground and acquainted with the 
wants of the different neighbci'hcocls, can do this to better advantage than it 
can be done by this office. In additioii to this, there should be fixed by statute 
a gradation of teachers' licenses, so that v»"ell-qualified and successful teachers 
should receive greater compensation than the teacher who can barely stand an 
examination for a third-grade certificate. In all other departments persons are 
paid in proportion to the quality as well as the quantity of work done by them, 
and why should not this rale apply in the payment of teachers ? Under our 
present apportionment of funds such is frequently the case — that the poor teacher 
of the colored race gets much better salary than the well-qualified white teacher. 
If this were left to the local school authorities such injustice and inequality would 
not be allowed." 

This is practically what is done at present in the larger Southern cities with 
the local school funds (city appropriation) ; the municipal school boards apply 
the local funds to the various schools, v/hite and colored, in their discretion. It 
is believed that the city colored schools are amply provided for under this sys- 
tem. Whether it would work as well throughout the country districts, adminis- 
tered often by trustees prejudiced against negro education, and especially against 
negro education at the white man's expense, is problematical. That Superinten- 
dent Palmer does not think it would workinjustics is evident, when he declares: 

'•Allow me here to say that I have no sympathy with those who would deprive 
the colored race of an equal participation in the benefits of the public-school 



1076 EDUCATION REED:^T, -J 889-90. 

fund. I believe that it is not only our solemn duty but best interes.t to see that 
the coiored race is educated and elevated so as to fit him for good citizenship, 
of which, in my opinion, there is not the slightest probability that he will be de- 
prived. Nor am I in sympathy with those who would apply only the tax raised 
from our race for the education of that race. Such a law or provision of a State 
constitution would be declared by the courts unconstituiional as being against 
public policy and as contravening the letter and spirit of the Fourteenth Amend- 
ment of the'Constitution of the United States. The plan herein suggested will 
go far towards remedying the evils complained of, and that, too, upon sound prin- 
ciples—that teachers should be paid in proportion to the quality of the work 
performed by them." 

Superintendent Palmer^ s suggestion adopted — The laiv amended. — The legislature 
in 1891 changed the law so as to provide for three township trustees (instead of 
one) who are to dispose of the school funds derived from the State virtually as 
Superintendent Palmer has suggested. Mr. J. N. Hutchinson, himself a town- 
ship trustee, explains their duties relating to the disposition of funds under the 
new law, as folio sv^s: They are required to "establish and apportion to each 
school just such an amount of the public funds as they deem just and equitable 
to carry on the schools in their township, not according to number of scholars 
pro rata as heretofoi-e, but apportioning and giving unto schools as they deem 
best to promote free education in their township with due regard to all neigh- 
borhoods. For as the law was, where one school could get only ten pupils, in 
pro rating it was not suificient to employ a suitable teacher to teach those chil- 
dren, and other schools had the advantage, especially the colored, which gen- 
erally outnumbered the whites, receiving the most money, and the colored peo-' 
pie paying less taxes. Hence some neighborhoods were deprived to a great 
extent of the benefit of schools, not being able to procure a suitable teacher On 
account of insufficiency of funds. 

"I take the position that one teacher's time is worth as much to them as an- 
other teacher, without reg-ard to the number of scholars they teach in the pub- 
lic schools, and the trustees should see that all children are offei-ed the benefit 
of schooling, and that this is the intention of the law, which was wise in our 
legislature in so changing it, and now it becomes the duty of the trustees to 
carry out the law without regard to the whims and complaint of some." 

The new State superintendent, Hon. John G. Harris, further explains the 
situation as follows: 

"It is the duty of the township trustees to establish a sufficient number of 
schools in their township to meet the necessities of school children according to 
justice and equity, having reference to the amount of money apportioned to such 
township, paying to the teacher of each school an amount which will secure 
continuation of all the schools of both races, the same length of time. 

" This law confers upon the township trustees the power to contract with 
teachers at an agreed amount per month for three months or more. The entire 
amount belonging to each township must be divided among the white schools 
and colored schools by the trustees. according to 'justice and equity,' not per 
capita. One teacher may be secured to teach a certain school at one price, while 
another teacher may be employed to teach a different school at a greater or less 
sum. Trustees must vise their very best judgment, looking to the highest in- 
terest of all the children to be taught. The greatest good to the greatest number 
must govern. Such, in my judgment, is the spirit of the law. ' Equal rights to 
all, special favors to none.' " 

The words italicized, " same length of time," are evidently designed to be the 
watchword under the new order of things. 

The law only covers the State school fund prop-er. The apportionment of the 
State poll tax remains as before — poll tax collected from the whites goes to 
white schools exclusively, ditto colored. 

Colored education in Alabama. — W. B. Paterson, conductor of colored teachers 
institutes in Alabama, says in his i-eport to the State superintendent: "The 
county superintendents and other white citizens attended the sessions of the in- 
stitute, and showed much interest in the education of the colored race. I find 
that where a colored teacher is competent and devotes himself strictly to the 
work of teaching, that he can depend upon the support of the best people of the 
community. The county superintendents, too, discharge their duty regardless 
of race, and everywhere they expressed a desire to get the very best teachers pos- 
sible for the colored schools. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1077 

"The colored people arc licing' encouraged to build school-houses, and their 
white neighbors are contributing liberally towards this object. 

"These facts are given to make more foi"cible the following statement: The 
schools are retarded in their jorogress by a want of unity and harmony among 
the colored people themselves. Desiring to get control of the schools, they are 
imposed upon by incompetent tsachers, who establish a denominational or ahigh 
school, with an absurdly long and very illogical course of study, and the means 
of the people, which migiit be used very profitably to double the public-school 
term, are wasted. I have reference here only to the efforts made in small towns 
to build up a college on local patronage at a tuition of $1 per month. It would 
be good policy for the present to let Talladega College, Selma University, Payne 
Institute at Selma, and the State normals at Huntsville, Tuskegee, and Mont- 
gomery attend to the higher education and let the efforts cf the people be di- 
rected to improving the public schools. Not one-tenth of the pupils entering 
the above institutions from the public schools are prepared to take up a normal 
course of study." 

ARKANSAS. 

Apportionment of funds between the races in Arliansas. — A statement in the An- 
nual Report of this Office for 1888-89 was calculated to create an erroneous im- 
pressiorT as to the distribution of the State school moneys. With reference to 
this subject State Superintendent Josiah H. Shinn v/rites to the Office : 

'• The law apportions to all children irrespective of color. Each child in Ar- 
kansas, black and white, of school age receives the same amount of money by 
State apportionment. Each county in the State, irrespective of color, gets an 
amount of money equal to the sum of the amounts given to its children of school 
age ; or the multiple of the equal pro rata per child into the number of childi^en 
of school age in the county. The county judge then apportions the fund received 
from the State in the same way to the districts. Each distriet gets from the 
State a sum of money in every case equal to the multiple formed by the pro rata 
into the number of children in the district. 

"So far the money has been apportioned as though no color line existed. 

" The money is now in the hands of the county treasurer, subject to the order 
of the [district] directors. Each district may have three funds, and must have 
two ; (1) The State apportionment made by the State superintendent ; (2) the 
poll-tax apportionment made by the county judge; (3) the local tax voted upon 
the property of the district and paid by the collector to the treasurer of the 
county for the use of that district alone. 

"I desire to emphasize this point again. Up to this point in our financial 
management — the point when the directors are to open the schools— no distinc- 
tion whatever has been made. It has been a question of cold calculation without 
one drop of blood. If any discrimination is made now, the fault will lie with the 
directors. The law requires them to hold separate schools for the races. There 
is no restriction upon the black man's right to hold the office of school director. 
In eastern Arkansas in a large majority of the districts the directory is black. 
Two plans have been adopted by directors, irrespective of color. 

"1. To hold a three months' school for each color, and as much longer as their 
proportionate share of the. distriet funds will continue it. This share is deter- 
mined by taking the ratio of the black and white children of school age, respect- 
ively, to the whole number of children. 

"2. To hold two schools of equal length, irrespective of these proportions. 

"(a) As to the first iDroposition, the division is always more favorable to the 
colored race than to the white. Where but eight or ten children of either color 
were to be found in any district a trouble followed in nearly every case. Black 
directors saw little vise in running a school for less than ten white children ; so 
did the white ones. The legislature cured this last winter by permitting any 
number less than ten to transfer to the adjoining district. 

"(6) The second proposition is on the broadest basis of fairness, and reaches 
the widest stretch of justice. No more can be claimed. It would be unjust to 
my fellow-citizens not to say further that the great majority of our school di- 
rectors follow the second plan. 

" In the following cities and towns the terms and all the other arrangements 
are equal: Little Rock, Helena, Marianna, Pine Bluff, Monticello, Lonoke, 
Camden, Texarkana, Hope, Nashville, Washington, Prescott, Malvern, Conway, 
Moulton, Newport, Augusta, Russellville, Fort Smith, Van Buren, and Hot 
Springs." 



1078 EDUCATION REPORT, 1889-90. 

DELAWARE. 

The colored schools of Delaware. — "There are only 46 [coloi-ed] schoolhouses in 
the State and 79 schools. Thirty-three of the schools are held either in private 
houses or churches, mostly the latter. All the schoolhouses occupied have heen 
built by the coloi-ed people themselves, and some of the buildings are in the last 
stages of dilapidation. Some of the cchools find it necessary to charge a tuition 
fee°and others raise funds by subscription in order to secure sufficient money 
to pay the teacher's salary." 

Ths State superintendent suggests " that it would be wise to increase the State 
appropriation to these schools in order that they may be made free schools in 
fact. If education is a safeguard it would seem to need no argument that the 
colored schools should be made as efficient as possible." 

The sum of $6,000 was appropriated for these schools in 1889-'90, or a little 
over SI for each colored child of school age in the State. 

FLORIDA. 

Cc(pacity of colored students — Appreciation of school advantages. — The principal of 
the Florida State Normal College for Colored Persons reports : "The students 
are specially drilled in the abstract sciences in which they are the weakest, while 
their strong linguistic powers are given the fullest exercise. The imperfect at- 
tainments in the common studies which they bring to the institution are dis- 
placed by a severe training in the same studies, when they are carried through 
algebra to quadratics and through several books of geometry. In all these 
studies they can compete favorably with scholars of similar grade anywhere. 
In the Latin, the only classic thus far taught, they are carried through several 
books of Csesar's Commentaries, just enough to give them a proper foimdation 
to continue the study of the thoughts of the iron-hearted masters of the ancient 
world after graduation. Although it is less than two years since the senior class 
began the study of Latin, several of them can now read Csesar with an ease and 
elegance that would do credit to scholars who have been engaged twice the length 
of time in studying this language. 

' ' The surest test for the appreciation of the race for the school is in the sacri- 
fices made by pati'Oils in sending and maintaining scholars here, and the eager- 
ness of the latter to avail themselves of the opportunity offered them for instruc- 
tion. With limited means or from daily earnings parents send their children 
to this school from distant parts of the State and meet all the financial engage- 
ments incident to the education of a young person during the entire session of 
nine months. Although this is the second year since the school has had dormi- 
tory halls, not only has every patron met all his obligations, but the demand for 
more room in the dormitories is restrictsd by our inability to provide for any 
more new-comers. 

"The promptness and regularity of attendance at the daily sessions of the 
school is another proof of high appreciation. No sevei"er punishment for breach 
of discipline can be inllicted on any of them than to be ordered to leave school 
for even part of a day. They seem to feel that every day and hour are too pre- 
ciovs to b3 lost from the prosecution of the purpose for which they have come 
hither from their homes. This strong regard and attachment for a school but 
lately established is one of the mcst pleasing features which promise for it, let 
it be hop^d, a long career of usefulness." 

GEORGIA. 

State School Commissioner James S. Hook : "It is due the colored people to 
say that everywhere in Georgia, as far as they have come v^rithin my observa- 
tion, they are anxious for improvement, and in proportion as they become in- 
terested in the schools I note growth in moral sentiment, less interest in parti- 
san politics, and more anxiety to make themselves useful and respected citizens." 

The University of Atlanta, as is well known, has, under the provision of the 
State constitution forbidding the coeducation of whites and colored, forfeited 
its State grant. Some of the prominent colored educators of the State are set- 
ting on foot a movement to obtain this suspended grant in order to establish a 
normal school for training colored teachers. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED EACE. 1079 

What the county siqyerintendents say. 

Cratcford County. — Colored schools were well attended, but a decrease in niim- 
ber of schools, on account of not being able to get tsachers that could make the 
required percentage in examination. 

Houston County.— The colored people manifest a great desire to have their 
children educated ; their schools were kept full and the average attendance was 
good. The colored children of our county outnumber the whites almost 4 to 1, 
and all their schools ai'e full to overflowing whenever opened. In some parts of 
the county the white people are so sparsely settled that it is impossible for them 
to have schools. 

Jasper County. — There is not a child of school age in the county, white or 
black, but what has a schoolhouse conveniently located and can attend school 
most any kind of weather. 

Mitchell County. — The colored people of our county are very manifest in their 
interest of education. Many of our colored schools, if allowed, are crowded be- 
yond accommodations. 

Oconee County. — By no means tax the whites to educate the blacks. This has 
made a •'skeleton " of what otherwise would have been a corpulent and muscular 
man — a giant [referring to the school system]. 

Putnam County. — We should have more money, negro or no negro. Something 
isnacessarily obliged to be done or the whites will not keep up with the darkey. 

MARYLAND. 

Tltc colored schools of Maryland. — Dr. .James L. Bryan, school examiner of Dor- 
chester County, Md., reports as follows : "There is great pleasure and just pride 
in stating that our colored schools are a credit to our system. When I began 
my work in this county in 1867 there were no colored schools connected with the 
public-school system. There were two or thi^ee run by friends outside of the 
State. The school board of that day made a small appropriation to two of those 
schools, and gradually increased the amount until the new school law of 1872 
placed such schools directly under the control of the school board. Since that 
day these schools have increased from two or three to forty, and the teachers, 
compare favorably with the white teachers, considering the poor advantages 
they have had to make themselves exjiert teachers. With two or three excep- 
tions these schools occupy houses belonging to the school authorities, built gen- 
erally for school purposes, and with comfortable furniture, blackboards, etc. 
One house, in Cambridge, used by colored i)upils, cost nearly $2,500 ; another, in 
East Newmarket, cost over $1,000. 

" There is small but a steady increase in the numbers attending the schools, 
and the. results are quite gratifying. 

"It is a great credit to the pow'ers that be that this work has been done so 
well. It is honorable to the authorities, and should dispel all doubts of fairness 
in the matter of educating this class of our people." 

And the examiner of Harford County says: "In a number of cases we lack 
suitable houses and furniture for the colored schools ; but our greatest drawback 
in this line is an efficient corps of teachers. I do not hesitate to say that I have 
more difficulty in securing twenty-two suitable colored teachers than one hun- 
dred and fourteen white ones. I anxiously look forward to the day when we 
may rely upon the colored normal school of this State for our colored tetichers. 

"In many cases, too, it is difficult to secure prompt and regular attendance of 
colored children. Having satisfied their ambition by enrolling their names at 
school, the very ones most in need of its benefits are the ones mo3t apt to be ab- 
sent. Recognizing the large factor they have become in some sections, I see no 
higher duty the State has to perform than to do what she can to educate this 
large class of her citizens." 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

Causes of opposition to negro education. — State Superintendent S. M. Finger, of 
North Carolina, says ; "There is much opposition to public schools in the State, 
and in the South generally, because of the small amount of the taxes paid by the 
negroes. The opposition is intensified by the belief, that is more or less preva- 
lent, that education spoils the colored people as laborers, to their own damage 
and the damage of the white people. It is said that when you 'educate a negro 
you spoil a field hand.' 



1080 EDUCATION REPORT, 1889-90. 

■ "On this point it may be said with truth that the negro's sudden freedom and 
citizenship, for which he was unprepared, the privileges of education, and all 
the new experiences he had at and soon after the war. including much bad lead- 
ership, completely turned his head, so to speak. Forced labor to him had, dur- 
ing slavei'y, been his peculiar hardship. In his ignorance he thought the new 
conditions, and especially the privilege of education, were to relieve him from 
this curse of labcr. The old negroes v/ent earnestly to work to learn to read. 
They failed, but attributed their iailvire to lack of early opportunities. But they 
resolved that they would secure education for their children, and, with this 
special end in view, the escape from manual labor. The present generation of 
younger neg'oes has been educated too much with this purpose in view, and, 
because of this wrong idea, it is true that a smattering of education to many of 
them has caused idleness and laziness. If education is to be given them in any 
liberal sense by the State they must show a much higher appreciation of it. 
They must recognize it not as a means of relief from labor, but as a help to suc- 
cesSiul labor. 

"Many of their best teachers are striving now, by precept and example, to 
connect these wrong ideas as to what education is to do for them, and my earnest 
advice to school committeemen is that they do not employ teachers who are 
above manual labor. A man or a woman who depends upon the money he can 
make by teaching a three or four months school per annum and will not apply 
himself to some useful labor during the balance of the time is not fit to direct 
the education of children and should not be employed to teach. 

" The colored people must not lose sight of the fact that manual labor is the 
lot of almost all people, white and colored, and that this is now and will be their 
lot to a la-'ger degree than that of the white people, because of the peculiar con- 
ditions and circumstances that surround them. The destiny of the negroes of 
the United States is in their hands, with the powerful help of the white people 
as they may show themselves worthy of it. Let them pay their taxes and show 
that education does not spoil them as laborers, at least to any greater degree 
than it does the whites, but that it does add to their efficiency as laborers and 
to their usefulness as moral and upright citizens, and all the help they need 
that the State can, in her financial condition, reasonably afford will be extended 
them. 

"The white people must not lose sight of the fact that it is the labor of a 
country that makes its wealth, and that, therefore, the education and elevation 
of the children of the laborers is a proper charge upon the property of any 
country. If Ave did not have the negroes we v/ould have some other poor peo- 
ple, whose children would have to be educated in the public schools. But, what- 
ever may be said about educating the negroes, we can not afford not to improve 
our educational facilities, whether we consider our financial condition and 
progress or the perpettiation of our civil and religious liberties. 

" If it is said that we are too poor, then I reply that the way to get rich is to 
ediicate our people intellectvially and industrially, so that they may be able suc- 
cessfully to apply labor to the development of our many resources. The history 
of the world points out this way, and we can not fail if we walk in it. With 
good schools in the country districts there will be less incentive for the country 
people to crowd into the cities and towns to educate their children, much of the 
discontent and restlessness will disappear, and better success will attend their 
labors." 

TENNESSEE. 

. Seports of Tennessee county superintendents. 

Marshall County : Our colored schools are improving very fast. At their in- 
stitute this year there was an increase of teachers and an inci'ease in interest. 
All of them seem to be striving for an education, and we have some very bright 
minds in the colored race. 

McNairy County : I have held four institutes — three for the whites and one 
for the colored. They were all well attended. We had some excellent workers 
at the normal institute at Purdy in June. I have the colored teachers better 
organized than the whites. 

Morgan County : There are only forty-seven colored population, and they are 
promiscuously scattered along the railroads ; hence no colored schools. 

Tipton County : There seems nothing at present that promises to discourage 
the advancement of the public schools in this county further than that there is 
a growing disposition on the part of the white people of the county, who pay 



EDUCATION OF THE COLOIIED EACE. 1081 

ninety-five one-hundredtlis of the taxes, to discontinue the iiublic education of 
the *• brother in black,'" who, notwithstanding the fact that he pays less than 
five one-hundredths of the taxes of our county, receives more than 50 per cent 
of the ijublic-fcchool moneys. This, the white people argue, is wrong, and 
should be remedied ; and 1 heartily agree with them, and join them also, in the 
further opinion that the negro should bear the burden of his own education. 

Wayne County : Our colored schools are progressing very well. We have 
some very good teachers among the colored population of our county. They 
are creating quite an enthusiasm among their race of people for education. 

" Wc can build our ouii schoolhouses.'' — The New York Age (edited by a colored 
man): Vast sums have been given by philanthropists to sustain such moral, re- 
ligious, and intellectual work in the Southern States as are usually supplied from 
tlie general tax funds of the State affected and by the charity of the benevolently 
disjoosed citizens of such State. The past and the present generations of Afro- 
Americans have, therefore, been educated to look to the Federal Government 
for the protection usually afforded to the citizen by the State in which he resides 
and which does not inhere at all in the Federal authority as one of its conceded 
rights ; and, worse yet, they have been educated to look to others to think and 
do for them to- such an extent that self-reliance has been hampered in its devel- 
opment, so that if we want money for educational, religious, or other laudable pur- 
poses, we appeal too often to white men or to the Federal Government, instead 
of x-elying upon ourselves for it and working in combination and cooperation to 
secure it as others do. We can build our own churches and colleges and school- 
houses, and support them, if we would do so, out of the money wasted by us upon 
unnecessary pleasures and upon downright humbug ; and we have got to do it 
in the not remote futvu-e, because the opinion is steadily gaining vantage that 
we are getting old enough to stand upon our own heels in this matter of self-help. 

II.— SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 
OCCUPATIONS OF GRADUATES. 

The question is sometimes asked. What does the colored man do after com- 
pleting a regular course in one of the universities or colleges'? In order to an- 
swer this question somewhat definitely, a table has been prepared showing upon 
what lines of business the graduates of 17 institutions reporting this item had 
entered. These 17 institutions represent very fairly the work of the colored 
schools. Howard University is not included in this statement, as a considerable 
portion of its graduates are white. 

The first thing to attract attention is the large number engaged in teaching, 
more than one-half being thus employed. As these institutions were mainly 
founded to supply the demand for competent colored teachers and preachers, 
they seem to have well accomplished their purpose. The whole number of 
graduates of these 17 institutions is 1,542. If from this number we subtract 82 
deceased, 46 engaged in post-graduate studies, 97 married women, and 74 not 
reported, of the remaining 1,243 there are 720, or 58 per cent, engaged in teaching, 
27 of these being professors in colleges and universities. Of pi'eachers there are 
117, or 9 per cent ; of lawyers, 116 ; doctors, 163. Five have their whole time em- 
ployed as editors of papers, while othei'S are partly engaged in editing. There 
are 36 in the United States Government service, employed as clerks in the de- 
partments at Washington, as postmasters, as custom-house insx^ectors. as mail- 
carriers, etc. 

Although in all of the institutions given in the list, without exception, instruc- 
tion was given in different kinds of industrial work, such as carpentry, tinning, 
painting, brickmaking, plastering, shoemaking, tailoring, blacksmithing, farm- 
ing, gardening, etc., and in many of them special attention was given to such in- 
struction: still out of the 1,243 graduates only 12 arefarmei^s, only 1 a carpenter, 
and 2 mechanics. The painters, tinners, brick-makers, shoemakers, plasterers, 
tailors, and blacksmiths seem to have graduated from their trades when they 
left their alma mater. It should not be inferred, however, that their handicraft 
availed them nothing, for it is frequently stated in the catalogues that those gradu- 
ates who are engaged in teaching so long as the school term continues immediately 
enter upon their trades at the close of the term. The evidence of the table, 
however, is that a full collegiate education tends to draw away the colored stu- 
dent from the class of pursuits mentioned and to lead him into professional 
work ; and as greater opportunities ai-e annually being offered him for medical 
and legal education the number in these professions is yearly increasing. 



1082 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1889-90. 



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EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1083 

COLLEGIATE STUDENTS. 

The number of universities and colleges for the education of the colored race 
given in the tables of 1889-90 is 22, with an attendance of 811 students. The 
number of institutions is the same as reported in 1888-89, but in the number of 
students there is quite a reduction. This reduction is owing to the fact that 
students in the preparatory departments have been classed under the list ol in- 
stitutions foj" secondary instruction. It is well known that in many of the colored 
univer^^ities and colleges there are only a dozen or so of student? iia the college 
grade, while there are, perhaps, S3veral hundred in the preparatory and primary 
grades. To include the latter among university and college students would be 
misleading. 

On this point President Horac3 Bumstead, of Atlanta University, says: "It is 
a mistake to suppose that the higher education of the colored people is being 
overdone. There is a very grave misapprehension on that point among the goad 
people of our land. We have so many institutions in the South that are named 
universities and colleges that the idea prevails that all the students in these in- 
stitutions are learning Latin and Greek and the higher mathematics and getting 
in general the higher education. This is not s.o. Dr. Haygood a few years ago 
investigated this matter with some care and arrived at the conclusion that in 
these institutions with the high-sounding names not over 5 par cent of the pu- 
pils are really getting a strictly 'higher education.' Commissioner Harris 
thinks there may be as many as 10 per cent, but even that is a very small i^ro- 
portion. 

''Take Atlanta University, for instance. We have had this last year about 
600 students enrolled, whose names are printed in our catalogue. How many of 
these are getting the higher education"? Just 20 of them are in the college 
course; .51 more are in the college pi-eparatory course ; 71 out of 600 are getting 
the higher education, and this is probably a larger proportion than can be 
found in almost any other institution in the South. When one remembers the 
comparatively small number of the colored people who are in these schools and 
then considers the small proportion of those in them who are getting the higher 
education it does not seem as though the thing were being overdone." 

In 1888-89 the number of institutions for secondary instruction was 53 and the 
number of students 11,480; in 1889-90 the number of institutions was 71 and of 
students 12,420, an increase of about 1,000. This increase is to be accounted for, 
to some extent, in the same way as the decrease in the number of university and 
college students, viz, the including college pi'cpai-atory students in the tables of 
secondaz*y institutions. 

Hence, although there was apparently a decrease in the number of collegiate 
students, it was only an apparent one ; but at the same time the actual number 
given is so small that it may well serve to stimulate the friends of colored educa- 
tion to renewed eilorts in their behalf. 

In the number of theological students there v/as apparently a decrease, but 
there was an increase of about one- third in the number of both law and medical 
students. 

The value of the grounds and buildings of the 22 universities and colleges, as 
reported, was over $2,700,000, but only a few of them had any endowment fund, 
the endowment funds of all of them only aggregating $807,425. Benefactions to 
the amount of $167,591 wei-e received during the year. Only three of them re- 
ceived any State aid — Southei'n University. New Orleans, $7,500; Wilberforce 
University, Ohio, $6,000 ; and Claflin University, South Carolina, $10,800. The 
tuition fees received by all of them only aggregated $47,216. Without the aid 
extended by missionary societies and other benevolent funds they would have 
labored imder great difficulties. The American Missionary Association was one 
of the largest contributors towards the support of these schools. It gave help to 
six chartered institutions— Fisk University, Atlanta University, Talladega Col- 
lege, Tougaloo University, Straight University, Tillotson Normal Institute — 
with 2,871 students in all the departments ; also to 21 normal and graded schools, 
with 5,797 students, and to 53 common schools, with 4,727 pupils. The Freadmen's 
Aid and Southern Education Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church also 
contributed a large amount towards the education of the colored race, but it is 
impossible to determine the amount accurately, as the expenditures for institu- 
tions of the white race and for ministers' salaries are included in the same ac- 
counts with those for colored schools. The whole amount disbursed from the 
Slater fund from 1883 to 1891, inclusive, was $321,991. 



1084 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1883-SO. 



The apportiomnont among the institutions rocoivinj 
Slater fund in 1889-90 was as follows : 



aid from the John F. 



i,oso 

460 
GDO 

800 

1,000 

1,100 

500 

700 



Mount Hermon Female Institute, Clin- 
ton, Miss.. $1,000 

New Orleans University, New Orleans, 
La 

Paul Quinn OoUesje, Waco, Tex 

Payne Institute, Augtista, G a 

Philander Smith College, Little Rock, 
Ark . 

Roger Williams University, Nashville, 
Tenn _ 

Rust University, Holly Springs, Miss . . 
Schofielcl Normal Institute, Aiken, S, C 
Scotia Female Seminary, Concord, N.C 

Shavv^ University, Raleigh, N. C 1,800 

Spelman Female Seminary, Atlanta, 

Ga _ _ !_.. 2,000 

State Normal School, Montgomery, Ala 1, 100 
State Normal School, Tuskegee, Ala... 1,000 
Straight University, Nevi^ Orleans, La . 1, SOO 

Talladega College, Talladega, Ala 1,400 

Tillotson Institute, Au&tin, Tex 900 

Tougaloo University, Tougaloo, Miss. . 1, 500 

Training School, Knoxville, Tenn 600 

To special objects 500 

Total 43,910 



Atlanta University, Atlanta, Ga SI, 600 

Ballard Normal School, Macon, Ga 500 

Benedict Institute, Columbia, S, O 1,000 

Biddle University, Charlotte, N. C 1, 000 

Brainerd Institute, Chester, S. C 700 

Central Tennessee College, Nashville, 

Tenn 1,100 

Claflin University, Orange bm-g, S. C . . . 1, 800 

Clark University, Atlanta, Ga. (general 

appropriation)-.. 1,800 

Clark University, Atlanta, Ga. (special . 

appropriation) 3,200 

Fisk University, Nashville, Tenn 1, 800 

Gilbert Seminary, Winsted, La 800 

Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va. 

(general appropriation). 1,500 

Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va. 

(special appropriation)... 1,000 

Hartshorn Memorial Institute, Rich- 
mond, Va 650 

Jackson College, Jackson, Miss 800 

Jacksonville Graded School, Jackson- 
ville, Fla 800 

Leonard Medical School, Raleigh, N. O. 500 

Le Moyne Institute, Memphis, Tenn ... 1, 300 

Livingstone College, Salisbury, N. C. . . 700 

Meharry Medical College, Nashville, 

Tenn 1,000 

The sum of $47,428.27 was received from the income of the Daniel Hand fund, 
and was used in extending- aid to deserving- and promising- students, in provid- 
ing good school buildings at different places, and in securing teachers foi' places 
where they could not otherwise he obtained. 

The Daniel Hand fund at the time it was granted consisted of interest-bearing 
securities to the amount of $1,000,894.25. It was j)laced in charge ol the Ameri- 
can Missionary Association, and only the income of it is to be used. The bonds 
and property are " to be received and held by said American Missionary Associ- ' 
ation xipon trust, and for the following purposes, viz : To safely manage the said 
trust fund, to change investments whenever said association may deem it neces- 
sary or advisable, to reinvest the principal of said trust fund in such securities, 
property, and investments as said association may deem best, and to use the in- 
come thereof only for the education of colored people of African descent resid- 
ing in the recent slave States of the United States of America hereinbefore 
specified. 

" Such income to be applied for the education of such eoloi-ed people as are 
needy and indigent, and such as by their health, strength, and vigor of body and 
mind give indications of efficiency and usefulness in after life." 

In December, 1891, at his home in Guilford, Conn., occurred the death of Mr. 
Daniel Hand, the donator of the above fund, who with intelligent foresight gave 
from the living hand that which probably for years to come will confer its bene- 
fits upon deserving youth. ^ 

1 "Daniel Hand was born in Madison, Conn., July 16, 1801, and was therefore in the eighty- 
eighth year of his age when he made his gift for the education of the colored people at the South. 
His ancestors resided in that town for several generations, and were aUvays landholders, in- 
dustrious, quiet, and respectable. To this ancestry Mr. Hand is probably indebted under God 
lor his physical vigor, long life, strength of charp^cter, and success in business. He was the 
fourth son of seven, and was on the farm under his father's direction until he was 16 years 
of age, when he was put in charge of his second brother, Augustus F. Hand, who was then a 
merchant at Augusta, Ga., and whom he succeeded in business. In 1854 Mr. Hand went to New 
York in connection with his Southern biisiness, and remained there in that capacity until the 
beginning of the war in 18C1. He resided in some portion of the Southern Confederacy during 
the entire war, and was never treated with violence in any way, and no Confederate officer ever 
offered him indignity or even an unkind word. 

"Mr. George W. Williams, a native Georgian, was, at about the age of 16, employed by Mr. 
Hand as a clerk in Augusta, and in a few years was tj^,ken in as partner. Mr. Williams sug- 
gested a branch of the business in Charleston, and conducted it successfully. When the war 
came on Mr. Hand's capital was largely engaged in the Chai'leston business, which Mr. Wil- 
liams, as a Southern man, continued, having the use of Mr. Hand's capital, which the Confed- 
.erate government vainly endeavored to conflscate by legal proceedings against Mr. Hand as a 
Northern man of pronounced antislavery sentiments. After the war Mr. Hand came North and 
left it to his old partner, Mr. Williams, to adjust the business and make up the accounts, allow- 
ing him almost unlimited time for so doing. When this was accomplished Mr. Williams came 
North and paid over to Mr. Hand his portion of the long-invested capital and its accumulations. 

"Mr. Hand, having been early deprived by death of wife and children, decided to devote a 
share of his large fortune to benevolent purposes. At one time he intended to make bequests 
to some Northern colleges, but at length, recalling the fact that his property was accumulated 
In the South, and knowing so well the needs of the ignorant negroes, he turned his attention 
to them. 

"The well-known and magnificent gift of $1,000,894.25, October 24, 1888, to the American Mis- 
sionary Association, for the benefit of the colored people of the Southern States, was the re- 
sult.' 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1085 



George B. Smith College. Sedalia, Mo.— On March 27, 1888, two daughters of 
Gen. George R. Smith, Madams Smith and Cotton, donated 25 acres of land, 
valued at $25,000, in Sedalia, Mo., for the establishment of an institution of learn- 
ing for the colored race, on condition that a $25,000 building should be erected 
on it by January 1. 1892. The building was partially erected within the required 
time, but the donors kindly extended the time to January 1, 18i>4. As the insti- 
tution is to be in charge of the Freedmen's Aid and Southern Education Society 
of the M. E. Church, it will very probably be completed within the required 
time. It will be the first institution of higher grade in Missouri for colored 
people. 

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. 

In nearly all, if not all, of the institutions for the secondary and higher edu- 
cation of the colored race of the South industrial training forms a very im- 
portant part. It is one of the conditions required before aid can ba received 
from the John F. Slater fund. The cost of its introduction was very consider- 
able, in the purchase of sufBcient grounds, in the erection of suitable buildings, 
and securing the necessary machinery and apparatus for the different kinds of 
work. And not only was its introduction expensive, but its maintenance as 
well, for it has not been the pvu'pose to make i^rofits, or even in many cases to 
meet expenses, but to impart the largest amount of useful and practical knowl- 
edge and to train in habits of carefulness, diligence, and order. But at the 
same time many indigent students wei'e instructed in branches of industry by 
which they weve soon able to contribute largely towards defraying their ex- 
penses, and afterwards to earn a good livelihood. It was found, too, that the phys- 
ical exercise and the temporary mental diversion from studies was very conducive 
to health and vigor and was a source of enjoyment to students, while it in no way 
hindered progress in their studies. It also indicated that hard labor on the 
farm or in the workshop was not to be confined to the ignorant, poverty-stricken 
wretch, but that there was nothing in it inconsistent with an educated, progres- 
sive. Christian character. 

As to industrial training. Dr. A. G. Haygood, general agent of the Slater fund, 
says : "The essential goodness of industrial training in connection with the ordi- 
nary school training is now universally admitted by experienced and practical 
people. In the schools aided by the Slater fund during the school year 1889-90 
as many as ten thousand young people were taught in books and in some branch 
of useful industries. This sort of training is vital now. Mere book schooling 
with poor and illitera,te people breeds wants faster than it develops the ability to 
provide for them. The outcome is misery. Tool-craft helps to realize the aspi- 
rations that book learning inspires." 

Table 4. — Amount and distribution of the sums disbursed from the Slater fund, from 

1SS3 to 1891, inclusive. 



states. 



1883. 



?3, 100 



Alabama..... 
Arkansas .,.., 

Floi'ida „.. 

Georgia ...._„ I 6,200 

Kentucky 

Louisiana ^..J 

Mississippi 1,000 

Nor t h Carolina _ . . 2, 000 
South Carolina ... 2, 000 

Tennessee P50 

Texas i 

Virginia | 2,000 

District of Colum- 
bia. .....| 

Special 



Totals 16,250 



$3,450 



500 
1,000 

592 
2,000 

740 

750 
4,325 

eoo 

2,000 

1,C00 
550 



1885. 



$5,000 



17, 107 



6,814 
1,000 
1,400 
2,000 
4,400 
3, 500 
7,600 
600 
3,000 

1,000 
450 



36,764 



1886. 



$3,800 



5,100 
700 
1,000 
2,000 
3,600 
2,700 
5,800 
600 
3,650 

600 
450 



1887. 



$4,400 
600 



30, 000 



6,200 
700 
3,100 
4,450 
4,200 
3,660 
6,500 
900 
4,190 

600 
500 



40, 000 



1888. 



$4. 600 
800 
1,000 
6,850 
700 
3,500 
4,800 
5,300 
4,300 
6,500 
1,360 
4,190 

600 
500 



45,000 



1889. 



$3, 600 

800 

800 

9,700 



4,100 
4,400 
5,100 
4,000 
6,800 
1,360 
3,150 



500 



44, 310 



1890. 1891. 



$3,600 

800 

800 

9,700 



$4,900 
1,000 
1,0C0 

10,500 



3,100 
4,400 
4,700 
4,000 
6,800 
1,360 
3,150 



500 



42, 910 



3,700 
5,300 
5,700 
5,000 
7,400 
1,500 
3,150 



500 



49, 650 



Total. 



$34,450 

4,000 

3,600 

61,564 

4,100 

20,492 

30, 9.50 

35, 740 

29, 910 

52, 675 

8,280 

28, 480 

3,800 
3,950 



321,991 



1086 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1889-90. 



Table 5. — Distrihution of money derived from Daniel Hand fund in 1889-90. 



Alabama : 

Student aid ... _ S3. 592. 85 

Teachers 4,100.55 

Buildings 728.21 

— $7,421.61 

Florida: 

Teachers 1,037.66 



Georgia: 

Student aid 2,116.44 

Buildings 7, 1.54. 03 



Kentucky : 

Student aid 86.95 

Teachers , 1,258.58 



Louisiana: 

Student aid 2,000.00 

Building 5,460.44 



9, 271. 03 



1,345.53 



, 4G0. 44 



Mississippi: 

Student aid $2,100.00 

Teachers... 1,088.20 

Buildings 1,-500.00 



North Carolina : 

Studencaid.. 772.00 

Teachers 3,564.44 

Buildings 400.00 



South Carolina: 
Student aid.. 
Building 



$4, 688. 20 



115.00 
,719.91 



Tennessee: 

Student aid 2, 058. 67 

Teachers.. 1,173.75 



Virginia : 
Teacher . 



7, 834. 91 

3, S33. 42 
400. 00 



Total 47,428.27 



Table 6. — Statistics of institutions for the instruction of the colored roxe,for 1889-90. 



Location. 



Name. 



Religious 
denomina- 
tion. 



In- 
struct- 
ors. 



Stu- 
dents. 



Huntsville, Ala 

Do 

Mohile, Ala.. '. 

Montgomery, Ala ... 

Talladega, Ala 

Tuskegee, Ala 

Little Rock, Ark 



Pine Bluff, Ark.... 

Washington, D. C . 
Do. 

Tallahassee, Fla... 

Atlanta, Ga.. 

Augusta, Ga 

New Orleans, La . . 



Do. 



Holly Springs, Miss.. 

Jackson, Miss 

Tougaloo. Miss 

Ashboro, N. C 

Fayetteville, N. C... 

Fran.klinton, N. C 

Goldsboro, N. C 

Plymouth, N. C 

Salisbury, N. C 

Do_ 

Aiken, S. C 

Charleston, S. C 

Greenwood, S. C 

Knox ville, Tenn 

Memphis, Tenn 

Morristown, Tenn 

Nashville. Tenn 



NORMAL SCHOOLS. 



Central Alabama Academy 

State Colored Normal and Industrial School . 

Emerson Institute * 

State Normal School for Colored Students.. 

Normal Department of Talladega College*.. 

Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute.. 

Normal Department of Philander Smith 
College. 

Branch Normal College of Arkansas Indus- 
trial University. 

Miner Normal School 

Normal Department of Howard University. 

State Normal College for Colored Teachers. 

Normal Department of Atlanta University.. 

The Paine Institute 

Normal Department of New Orleans Uni- 
versity. 

Normal Department of Stra,ight University. 

Mississippi State Colored Normal School... 

Jackson College 

Normal Department of Toiigaloo University. 

Ashbcro Normal School — 

State Colored Normal School 

do 

do... 

do 



.do. 



Do. 
Do. 



Austin, Tex 

Hempstead, Tex . 
Hampton, Va 



Petersburg, Va 

Harper'sFerry,W.Va 



Normal Department of Livingstone College. 

Schofield Normal and Industrial School 

Avery Normal Institiite 

Brewer Normal School 

Training School of Knoxvllle College 

Le Moyne Normal Institute 

Morris"town Normal Academy 

Normal Department of Central Tennessee 
College. 

Normal Department of Fisk University 

Normal Department of Roger Williams Uni- 
versity. 

Tillotson Collegiate and Normal Institute... 

Prairie View State Normal School 

Hampton Normal and Agricultural Insti- 
tute. 

Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute ... 

Storer College . 

Coloi'ed normal students in various North- 
ern schools. 



M.E 

Nonsect. 

Con.g 

Nonsect. 
Cong.... 
Nonsect. 
M.E 



Nonsect... 

Nonsect... 
Nonsect... 
Nonsect... 
Nonsect... 
M.E. So... 
M.E 



Nonsect.. 
Nonsect.. 

Bapt 

Cong 

Friends .. 
Noirsect-. 
Nonsect.. 
Nonsect-. 
Nonsect.. 
Nonsect . 
A. M. E. Z 



Cong.... 
Cong.... 
Nonseci; 

Cong 

M.E 

M.E 



Cong 
Bapfc 



Cong 

Nonsect 
Cong 



Nonsect 
Nonsect. 



Total . 



* In 1888-89. 

a In all the departments. 



5 

5 

10 

al8 



15 



126 



a836 

35 

225 

13 

176 

40 
136 
10 
81 
50 
36 

59 

75 
263 

33 

86 
140 
137 
115 

47 
119 

33 
185 
260 
300 

37 
155 
201 

21 

37 
231 



138 
559 

320 
176 
144 



6,201 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE, 



1087 



Table G. — Statistks of insi Hut ions for thcinstniction of the colored race, for 1889-90 — 

Coutinued. 



Location. 



Athens. Ala 

Prattville, Ala 
Selma, Ala 



Talladega, Ala- -- 
Little Rock, Ark 



Washington, D. C... 



Jacksonville. Fla. 

Key West, Fla.... 

Live Oak, Fla .... 

Athens, Ga 

Do - 

Do 

Atlanta, Ga 

Do 



Do. 



Do 

Cave Spring, Ga... 

La Grange, Ga 

Macon, Ga 

Thomasville, Ga .. 
Waynesboro, Ga . . 
Berea. Ky 

Lexington, Kv 

New Castle. Ky ... 
Williamsburg, Ky 

Alexandria, La 

New Iberia, La 

New Orleans, La . . 
Do 



Do 
Do 



Do. 



Winsted. La 

Baltinioi'e, Md ... 

Clinton, Miss 

Holly Springs, Miss.. 

Meridian, Miss 

Tongaloo. Miss. 

Beaulort, N. C 

Blowing Rock, N. C. 
Charlotte, N, C 



Concord, N. C 

Greensbpro, N. C . 

Raleigh, N. C 

Salisbury, N. C . . . 



Winton, N. C 

South New Lime, Ohio 
Wilberforce, Ohio 

Lincoln University, 
Pa. 

Oxford, Pa 

Charleston, S. C ■._ 

Chester S. O 

Columbia, S.C 

Do 



Progmore, S. C... 
Orangeburg, S. C . 



Bolls, Tenn 

Knoxville. Tenn... 

Mason. Tenn 

Morristown, Tenn. 



INSTITUTIONS FOR SECONDARY INSTRUC- 
TION. . 



Trinity School 

Prattville Male and Female Academy 

Preparatory Department of Selma Unlvex'- 
sity. 

Talladega College 

Preparatory Department of Philander 
Smith College. 

Preparatory Department of Howard Uni- 
versity. 

Co ok ni an I n s t i t u t e 

Convent of Mary Immaculate 

Florida Institute 

Jewel Normal School 

Knox Institute 

Pierce Chapel* 

Atlanta Baptist Seminary _ 

Preparatory Department of Atlanta Uni- 
versity. 

Preparatory Department of Clark Univer- 
sity. 

Spelman Seminary. 

Mercer Female Seminary*... 

La Grange Academy 

Ballard Normal School 

Industrial Institute 

Haven Academy 

Preparatory Departmtjnt of Berea College.. 

Lexington Colored Normal School* 

Christian Bible .School 

Williamsburg Colored Academy* 

Alexandria Academy _ 

Motint Carmel Convent 

La Harps Academy 

Preparatory Department of Leland Uni- 
versity. 

Preparatory Department of New Orleans 
University. 

Preijaratory Department of Southern Uni- 
versity. 

Preparatory Department of Straight Uni- 
versity. 

Gilbert Academy 

Morgan College 

Mt. Hermon I^'emale Seminary 

Prep.iratory Department of Rust University. 

Meridian Academy 

Tougaloo University 

Washbuiii Seminary 

Colored Academy 

Preparatory Department of Biddle Univer- 
sity. 

Scotia Seminr„ry 

Bennett Seminary 

Preparatory Department of Shav,' University 

Preparatory Department of Living-st on Uni- 
versity. • 

Chowan Academy 

Nevr Lime Institute 

Preparatory Department of Wilberforce 
University. 

Preparatoi-y Department of Lincoln Uni- 
versity. 

Oxford Academy 

Wallingford Academy 

Brainerd Institute 

Benedict Institute 

Preparatory Department of Allen Univer- 
sity. 

Penn Industrial and Normal School 

Prei)aratory Department of Clafliu Univer- 
sity. 

Bells Male and Female Academy. 

Knoxville College _ 

West Tennessee Preparatory School* 

Morristov.m Seminary and Normal Institute 
*Inl888-89. 



Religious 
denomina- 
tion. 



Cong 

Nonsect. 
Bapt 



Cong . 
M.E.. 



Nonsect 



M.E. 
Cath. 
Bapt 



Bapt 

Nonsect. 



M.E. 



Bapt 
Bapt . 



Cong 



Non.se c 
Cong . . 
Christ. 
Cong . . 



Bapt . 
M.E. 



Nonsect.. 
Cong 



M.E 

M.E 

Nonsect. 

M.E 

M.E 



Cong . 
Cong . 
Pi'csb 



Presb 

M.E 

Bapt 

A. M. E. Z 

Bapt 



In- 
struct- 
ors. 



A. M. E . 
Presb .. 



Nonsect. 
Pi'esb ... 



Bapt ... 
A.. M, E . 



Nonsect. 
M. E .... 



Nonsect.. 
U. Presb . 

M.E 

ME. 



1088 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1889-90. 



Table 6. — Statistics of institutions for the instruction of the colored race, for 1889-90- 

Continued. 



Location. 



Nashville, Tenn . 



Do. 
Do. 



Hearne, Tex... 

Marshall, Tex . 

Do 

Waco. Tex 

Walnut, Tex... 

Norfolk, Va ... 

Richmond, Va . 

Do........ 



Selma, Ala 

Little Rock, Ark 

Washington, D.C ... 
Atlanta, Ga = 

Do. 

Berea.Ky.- 

New Orleans, La 

Do 

Do 

Do....... 

Holly Springs, Miss. 
Rodney, Miss 



Charlotte, N.C , 

Raleigti,N.C , 

Salisbury, N. C 

Wilber f or ce, Ohio 

Lincoln "University, 
Pa. 

Columbia, S. C ... 

Orangeburg, S. C ... 
Nashville, Tenn ..... 

Do. 

Do. 



In anao. 



INSTITUTIONS FOR SECONDARY INSTRUC- 
TION— Continued. 

Preparatory Department of Central Tennes- 
see College. 

Preparatory Department of Fisk University 

Preparatory Department of Roger Williams 
University. 

Hearne Academy 

Bishop College. 

Wiley University 

Paul Quinn College 

Central College 

Norfolk Mission School 

Moore Street Industrial School 

Hartshorn Memorial College _ _ , 

Colored pupils attending various other sec- 
ondary schools. 

Total ._ , 



UNIVERSITIES AND COLI^EGES. ( 



Selma University 

Philander Smith College... 

Howard University 

Atlanta University... 

Clark University 

Berea College. 

Leland Univer.sity 

New Orleans University 

Southern University 

Straight University 

Rust University 

Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
lege. 

Biddle University 

Shaw University 

Livingstone College 

Wilberf orce University 

Lincoln University 



Selma, Ala .„ 

Talladega, Ala 



Tuscaloosa, Ala 
Little Rock, Arl= 



Washington, D. G . 

Do ,., 

Atlanta, Ga 

Do 

New Orleans, La., 



Do 
Do 



Holly Springs, Miss 
Charlotte, N.C 



Raleigh, N. C 
Do 



All en University 

Claflin University 

Ceil tral Tennessee College ^ 

Fisk University 

Roger V," illiams University 

Colored students attending various North- 
ern universities and colleges. 



Total . 



SCHOOLS OF THEOLOGY. 

Theological Department of Selma Univer- 
sity. 

Theological Department of Talladega Col- 
lege. 

Institute for Training Colored Ministers 

Theological Department of Philander Smith 
College. 

Theological Department of Howard Univer- 
sity. 

V/ayland Seminary 

Atlanta Seminary 

Ga.mmon Theological Seminary , 

Gilbert Haven School of Theology (New Or- 
leans University). 

Theological Department of Leland Univer- 
sity. 

Theological Department of Straight Univer- 
sity. 

Theological Department of Rust University 

Theological Department of Biddle Univer- 
sity. 

Theological Department of St. Augustine's 
Normal School. 

Theological Department of Shaw Univer- 
sity, 
a Students in preparatory departments are not included here, 



Religious 
denomina- 
tion. 



In- 
struct- 
ors. 



M. E. 



Cong 
Bapt 



Bapt 

Bapt 

M. E , 

A.M. E... 
Nonsect- 
U. Presb . 



Bapt 



Bapt 

M.E 

Nonsect 
Nonsect 

M.E 

Nonsect. 

Bapt 

M.E 

Nonsect 

Coug 

M.E 

Nonsect. 



Presb... 

Bapt 

A. M. E . . 
A. M.E.. 
Presb ... 



A. M. E . 

M.E.... 
M.E.... 
Cong ... 
Bapt ... 



Bapt . 
Cong. 



Presb 

M.E... 



Nonsect 



Bapt , 
Bapt 
M.E-, 
M.E., 



Bapt ., 

Cong., 

M.E.., 
Presb 

P. E.. 

Bapt . 



6122 



Stu- 
dents. 



See Secondary schools. 



6 Many of these gave instruction to students in the preparatory departments also. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1089 



Table G. — Statistics of institutions for the instruction of the colorcdrace, for lSSO-90 — 

Continued. 



Location. 



Name, 



Religious 
denomina- 
tion. 



In- 
struct- 
ors. 



"Vvilbcrforce, Ohio... 

Lincoln University, 
Pa. 

Columbia, S. C 

Do 

Orangeburg, S. C 

Nashville, Tenn 

Do 

Do 

Richmond, Va 



Washington, D. C 

Raleigh, N. C 

Wilber force, O 

Columbia, S. C 

Nashville, Tenn 



Washington, D. C. 

New Orleans, La . . 

Raleigh, N. C 

Nashville, Tenn... 



Littlo Rock, Ark 

Do 

St. Augustine, Fla.. 
Cave Spring, Ga 

Macon, Ga 

Danville, Ky 

Louisville, Ky 

Baltimore, Md 

Jackson, Miss 

Raleigh, N. C 

Cedar Spring, S. C. 

Knoxville, Tenn 

ED 00 



SCHOOLS OF THEOLOGY— continued. 

Theological Department of Wilberfotce Uni- 
versity. 

Theological Department of Lincoln Univer- 
sity. 

Benedict Institute 

Theological Department of Allen University. 

Parker Theological Institute 

Theological Department of Central Tennes- 
see College. 

Theological Department of Fisk University. 

Theological Department of Roger Williams 
University. 

Richmond Theological Seminary 



A.M. E. 
Presb .. 



Bapt ... 
A. M. E . 
M.E.... 
M.E.... 



Colored students in theological schools de- 
signed for whites. 



Cong.. 
Bapt.. 

Bapt . . 



Total 



SCHOOLS OF LAW. 



Law Department of Howai'd University 

Law Department of Shaw University 

Law Department of Wilberforce University. 

Law Department of Allen University 

Law Department of Central Tennessee Col- 
lege. 

Colored students attending law schools de- 
signed for whites. 

Total 



SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE, DENTISTRT, AND 
PHARMACY. 

Hov/ard University : 

Medical Department _ 

Pharmaceutical Department 

Dental Department 

Medical Department of New Orleans Univer- 
sity. 
Leonard Medical College, of Shaw Univer- 
sity. 
Central Tennessee College: 

Meharry Medical Department 

Dental Department 

Pharmaceutical Department 

Colored students attending schools designed 
for v^^hitcs. 

Total 



SCHOOLS FOB THE DEAF AND DUMB AND THE 
BLIND. 

Arkansas School for the Blind (colored de- 
partment ) . 

Arkansas Institute for Deaf Mutes 

Florida Institute for the Deaf and the Blind. 

Georgia Institute for the Deaf and Dumb 
(colored department). 

Georgia Academy for the Blind (colored de- 
partment). 

Kentiicky Institution for the Education of 
Doaf Mutes (colored department). 

Kentucky Institution for the Education of 
the Blind (colored department). 

Maryland School foi- Colored Blind and Deaf 
"Mutes. 

Institution for Education of the Deaf (col- 
ored department) . 

North Carolina Institution for the Deaf and 
Dumb and the Blind (colored department). 

South Carolina Institution for the Educa- 
tion of the Deaf and Dumb and the Blind 
(colored department). • 

Tennessee School for the Deaf and Dumb 
(colored department). 
a Instructors in both white and colored depari 

-G9 



fl6 
a\Q 
017, 

c9 
5 

«S 
alO 

«5 

filO 



ments. 



1090 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1889-80. 



Table G. — Statistics of institutions for the instruction of the colored race, 1SS9-90 — 

Continued. 



Location. 


Name. 


Religious 
denomina- 
tion. 


In- 
struct- 
ors. 


Stu- 
dents. 


Nashville, Tenn 


SCHOOLS FOB THE DEAF AND DUMB AND THE 

BLIND — continued. 

Tennessee School for the Blind (colored de- 
partment). 

Institution for Deaf and Dumb and Blind 
Colored Youth. 

Colored students in various institutions de- 
signed lor whites. 

Total 




clO 
2 


14 


Austin, Tex . 




Co 






DO 












109 


4£3 











a Instructors in both white and colored departments. 

Table T. — Summary of statistics of institutions for the instruction of the colored race, 

for 1SS9~90. 



states. 


Enrollment 

in common 

schools. 


Nor 


mal schools. 


Institut] 
ary 


ons for -second- 
instruction. 


Schools. 


Teach- 
ers. 


Pupils. 


Schools. 


Teach- 
ers. 


Pupils. 




115, 490 

59, 468 
4,656 

13,333 

37, 281 
150, 702 

54,716 
a 48, 137 

36, 372 
176, 541 

32, 804 
116,689 


6 

2 


53 
4 


1,600 
189 


4 
1 


15 
2 


617 




28 






District of Columbia 

Florida 


2 
1 


19 
3 
6 


176 

10 

131 


1 
3 
12 
4 
8 
1 
4 


5 
15 

75 
25 
C3 
10 

27 


. 40 
273 


Georgia 


2, G7S 
S58 




2 




95 


2,293 




1.51 




"^ 


14 


371 


701 






North Carolina 


7 


■ 21 


677 


8 

6 
7 
5 
3 




23 
16 
7 
35 
50 
33 
14 


1,003 


Ohio 


270 


Pennsylvania .. 










140 


South Carolina 

Tennessee 


111,888 
99, 009 
101,471 
122, 059 
e,S29 


1 

T 


21 

13 

51 
8 


745 
672 
336 
879 
176 
144 


1,076 
1,169 


Texas . 


596 


Virginia 


341 






Other states 






83 
















Total 


1,289,014 


39 


-.253 


6,201 


71 


415 


12, 4)20 




- 



a In 1889. 



Table 8. — Summary of statistics of institutions for the instruction of the colored race, 

for 1889-90. 



States. 


Universities and col- 
leges. 


Schools of theology. 


Schools of law. 


Schools. 


Teach- 
ers. 


Pupils. 


Schools. 


Teach- 
ers. 


Pupils. 


Schools. 


T|-^-Pupils. 




1 

1 
1 

1 
4 
2 
3 
1 
1 
2 
3 


5 
3 
6 
12 
9 
19 
11 
17 
6 
10 
10 
14 


9 
12 

25 
33 
38 
102 
107 
7 
96 
30 
,92 


3 

1 
2 

S 


3 
10 

7 


64 
20 
80 

122 












District of Columbia 


1 


5 29 


Kentiicky 








3 
1 
3 
1 
1 
3 
3 
1 


7 
4 
7 
4 
7 
6 
5 
4 


56 
26 
71 
18 
25 
69 
73 
64 
46 




1 


Mississippi 




::::::::! :::::::: 


N or th Carolina 

Ohio 


1 
1 


1 

3 


8 
3 


Pennsylvania 

South Carolina.. 

Tennessee „ 




1 
1 


1 


9 
8 






Other States 






238 






6 

















Total 


23 


130 


811 


24 


71 


734 


5 


11 


63 







EDUCATION OF THE COLOKED RACE. 



1091 



Table 9. — Summary of statistics of institutions for the instruction of the colored race, 

for 1889-00. 



States. 


Schools of medicine. 


Schools for the deaf and 
dumb and the blind. 




Schools. 


Teachers. Pupils. 


Schools. JTeachers. 


Pupils. 


Arkansas .. 






2 


15 


23 


District of ColumMa 


1 1 10 j 121 






1 
2 


10 
26 


11 




1 


50 






63 


Louisiana 


1 


4 


11 




Maryland .. .. ..-. 


1 

1 

1 

. 1 

1 


5 
8 
10 
5 


48 


Mississippi 








18 


North Carolina 

Soutii Carolina .. . .... 


1 


7 


44 


56 
23 


Tennessee 


1 


5.'5 


71 


20 ' 36 


Texas ... 


2 


65 


Other States 






63 


96 














Total 


4 


52 


310 


14 , 109 


483 











Table 10.— Number of schools for the colored race andenrolhnent in them hy institu- 
tions ivithout reference to States. 



Class of institutions 



Schools. 



Enroll- 
ment. 



Public schools 

Normal schools 

Institutions for secoudai-y instruction 

Universities and colleges 

Schools of theology 

Schools of law 

Schools of medicine 

Schools for the deal' and dumb and the blind 



Total . 



1,289,944 

6, 201 

12, 420 

811 

734 

63 

310 



l,iilO,Wl 



NEED OF GREATER ACCOMMOD.\TIONS. 



The number of (students in the colleges and schools for secondary instruction 
of the colored race does not show the ra])id increase from year to year which 
would naturally be expected, when we consider the large number of children 
that have been attsnding the common schools, many of whom should now be 
qualified for entering higher institutions. But an examination of the reports of 
colored schools and of journals devoted to colored education soon discloses one 
reason why there is not the increase expected, viz, the vv^antof accommodations 
for more students. Many of the colored schools of higher grade are already badly 
overcrowded ; some of them are so crowded as to seriously endanger the health of 
the studentsand htmdreds of others have been refused admission on account of want 
of room, whilo others still have not applied because they already knew there was 
no place for them. Very fevi^ new schools of the higher grades are established 
for colored students, as the colored people themselves have not the means for doing 
so, and the missionary societies generally content themselves with sustaining or a.t 
least strengthening the institutions they have already established. INIany of the 
schools adopt all sorts of expedients to make room for applicants bogging for 
admission, allowing them to s'e^p on cots in the halls, making use of old build- 
ing.^ which had been discarded as nolonger fit for occupancy, and vei'y generally 
crowding the students in excessive numbers in the buildings designed for them. 
Judg-ing from the accounts given it would seem reasonable to suppose that the 
number of colored students would be largely increased immediately if there were 
accommodations for them. A want of accommodations is especially to be regret- 
ted when it is consideved how anxiov:s the young men and women are to receive 
an education and what sacrifices both students and parents willingly make in 
order that they may receive on 9. 

A few quotations on this subject are given from various sources. Dr. C H. 
Parkhurst, editor of Zion's Herald, says: "Wo should have ten schcols where 



1092 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1889-90. 

we now have one. Every institution is crowded to overflowing. If God is say- 
ing anything in this jubilee hour to the church it is, enlarge, enlarge, enlarge 
your beneficence ; enlarge the scope of operation ; enlarge the teaching and 
boarding capability. We rejoice over the achievements of these twenty-five 
years ; but at the same time we are humbled that the church has done so little." 

Morristoivn Normal Academy, Tennessee; number of students, 306. — "This insti- 
tution is situated in the midst of a colored population of not less than 250,000. 
To meet the educational requirements of this vast number of people, there is 
only one other school of a similar grade within a radius of 300 miles. The peo- 
ple are realizing, as never before, tlieir great need of an education, and are 
crowding every room to its utmost capacity. Last year scores of bright, earn- 
est, and self-sacrificing young people were sent away for want of room." 

"The present dormitory is entirely too small for the number of students 
crowded into it. For the last two years we have been compelled to put three 
students in each bed, and to place cots in the halls. Even then it was difficult 
to satisfy applicants that we were crowded and could not accommodate them." 

Grand View, Tenn. — " The classes are full and the accommodations inadequate. 
The school numbers one hundred and eleven. It is necessary to crowd four boys 
into each i::-?>n of the boys' hall. Four boys are boarding themselves in a 
shackly log building at the foot of the hill. Their grit is admirable." 

Tougaloo, Miss. — "Both the dormitories are crowded. The ladies' hall is sup- 
prsed to accommodate 75 girls. One hundred and six are crowded into it to-day. 
We have turned away nearly one hundred more because we had not room for 
them. Every indication is that the crowd of applicants will be greater next 
year than ever. Already applications are coming in." 

Meridian, Miss. — "The work of the school is hindered by lack of room. We 
have enrolled this year 232 pu.pj.ls, and many have been turned off because we 
could not seat them. We opened in December of 1888 with 28 pupils. A school 
for more advanced pupils is needed in this part of Mississippi. We have 30 
young- people in school who come from the five adjoining counties." 

Straight University,^ Neio Orleans. — "It has been a golden year for Straight 
University. Financially it has been, our best year. A larger proportion of stu- 
dents able^ to jDay came to us. We want to grow, and have every opportunity to 
do so save that our quarters are too small. We have turned away during the 
year probably 200 applicants, many of them for the boarding department. We 
have had to put cots in nearly all the rooms, packing them too full for comfort, 
as it was very hard to say No to young people who came hundreds of miles f.nd 
begged tearfully for admission. ' The school has grown dvu'ing the last eight 
years from 200 to 600 and is not 1,000 only because we had no room for them. 
Our gradiaates are filling important positions all over the South. Several are 
superintendents in Texas, Kansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. One holds an 
important office in Honduras ; others are doing good work in Cuba and Mexico. 
Eight are filling important positions in this city. We have no trouble in get- 
ting positions ifor our young people. Indeed, we can not supply as fast as de- 
manded. Often as many as twenty are called for when we have none to send." 

Bennett College, Greensboro, ISf. C— " Our chief need is a new dormitory building. 
The present building, though large, is far too small for the increasing demands 
upon us for more commodious quarters. Students are pouring in upon us every 
day, and still we hear of others coming." 

iViley University, Marshall , Tex. — "There should be at once erected a large 
central building, which would be at once filled with students." 

Gilbert Academy, Winsied, La.— ^^ We could have an attendance of a thousand 
students within a year if we had buildings to accommodate them." 

Central Tennessee College. — " The attendance during the past year (1889-90) is 
such as to encourage the thought that the desire for education, and that more 
advanced, is growing rather than diminishing among the colored people. The 
number in attendance during the past year has tested our buildings to their utmost 
capacity. We need additional accommodations. This educational work has 
really just begun, and the outlook is that all our schools will be crowded more 
and more. We need a new chapel. Our present one is not sufficiently large to seat 
our students. We have been compelled to fill up the platform and crowd every 
seat, and yet have not room for all our students. We, need a larger chapel for 
our ordinary purposes, and a much larger one for our public occasions," 

1 In January, 1892, the main building of Straight University, New Orleans, La., was consumed 
by fire. Fortunately, however, the property was adequately insured, and a larger structure if 
now being erected in its stead. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1093 

" For our young women we need dormitories ; and for the purpose of teaching, 
cooking, nursing, domestic economy, we need enlarged facilities. We need these, 
not for our necessary school purposes only, but to create a desire for neatness 
and pleasant surroundings in the homes that these young women are to make in 
the future. The need of additional buildings is more especially evident when 
it is understood that every room on the grounds is occupied by students or teach- 
ers." 

From the Daniel Hand School, New Orleans. — It is the old story — 200 turned away 
for lack of room. A few have come from the country without ever thinking 
that they might not find a place, and stand hopelessly on the street corner talk- 
ing it over. 

Another teacher says : " We are crowded to overflowing in every grade of the 
school but one, in which we have three unoccupied seats. In the normal depart- 
ment twenty pupils are without desks. Yesterday one of the ministers of the 
citj'^ applied for admission of his two daughters, wlao had completed the course 
in the public schools — just the class of pupils we like to have come — but I could 
not admit them for want of room." 

From report of President T. D. Tucker, of Florida State Normal College for Col- 
ored Students. — "The surest test of the appreciation of the race for the school is 
in the sacrifices made by patrons in sending and maintaining scholars here and 
the eagerness of the latter to avail themselves of the opportunity offex-ed them 
for instruction. With limited means or from daily earnings parents send their 
children to this school from distant parts of the State, and meet all the financial 
engagements incident to the education of a young person during the entire ses- 
sion of nine months. Although this is the second j^ear since the school has had 
dormitory halls, not only has every patron met all his obligations, but the de- 
mand for more room in the dormitories is restricted by our inability to provide 
for any more newcomers. 

"The promptness and regularity of attendance at the daily sessions of the 
school is another proof of high appreciation. No sever-er punishment for breach 
Ox discipline can be inflicted on any of them than to be ordered to leave school 
for even part of a day. They seem to feel that every day and hour are too pre- 
cious to be lost from the prosecution of the purpose for which they have come 
hither from their homes. This strong regard and attachment for a school but 
lately established is one of the most pleasing features, which promise for it, let 
it be hoped, a long career of usefulness. * * * Wherever the services of our 
undergraduates have been once had, there they are held most in demand — a tes- 
timonial to their efficiency and the need of them as workers in the common 
schools." 

From report of the Ame^-ican Missionary Association committee in 1S91. — "The 
total number under instruction during the year has increased by several hun- 
dred, and almost every school is crowded to overflowing, compelling in many 
cases the sad necessity of sending away great numbers of applicants from lack 
of room for their accommodation. It is evident that the thirst of the colored 
people for knowledge, shown go remarkably from the moment of their emanci- 
pation, has not diminished, but is constantly increasing." 

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. 

At Claflin University, South Carolina, a large number of students were in- 
structed in trades and industries ; in agriculture, including gardening and horti- 
culture, 40 students; in architectural drawing, 13; in art needlework, 20; in 
blacksmithing, 98; in brickmaking, bricklaying, plastering, and frescoing, 92; 
in carpentry and cabinetmaking, 1^'5 ; in cooking, 35 ; crocheting and lacemak- 
ing, 120 ; domestic economy, 13 ; dressmaking, 3ii ; mechanical engineering, 15 ; 
merchandising, 1 ; nurse-training, 14; painting, graining, and glazing, 81 ; print- 
ing, 69; steam laundry ing, 50; steam planing, sawing, turning, 26; steam mill- 
ing, grinding cereals, 4; shoemaking, 21 ; plain sewing, 190. 

President L. M. Dunton, of Claflin University, says : "In the past the negro 
has been a laborer. For years to come he must be a laborer. A few of course 
will be educated and will enter the ministry, the law, the medical profession ; 
but the vast majority must labor with their hands. It is therefore vei'y impor- 
tant to give them this manual training. We are very enthusiastic about this, 
and we do not allow any young woman to graduate until she can measure, cut, 
fit, and make a dress, and make it in style. They also learn cooking and artistic 
needlework. The young men are required to learn the principles of different 
trades, and to learn one trade thoroughly. We require a certificate from some 



1094 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1889-00. 

one of the industrial departments that they have accomplished- the required work 
before they can graduate from the institution. During the vacations these young 
men and women work at these trades that thej'' have learned at the institution. 
We have boys now earning a dollar and a half a d.ay at house painting, others 
earning $2 a day laying brick or at carpentry. In our blacksinith department 
they make all the tools they use ; they even make their own razors. This in- 
dustrial feature has been an inspiration to the literary department." 

At Gilbert Academy, Winsted, La., there are 12 students in the printing office, 
14 in the carpenter shop, 1(3 on the farm, 53 girls in the sev/ing room, 3 in the 
bakery, besides a large number in the laundry. 

Philander Smith College, Little Bock, Arlc. — " The industrial department is car- 
ried qn in a two-story frame building erected by the stud_ents. In this depart- 
ment there are 114. The citizens of Little Rock have given over $SGO towards 
paying for the building. A large number of young men have been taught the 
use of tools. In the printing department several young men and young ladies 
have been taught," 

Bust University, Mississippi. — In the carpenter shop 35 young men were in- 
structed in the use of tools and methods of construction, from the most common 
articles in use in home and on farm to fine cabinet work. Twenty-seven were 
taught shoemaking, from the making of cheap shoes to the finest French kid 
boot. Eleven were instructed in the printing office, and a monthly paper was 
published. The young men below the college course, who wei-e not assigned to 
some trade, were put in the department of agriculture. In the sevraig depart- 
ment 102 girls received useful instruction in that line. 

ClarJc University, Atlanta, Ga. — "At Clark University we have one of the best 
located as well as one of the best equipped industrial schools south of the Ohio. 
We have one large brick building, Ballard Hall, 100 by 40 feet. The first floor 
is divided into two parts ; one-half is occupied by the wheelwright shop. The 
second floor is divided into four rooms, one occupied by the printing oflice, one 
by the varnish and finishing department, another by the harness and trimming 
shop, while the remaining one is devoted to an office and mechanical drafting. 
The machinery is driven by a 30 horse-power engine. We have a blacksmith 
shop 40 by 30 feet, brick, three forges, drills, benches, etc. We have afoundry, 
60 by 40 feet, supplied with the latest improved cupola. 

" The Woman's Home Missionary Society has a building worth $6,000, built 
after the best models and thoroughly equipped with appliances for teaching in 
the culinary department, needlework, dressmaking, and all that a wife in a well- 
regulated home ought to know. The university physician has a class in nu.rse- 
training in this home also. A shoe shop and a machine shojp are among the 
things now under contemplation." 

Central Tennessee College. — "On October 15, 1890. the mechanic arts sho|) was 
dedicated to the training of young men for useful work in wood, iron, brass, and 
'steel ; in the manufacture of steam engines, scientific, and philosophical appara- 
tus. Rev. H. G. Sedgwick, M. s., who is a genius himself in mechanics and can 
readily impart instmction to others, has during the year had excellent work 
done by students in v/ood- turning, shaping and planing, castings, steel, and 
brass. One engine has been built and considerable repair work done. This is 
the best shop, and the only one of the kind, open to colored youth in this 
country." 

Br. Atticus G. Haygood, gener&l agent, of the Slater fund, sajs: "It hai been 
demonstrated that an hour or two a day in the workshop or the S3 wing room 
does not hinder in the least education in books. It has been found, as a rule, 
that the best men in the shop are the leaders in the class room. Experienced 
teachers say that industrial training fosters good discipline s/nd the upbuilding 
of strong and reliable personal character. Outside the important fact that a 
great number have learned enough of the trades to pursue them profitably, it is 
certain that thousands have learned enoiigh to be independent as citizens and 
far more capable as heads of families. That 'head, heart, and hand training' 
should go on together in these institutions is now the accepted doctrine in all 
quarters. 

"It can not be doubted that the success of industrial training in the negro 
schools has had much to do with the development of opinion throughout the 
Southern States of the importance of this-part of education in the white schools 
■of the country." 

Gsn. S. C. Armstrong on industrial training. — "Labor is a great moral and edu- 
cational force. Next to the grace of God, hard work, in its largest sense, is the 
most vital thing in Christian civilization. Subtract from any neighborhood. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1095 

witliiu a radius of ten miles, all industi^y, and in six months, in spite of churches 
and schools, what would become of ordei- and decency ? Look at the fairest civ- 
ilization, and you will see that the worst lives are at the top and at the bottom — 
those who are too rich and those who are too worthless to work. Wherever 
you find industry you find charactar and moralitj^ 

"The main thing, then, in the industrial system is to open as widely and 
broadly as possible opportunities for agricultural, mechanical, and household in- 
dustries, which shall provide negro students means to support themselves and 
to develop character. Character is the foundation. The training that our pu- 
jiils get is an endowment. An able-bodied stud.ent represents a capital of pei"- 
haps a thousand dollars. We propose to treble that. When they learn a trade 
they are v/orth threefold more in the labor market. Last Saturday I gave my 
final words to our graduating c'ass. I said to those 45 scholars, ' How many of 
you can go out into the world, and, if you can not get a school, how many can 
work in some line of industry and so support yourselves'?' There v»''as a roar. 
Every one said, 'I can,' and every one laughed. They go out into the world 
smiling at difficulties, happy in their pluck and purpose and skill. 

"We are convinced that the negro needs physical as well as mental and 
Christian training. He needs the ten hours' drnidgery v/hich he gels in the 
shops to put him in shape for the struggle of life. He must go to his work with 
an appetite.'' 

Bcv. li. II. Allen, Concord, N. C. — "We have now a large boarding school 
for colored girls. If you ever save the negroes you must save the girls and 
women. You will not elevate any ra.ce until wives and mothers can teach the 
gospel in their families. You must save the daughters of the freedmen. They 
are to be the wives and mothers and home-makers of the future. At Concord 
you will see 234 girls in a seminary, with all the appliances for education and the 
industrial arts. They do the whole work of the school— all the washing, iron- 
ing, cooking, scrubbing, and dreismaking. We take a girl for $45 a year. We 
say to her, Go to work during the vacation and make $15 or $20 and we will help 
you to the balance of the $45. In such schools, by a practical education of the 
head, hand, and heart, the girls are all well prepared to take their part in life. 
We help them to make character." 

Eev. Fmnh G. Woodicorth , president Tougaloo Tlniversity, Mississippi. — "The 
ordinai-y laborers en plantations do not often receive more than from 75 to 90 
cents per day. I want to speak of the value of industrial education. Boys Avho 
come to us untrained, often able to earn only 75 cents a day, are sent out as car- 
penters, blacksmiths, or tinsmiths, able to earn from $1.25 to $2.50 a day. We 
are having that repa>ated constantly. That is the bread-and-butter view of in- 
dustrial education, and it is worthy of mention. The mechanics who receive $2 
a day do not live in a one-room cabin. They are getting to have goyd little 
homes of their own." 

Jlxe Idgher education helps the demento.ry. — President Horace Bumstead, of 
Atlanta University : " It is a mistake to forget that the higher education of the 
few is contributing most efficiently to the elementary education of the many. 
What are the graduates of these higher institutions doing ? Are they going- 
out and enjoying their cultui'e, and making a selfish use of it? Take Atlanta 
University. We have sent out, in the last IG or 18 years, over 200 graduates from 
our collegiate and normal courses, two-thirds of whom are to-day engaged in 
teaching. They are doing this very work that we are reminded is the most 
important work to do— helping up the masses, educating the people. One must 
remember the relationship between the higher and the more elementary work. 
Where would these Southern States get their teachers for the colored public 
schools if it were not for these higher institutions '? " 

Colored teachers wanted. — President E. C. Mitchell, of Leland University, New 
Orleans : "More colored teachers must be educated. The appeals made to our 
institution to furnish teachers qualified for the higher work, or even the com- 
mon work, are far beyond the power we have to meet. If we had four times as 
many graduates, we should not be able to meet the demand made upon us for 
tsachers <yf the higher grade. All the institutions of the South must be carried 
on by colored teachers." 

W/}at hind of education the negro needs. — Dr. A. G. Haygood : " That many half- 
taught and vinwisely-taught negroes 'go to the bad' and seek money by 'short 
cuts' is not surprising. In these matters the negro's weakness illustrates his 
brotherhootl to his white neighbors. The prisons show enough half-educated 
white people to prove that merely learning the rudiments does not secure virtue. 



1096 EDUCATION REPORT, 1889-90. 

In all races it is true that with new knowledge new temptations come; strength 
to resist comes after, if at all. In all this a man of sense finds no argument 
against the education of the negro, but a demonstration of the need, for him and 
for the white race, of more and better education. 

" ' Better ' is not the same as ' more ; ' the imminent need for the negro is to 
find out what education is now -fittest for him. Nothing in these statements 
means the exclusion of the negro from the highest and widest studies of which 
some of them are capable ; it does mean, as I see it, that the ' regulation college 
curriculum' is not what most negro students need. I would exclude, by arbi- 
trary and prescriptive rules, no negro from whatever he can achieve, but I am 
persuaded that, in overlooking the hard facts of this case and in pressing the 
'college ' idea overmuch, there has been much waste of money, labor, time, op- 
portunity. 

" The educated negro man gravitates to the pulpit or the schoolroom. To the 
pul]3it first, because here he may gratify, without hindrance, his inborn love of 
speaking. He is oratorical by instinct, and this race will more and more de- 
velop great orators. The educated negro woman goes to the schoolroom by 
preference, but she would rather be wife to the preacher. Along here are perils 
that wise negroes understand. 

"Why should such indications and tendencies surprise us? ISlo man lives by 
the labor of his hands who can live by his wits, least of all American v/hite men. 
The negro's dangers are greater because his opportunities outside the labor of 
his hands are few. No arguments, nor frettings, nor denunciations, nor laws, 
nor force can multiply them; time and new condicions, possible only to the 
' time element,' can increase them. 

" The educated negro finds it difficult to succeed in the practice of law. White 
people employ attorneys of their own race, and a negro will have none but a 
white man for lawyer when large sums are at stake, or life or liberty are im- 
periled. But he has ' made a beginning' in the law. 

" Next to teaching and preaching, medicine among j)rofessional pursuits oSers 
the best field and the best opportunity for the capable negro. The reason is, 
there is a generally recognized and felt need of negro doctors. Two of the insti- 
tutions in connection with the Slater fund — Meharry Medical College, Nash- 
ville, Tenn., and Leonard Medical School, Raleigh, N. C. — are thoroughgoing 
schools of medicine and command the respect of the medical profession. The 
large majority of the graduates of the schools are doing admirably in the prac- 
tice of medicine. They are a blessing to their race and are successful and use- 
ful citizens." • 

The follov/ing, from the Churleston [S. C.) News and Cottrier, gives some idea 
of how the negro appreciates an education at Claflin University, South Carolina: 
" The students come from all parts of the State, and a better class of colored 
families are represented than usual. From the number of students (902), their 
condition and their work, it would seem as if the colored people are taking moi-e 
than ordinary interest in the cause of education. Many parents are making 
great sacrifices to send their children to Claflin, and many of the students ai-e in 
much better circumstances than their parents at home. The students lack early 
home training. They do not have access to daily papers, magazines, or books 
like most white children. As a rule subjects of importance and interest are not 
discussed in the family circle, and on account of these drawbacks the colored 
student labors under disadvantages. A lack of general information is noted by 
the professor. Their behavior is, as a rule, very good. There is not, in the 
knowledge of the officials of the institution, a single student who visits a bar- 
room, smokes in the campus or in the streets. 

" A student probably has less expense at Claflin than at any other educational 
institution in the country. Think of it — all actual expenses for a session covered 
by $52 ! What can be cheaper? This is popular education. The figures seem 
to be hardly credible. Here is the itemized bill for a month: Rent,$l; inciden- 
tals, 50 cents; tuition, 50 cents; board, $3.50; washing, $1; total, $6.50per month 
and $52 per session. You may think that dormitory rent at $1 and washing at 
$1 are reasonable. But you, as many others, will ask how can a living working 
being be fed for $3.50? Well, it is done at Claflin, and here is how it is accom- 
plished. Fifty students club together and get a table at the dining hall for 
which they pay no rent. They are not afraid of work and agree to do all the 
washing, waiting, and setting of tables in turn. A purchasing committee is ap- 
pointed, and they have potatoes, meat, corn, and rice at the cheapest market 
price. The only expense besides the food is that of a cook. It seems almost in- 
credible, but the students eat substantial meals and the bill of fare shows what 
they eat." 



EDUCATION OF THE COLOEED RACE. 1097 

From the report of the American Missionary Association committee in 1S91. — " One 
of the greatest needs of the coloi'ed people is coming to be that of competent, 
educated, Christian leaders of their own race, preachers, teachers, and other 
professional men, a need not likely to he adequately supplied except by the col- 
leges and higher schools sustained by this and other Christian bodies. It may 
be safely assumed from the history of other races that no leadership will be ]Der- 
manently accepted by the colored people except such as shall come from their 
own ranks. In furnishing through its highgj' institutions such a thoroughly 
equipped leadership to take the place of its own at the earliest moment, this as- 
sociation will make one of its best contributions to the welfare of the colored 
race. Another encouraging fact in the same direction is the growing interest 
in the theological department. As an ignorant ministry has been and still is 
the curse of the colored people, a thoroughly educated ministry is the highest 
boon we can possibly confer vipon them." 

^^ Straight University has numbered 582 students, who come from a wide area. 
It is not uncommon for students who can speak no English to seek this institu- 
tion from Cuba, Central America, Mexico, or some parts of Louisiana. It is an 
inspiring thought that they will return to their homes, as some have returned, 
with Christ in their hearts and thrifty thoughts in their heads to radiate good 
influences in those revolutionary states. This institution has been more^han 
filled. Hundreds have been refused admission. Every year shows marked im- 
provement in the quality of student life in this, as in all our schools. Pupils 
come better prepared. They are more earnest and more energetic. The de- 
mand for teachers from this institution is greater than the supply. Seventeen 
of its former students are now teaching in the city schools of New Orleans. 
Many others ai'e filling important places as teachers, superintendents, and 
preachers in neighboring States. Various industries for men and all kinds of 
needlework and housework for women are well taught." , 

Temperance is taught in all the higher colored schools. — Rev. J. C. Roy : " In all of 
these schools the principle of temperance is taught and the students go out and 
propagate these sentiments among their people. In this way they produce an 
immense amount of temperance sentiment among the colored folks." 

llie Negro Conference at Ikislcegee, Ala. — A negro conference made up of rep- 
resentatives from that district of the South known as the " Black Belt" was 
held at Tuskegee, Ala., on February 23, 1892. About 450 coloi-ed farmers, min- 
isters, and teachers were present, and a full and candid discussion was had 
of questions affecting the industrial, moral, educational and religious future of 
the negro population. 

In dealing with the question of the proper means to be adopted for the cor- 
rection of the existing misatisfactory order of things, the conference suggested 
various remedies, which may be summarized, in the language of those assembled, 
as follows : 

" (1) That, as far as possible, we aim to raise at home our own meat and bread. 

(2) That as fast as possible we buy land, even though a very few acres at a time. 

(3) That a large number of our young people be taught trades and that they be 
urged to prepare themselves to enter as largely as possible all the various avo- 
cations of life. (4) That we especially try to broaden the field of labor for our 
women. (5) That we make every sacrifice and practise every form of economy 
that we may purchase land and free ourselves from our burdensome habit of liv- 
ing in debt. (6) That we urge our ministers and teachers to give more attention 
to the material condition and home life of the people. (7) We urge that our 
people do not depend entirely upon the State to provide schoolhouses and 
lengthen the time of the schools, but that they take hold of the matter them- 
selves where the State leaves off, and by supplementing the public funds from 
their own pockets and by building schoolhouses bring about the desired results. 
(8) We urge patrons to give earnest attention to the mental and moral fitness of 
those who teach their schools. (9) That we urge the doing away with all secta- 
rian prejudice in the management of schools." 

I'he Lake Mohonk Conference. — In June, 1891, there was held at Lake Mohonk, 
N. Y., a conference of distinguished editors and educators on the negro question. 
It was presided over by ex-President Hayes, and among those present were Dr. 
Lyman Abbott, of the Christian Union; Dr. W. H. Ward, of the Independent; 
Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Education: Gen. O. O. How- 
ard, Dr. Charles H. Hall, Mr. Morris K. Jessup, and Rev. R. T. Middleditch,of 
the Christian Enquirer. At the conclusion of the conference the following plat- 
form was adopted. 



1098 EDUCATION REPORT, 1889-90. 

1. Tho accomplishing of the primary education of the negro by the States 
themselves, and the further development of means and methods to this end, till 
all negroes are creditably trained in primary schools. 

2. The largely inci'eased support of schools aided by private benevolence, 
which shall supply teachers and preachers for the negro race. 

3. The grounding of the vast majority of these teachers and preachers in com- 
mon English studies and in the English Bible, with the further opportunity for 
any of them to carry on their stii4ies as far as they may desire. 

4. The great extension of industrial education for both men and v^omen. 

5. The encouragement of secondary schools established, maintained, and con- 
ducted by negroes. 

6. The purchase of homesteads by as many negro households as possible, with 
an increased number of decent houses to replace the old one-room cabin. 

7. The establishment by the Government of postal savings-banks, in which ne- 
groes can be encouraged to save their earnings until they can purchase homes. 

8. The aid of public education by the National Government for the special bene- 
fit of those sections in which illiteracy most prevails. 

9. The removal of all disabilities under which negroes labor by the sure forces 
of edj.ication, thrift, and religion. 

HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL. INSTITUTE. 

A pamphlet has been published giving a sketch of the twenty-tv/o years' work 
of the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, Hampton, Va., a full and 
extended account of which is soon to be issued. As this institution has a very 
important part in the work of educating the colored race, having been one of 
the pioneer colored schools, and having at the present time nearly 1,000 students 
in attendance, 650 of v^hom are boarding pupils, it may be well to learn from 
this pamphlet something of the character which was so active in its establish- 
ment and also of the early history of the enterprise. 

Dr. S. C. Armstrong, who has had charge of the institute from its foundation, 
was born in the Hawaiian Islands in 1839. His pai^ents had been missionaries 
there for eight years at the time of his birth, and his father was the minister of pub- 
lic instruction from 1847 till the time o! his death, in 1860. Dr. S. C. Armstrong, 
then a young man, left the islands and went to Williams College, Massachusetts, 
to complete his education, and he attributes whatever measure of success he has 
attained to the instruction there received from Dr. Mark Hopkins. When he 
undertook the work at Hampton his purpose was to put in operation there the 
same plan and system of education that he had become acquainted with in the 
Hawaiian Islands under his father's superintendence. His statement of the dis- 
ordered condition of the country at that time shows that he had many serious 
difficulties to contend with. 

"In March, 1866, I was placed by Gen. O. O.Howard, Commissioner of the 
Freedmen's Bureau, in charge of ten counties in eastern Virginia, v/ith head- 
quarters at Hampton, the great contraband camp, to manage negro affairs and 
to adjust, if possible, the relations of the races. 

" Colored squatters by thousands and Gen. Lee's disbanded soldiers returning 
to their families, came together in my district on hundreds of abandoned farms 
which Government had seized and allowed the freedmen to occupy. There was 
irritation, but both classes were ready to do the fair thing. It was about a two 
years' task to settle matters by making terms with the landowners, who employed 
many laborers on their restored nomes. Swarms Avent back on isasses to the 'old 
plantation' with thirty, days' rations, and nearly a thousand were placed in fami- 
lies in Massachusetts as servants through the agency of a ' home ' in Cambridge- 
port, under charge of a committee of Boston ladies. 

" Hardest of all was to settle the ration question ; about 2,000, having been fed 
for years, were demoralized and seemed hopeless. Notice was given that in three 
months, on October 1 , 1866, all rations would be stopped, except to those in hospital, 
for vi^hom full pro%4sion was made. Trouble was expected, but there wa,s not a 
ripple of iter a complaint that day. Their resource was surprising. The negro 
in a tight place is a genius. 

" It was my duty every three months to personally visit and report on the con- 
dition of the ten counties ; to inspect the bureau office in each in charge of an 
army officer ; to investigate troubles and to study the relations of the races. The 
better class of whites were well disposed, but inactive in suppressing any mis- 
conduct of the lower class. Friendliness between the races was genei-al, broken 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1099 

only by political excitement, and was due, I think, to the fact thnt they had been 
brought up together, often in the most intimate way, from childhood ; a surprise 
to me, for on missionary ground parents, with the spirit of martyrs, take every^ 
pains to prevent contact of their children with the natives around them. 

" Martial law prevailed ; there were no civil courts, and for many months the 
bureau officer in'each county acted on all kinds of cases, gaining generally the 
confidence of both races. "When martial law was ovjr and the rest were 
everywhere discontinued, the military court at Hampton was kept up by com- 
mon consent for about six months. 

' ' Scattered families were reunited. From even Louisiana — for the whole South 
was mapped out, each county officered, and as a rule wisely administsred — would 
come inquiries about the relatives and friends of one who had been sold to trad- 
ers years bofore ; and great justice and humanity»vere done in bringing together 
broken households. 

" Gen. Howard and the Freedmen's Bureau did for the ex-slavesfrcm 1865 to ^ 
1870 a marvelous woi-k, for which due credit has not been given ; among other ' 
things, giving to their education an impulse and a foundation, by granting three 
and a half millions of dollars for schoolhouses, salaries, etc., promoting the edu- 
cation of about a million colored children. The principal negro educational in- 
stitutions of tc-day, then starting, were liberally aided at a time of vital need. 
Hampton received over $^0,000 through Gen. Howard for building and improve- 
ments. 

"On relieving my predecessor, Capt. C. B. Wilder, of Boston, at the Hampton 
headquarters, I found an dJcti've, excellent educational work going on under the 
American Missionary Association of New York, which, in 1862, had opened, in 
the vicinity the first school for freedmen in the South, in charge of an ex-slave, 
Mr3. Mary Peake. Over 1,500 children Avere gathering daily : some in old hos- 
pital barracks — for here was Camp Hamilton, the base hospital of the Army of 
the James, where, during the war, thousands of sick and wounded soldiers had 
been cared for. and whei-e now over 6,000 lie buried in a beautiful national cem- 
etery. The largest class was in the Butler School Building, since i-eplaced by 
the line John G. Whittier Schoolhouse. 

" Close at hand, the pioneer settlers of America and the first slaves landed on 
this continent ; here Powhatan reigned ; here the Indian was first met ; here 
the first Indian child was baptized ; here freedom Was first given the slave by 
Gen. Butler's famous ' contraband ' order ; in sight of this shore the battle of 
the IfonUor and Merrimac saved the Union and i-evolutionized naval warfare ; 
here Gen. Grant based the oparations of his final campaign. The place was 
easily accessible by railroad and water routes to the north, and to a population 
of 2,000,000 of negroes ; the center of prospective great commercial and mari- 
time development— of which Newport Nev/s, soon to have the largest and finest 
shipyard in the v/orld, is beginning the grand fulfilment — and, withal, a place 
most healthful and beautiful for situation. 

'" I soon felt the fitness of this historic and strategic spot for a permanent and 
great educational work. 

" The suggestion was cordially received by the American Missionary Associa- 
tion, which authorized the purchase, in June"^ 1867, of Little Scotland, an estate of 
125 acres (since increased to 190), on Hampton River, looking out over Ham_pton 
Roads. 

" Not expecting to have charge, but only to help, I was surprised one day by a 
letter from Secretary E. P. Smith, of the American Missionary Association, 
stating that the man selected for the place had declined, and asking me if I could 
take it. I replied, 'Yes.' 

" Till then my own future had been blind : it had only been clear that there 
was a work to do for the ex-slaves, and where and how it should be done. 

" The thing to be done was clear ; to train selected negro youth who should 
go out and teach and lead their people, first by example by getting land and 
homes ; to give them not a dollar that they could earn for themselves ; to teach 
respect for labor, to replace stupid drudgery with skilled hands ; and to these 
ends, to build up an industrial system for the sake not only of self-support and 
intelligent labor, but also for the sake of character. And it seemed equally clear 
that the people of the country would support a wise work for the freedmen. I 
think so still. 

"The missionary plan in Hawaii had not, I thought, considered enough the 
real need and weaVcnesses of the people, whose ignorance alone was not half the 
trouble. The chief difficulty was, v/ith them, deficient character, as it is with 



1100 EDUCATION REPORT, 1889-90. 

tlie negro. He is what his past has made him ; the true basis of work for him 
and airmen is the scientific one— the facts of heredity and surrounding : all the 
facts of the case. 

"Thei^e was no enthusiasm for the manual-labor plan. People said, 'It has 
been tried at Oberlin and elsewhere, and given up ; it don't pay.' 

" ' Of course,' said I, ' it can not pay in a money way, but it will pay in a moral 
way, especially with the f reedmen. It will make them men and women as noth- 
ing else will. It is tlie only way to make them good Christians.' 

"The school has had from the first the good fortune of liberal-minded trus- 
tees, who accepted its unformulated, practical plan when it opened, in April, 
1868, with 2 teachers and 15 pupils, and adopted my formal report of 1870, the 
year of its incorporation under a special act of the assembly of Virginia. 

" By the act of incorporation the school became independent of any associa- 
tion or sect and of Government. It does work for the State and General Govern- 
ment, for which it receives aid, but is not controlled or supported by them. 

" From the first it has been true to the idea of education by sell help, and I 
hope it will remain so. Nothing is asked for the student that he can provide by 
his own labor, but the system that gives him this chance is costly. The school 
depends on charity for $60,000 a year ; the student gets nothing but an oppor- 
tunity to work his way. While the workshops must be made to pay as far as 
possible, instruction is as important as production. 

" Steadily increasing, its full growth, just reached, is 650 boarding students, 
from twenty-four States and Territories, averaging 18 years of age, 136 of them 
Indians ; 80 officers, teachers, and assistants, of whom half are in the eighteen 
industrial departments and shops; 300 children in the Whittier (primary) de- 
partment. 

"The school is maintained at a total annual cost of about $155,000. Deducting 
the labor payments of negro students (say $55,000)_, $100,000, which is $154 apiece, 
is the net annual cost to the public. This is provided, first, by annual appropri- 
ation from Vi)'ginia of $10,000, interest on the State Agricultural College land 
fund (act of Congress, 1862) ; second, by an appropriation of $20,000 by Congress 
for the maintenance of 120 out of our 136 Indians at $167 apiece ; third, by an in- 
come of about $10,000 from our endowment fund (of $194,000) and from rents ; 
fourth, by about $80,000 contributed by the people, in the form of $70 scholar- 
ships, donations for general purposes and occasional unrestricted legacies. The 
school is never closed, but reduced nearly one-half in the summer : many colored 
students go out to find work, and 60 or more Indian students have ' outings' 
among Massachusetts farmers. 

"A great stimulus to this institute and to all like work has been the 16,000 
negro free schools of the South — nearly 2,000 in Virginia alone— costing the ex- 
slave States nearly $4,000,000 a year in taxation. 

"Northern charity, at the rate of about $1,000,000 a year, with liberal South- 
ern State aid in some cases, is sujpplying over twenty strong normal and collegiate 
institutes, mostly under church auspices, whei-e not far from 5,000 adult select 
negro youth of both sexes are being fitted to teach and lead their people — in- 
dustrial education being more and more appreciated and introduced. The Slater 
fund has been a great stimulus to their technical training. The negro girl has 
proved a great success as a teacher. The women of the race deserve as good a 
chance a,s the men. 

" So far it has been impossible to supply the demand for negro teachers. 
Schr olhouses and salaries, such as they are, are ready ; but competent teachers 
are the great and pressing need, and there is no better work for the country 
tha^n to supply them. 

" But the short public school sessions, of from three to seven months, do not 
give full support, and skilled labor is the only resource of many teachers for over 
half the year. As farmers and mechanics they are nearly as useful as in the 
schoolroom. Hence the importance of industrial training. 

"Hampton's 720 graduates, discounting 10 per cent as disappointing, v^^ith 
half that number of undergraduates, are a working force for negro and Indian 
civilization. To fit them for this field has cost, since April, 1868, the round sum of 
$1,350,000, not including endowments, of which over $500,000 is represented by 
the school's ' plant,' which is good for generations to come. 

" Every year an account of funds received has been rendered in detail. 

" It was not in the original plan of the school that any but negroes should be 
received, though the liberal State charter made no limit as to color ; but when, 
in 1878, a ' Macedonian cry ' came from some Indian ex-prisoners of war in Flor- 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1101 

ida— once the worst of savages — through Capt. R. H. Pratt, whose three years' 
wise management of them in Fort Marion had resulted in a wonderful change, 
seventeen were accepted at private expense, Bishop Whipple providing for five 
of them. The Hon. Carl Schurz, then Secretary of the Interior, was quick to 
appreciate the success of their first few months at Hampton, and sent us more 
Indians from the West ; then Congress, on the strength of the results at Hamp- 
ton, and of Capt. Pratt's proved capacity, appropriated funds to start the great 
work at Carlisle, where over five hundred Indian youth, under Capt. Pratt, are , 
being taught the 'white man's way.' 

"The annual Indian attendance at Hampton is now 136, of whom 120ax'e aided 
by Government, the rest by charity. The death rate, once alarming, has, for 
six years, been not quite one a year. Of the 345 returned Indians, but 25 are 
reported as unsatisfactory, but 4 of them bad ; the rest are employed as farmers, 
catechists, preachers, teachers, mechanics, clerks, etc.; 35 seeking further edu- 
cation, 6 of them in Eastern normal schools and colleges, and 42 of the girls ai-e 
married, in good homes. 

"The old homesickn^ess of Indians at eastern schools is nearly over. The 
three years' period at school, which was formerly too much like a prison teim, 
is more and more ignored, and the idea of fitting for life, whatever time it takes, 
gains strength. Indians are no longer coaxed to come. Twice as many as we 
can take wish to come ; yet the really desirable ones are not very many, and we 
do not care to increase our numbers. Our Indian work is illustrative rather 
than exhaustive. 

"In the twenty classes — of 1871 to 1890, inclusive — 723 graduates have received 
diplomas, 280 young women and 443 young men. Of these, 25 are Indians — 8 
young women and 17 young men — the first Indians graduating in 1882. 

" Of the 723 graduates, 604 report as teachers ; SO, a trifle over 11 per cent, 
report failure to teach. Of these 80, 9 are Indians, which brings down the per 
cent of colored graduates failing to teach to almost exactly 10 per cent. That 
16 out of the 25 Indian graduates have taught is a very good showing for them, 
considering the fewer opportunities to teach which have been open to them. 

" Of 39 graduates (colored) we have been unable to obtain any report. 

" The total number of those who report having other i^egular occupation than 
teaching is 271. Of these, 191 have taught as well. While the balance — 413— 
do not report other regular occupation than teaching, the great majority find 
employment as they can — at farming, trades, or service — between school terms, 
or culiJvate their own land and keep house. 

"The principal regular occupations reported besides teaching and the num- 
ber reporting in each are as follows : 

Of the j'oung men: 

Professions: Ministry, 16; law, 17; medicine, 6; total 39 

Missionaries in Africa 2 

Mechanical trades 43 

Agriculture (as an exclusive occupation)... 36 

In business for selves (merchants, etc., other than above) 23 

In Government or civil ser\-lce (U.S. Army, United States Department clerks, custom- 
house clerks, postal clerks and carriers, policemen, light-house keeper, county sur- 
veyor, superintendent of schools) 35 

Bookkeepers and clerks, 13; treasurers, 3 , 16 

Music 4 

Of the young worhen: 

Physician (an Omaha Indian) 1 

Missionary in Africa 1 

Trained uiu'se (2 colored, 1 Indian) 3 

In business for selves (store, millinery, laundry, gardening) 6 

Dressmaking and sewing .* 9 

Printing 1 

Miisic (organist and singing). 5 

Housekeeper (exclusively), but many more are keeping house for themselves 19 

Matron 3 

At service (exclusively) .• 8 

" The total number of children reported as having been taught by our gradu- 
ates is 129,475. This number is, of course, approximate. 

" Some light on the frequent question as to the comparative mental endow- 
ment of black and 'colored' in the negro race is perhaps to be gathered from 
the unforeseen and rather striking result of an investigation of the distribution 
of the highest class honors since 1874, when they were first awarded. 

"At H.ampton, salutatory and valedictory are equal honors, the one for the 
young women, the other for the young men. 



1102 EDUCATION REPOET, 1S89-C0. 

"Leaving out the Indian salutatorlan of '8G and valeilietorian of '89, and one 
year wlien'the programme was made up from graduates ox previous years, we 
find that, of the fifteen colored girl ealutatorians, four were black, three dark, 
seven light, and one 'apparently white.' Of the fifteen young men valedictori- 
ans seven wei'e black and one dark, and seven were light. In other words, 
of young women, seven were dark and eight light ; of young men, eight were dark 
and seven light; which divides the honors as nearly equally as possible; fifteen 
to the dark and fifteen to the light. After the first decade of the school, investi- 
o-ation was made with a precisely similar result. That it should again appear 
over the whole period of seventeen years is surprising and seems significant." 



COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND THE MECHANIC ARTS, 619 

In Arizona one of the most imj^rtant questions with which the farm- 
ing communities have to deal is that of irrigation. The manner in 
which this is made a prominent feature in the enginee:^rng course of the 
University of Arizona is h^re shown, beginning w^h the second term 
of the junior grade : 

JUNIOR YEAR. 



Winter ierm. 



Higlier algebra. 
Chemistry of soila. 
Geology. 
German. 
Drawing. 



yX)rinri ierm. 

Analytical gfeometry. 
Physics. 

Irrigation/hydranlics. 
HydriiulK; practice. 
German/ 



Fall term. 

Calculus. 

Meteorology. 

Astromony. 

Hydraulics. 

German. 

Hydraulic practice. 



SEtriOK YEAR, 

inter term! 

Farm andurrigatj'ou laws. 

Hydraulic^. 

Calculus. 

Constitutioi\ayhistory. 

German. 

EnsineeringApractice. 



Spring iei-m. 

Canals, reservoirs. 
Political economy. 
Strength of materials. 
German. 
Field practice. 



The following course in mechanicWts, offered by the Pennsylvania 
State College, illustrates the maimer ot division of studies and shopwork 
and drawing adopted in that aollegA The department is thoroughly 
well equipped for its work : 

Pennsylvania Statp College, course in mechanic arts. 



Tear. Sessions. 



Studie 



Sliopwork and drawinj 



First 



Second 



Third . 



TaU . . . 

Winter 

Spring. 

Fall . . . 

Winter 

Spring. 

Fall .... 
Winter , 

Spring.. 



TJnited States hi^ory 

Arithmetic 

Advanced Engli^ analysis 

Al<xehra, begun 

Euglisli 

United States Ijfistory 

Algebra 

English analysis 

Bookkeeping 

English coniElbsition 

Algebra .. 

Physics .. 

Geometry 

Algebra . . 

rhj-sics .. 

Geometry ind algebra 

Applied arithmetic 

Civil govm-nmenc and English 

Algeuja and geometry 

Workshop appliances 

Gcometr/ 

Trigonopietry 

Rhetorij 

Trigonometry and surveying 

Mechanism 



Carpentry 

Free-hand drawing 

Carpentry and joinery , 

|Model and object drawing 

bod turning 

esigning 

attern making 

eometrical drawing 

orging 

thographic i)rojection and in 
itersections 

rging 

echanical drawing 

Vjse work 

chanical drawing 

Mkchine tool work 

DataU drawing 

Machine tool work 

Machine drawing 



620 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. 

AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL INSTRUCTION FOR COLORED 

STUDENTS. 

In section 1 of the act of Congress approved August 30, 1890, for tlie 
more complete endowment of colleges of agriculture and the meclianic 
arts, it is especially provided — 

That no money shall he paid out under this act to any State or Territory for the 
support and maintenance of a college where a distinction of race or color is made in 
the admission of students, hut the estahlishment and maintenance of such colleges 
separately for white and colored students shall he held to he a compliance with the 
l^rovisions of this act, if the funds received in such State or Territory he equitably 
divided as hereinafter set forth. 

And further, that the legislature of any State or Territory establish- 
ing and maintaining such separate institutions for white and colored 
students, respectively — 

May propose and report to the Secretary of the Interior a just and equitable divi- 
sion of the fund to he received under the act, between one college for white students, 
and one institution for colored students established as aforesaid, which shall he 
divided into two parts and paid accordingly. 

As a matter of fact, in only sixteen of the States has any division of 
the fund received been even considered. In most of the Southern 
States institutions for the education of persons of the colored race had 
already been in operation before the passage of the actj and this Avas 
notably the case in Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Vir- 
ginia. In the few instances where no such school was supported or 
subsidized by the State, institutions of the character designated in the 
act of Congress have recently been established or selected as State 
beneficiaries of the Federal endowment. All of these are not, however, 
recognized as separate and distinct institutions, several of them being 
organized as branch colleges or deiiartments of the colleges or univer- 
sities for whites. This is true in Arkansas, in Georgia, in Maryland, in 
North Carolina, in Tennessee, and in Texas. There are thus in the 
South, including these* branch colleges, sixteen schools receiving both 
State and Federal aid and offering industrial and agricultural training 
to the colored youth. They are:* 

1. state Normal and Industrial School of Alabama, at Normal P. O., Ala. 

2. Branch Normal College of Arkansas, at Pine Bluff. 

3. Delaware Agricultural College, for colored students, at Newark, Del. 

4. Florida State Normal School, at Tallahassee. 

5. Industrial College of University of Georgia, at Savannah. 

6. State Normal College of Kentucky, at Frankfort. 

7. Southern University of Louisiana, at New Orleans. 

8. Eastern Branch of Maryland Agricultural College, at Princess Anne, Md. 

9. Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College of Mississippi, at West Side. 

10. Lincoln Institute of Missouri, at Jefferson City. 

11. Shaw University of North Carolina, at Raleigh. 
12.-^ 

13. Industrial Department of University of Tennessee, at Knoxville. 

14. Prairie View Normal College of Texas, at Hempstead. 

15. Hampton Normal Institute of Virginia, at Hampton. 

16. West Virginia Institute at Farm, KauaAvha County. 



COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND THE MECHANIC ARTS. 621 

The mauiier in wliicli tliefund received from the Federal Government 
has been divided between the races has differed somewhat in the sev- 
eral States. The act provides for legislative acceptance of the terms 
thereof before any part of the first installment could be paid to any 
State; but where this was not possible, no legislature being in session, 
the governor of the State was allowed to signify the consent of the 
State. In several instances this gave rise to some difference of opinion 
as to what constituted "a just and equitable division." 

It thus soon became apparent that for the satisfactory and successful 
working of the law, some definite rule of division should be adopted. 
The Secretary of the Interior, therefore, suggested that the ratio of the 
school population of the races be fixed upon as a basis of apportion- 
ment, and this has been generally agreed to. In some cases this ratio 
is determined by the States themselves, in others the ratio as fixed by 
the last census has been accepted. Again, in several instances, where 
the colored school receiving Federal aid is established as a department 
of the white institution, no regular division has been made at all, it 
having been decided that the maintenance of such a colored depart- 
ment meets the requirements of the law as making no distinction of 
race or color. 

Much, of course, may be said as to whether, after all, the division 
according to school population is the most just and equitable that could 
be devised, especially in such States as Louisiana and Mississippi, where 
the proportion of colored students in the schools of the State is greater 
than that of white students; for it must be remembered that the aid 
offered by the Government is for colleges, that is, for purposes of higher 
education, and the number of white students receiving collegiate instruc- 
tion is clearly greater than that of colored students receiving similar 
instruction. In Louisiana, for instance, even in the Southern Uni- 
versity—the colored beneficiary of the act of Congress of 1890 — the 
course of study x)ursued by the greater number of the students is really 
that of the common school. It would thus seem that an apportionment 
upon the basis of the numbers respectively enrolled in the higher insti- 
tutions of learning would more nearly comj)ly with the spirit of the act 
of Congress; certainly, however, it must be conceded that the ratio of 
school population forms the most stable and the simplest basis for the 
division, and since but little objection has been made to it, perhaps no 
more satisfactory division and none more politic is i)ossible. Indeed, 
it seems not unlikely that one of the ultimate effects of the endowment 
of the schools for the education of colored students will be to raise the 
percentage which the number of colored students enrolled in higher 
institutions of learning bears to the total colored school population, 
until it more nearly equals the ratio which exists between the number 
of students enrolled in the white colleges and the total white school 
I)opulation. When this shall have been accomplished, then such ap- 
portionment can truly be said to be most equitable. 



622 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. 



The following table will show the manner in which, the last—the 
third — yearly installment has been divided. It will be understood that 
the act provides for an annual increase of $1,000 in the amount to be 
paid to each State, beginning with 15,000 in 1890, such yearly increase 
to continue until the annual appropriation to each State reaches $25,000. 



states. 



Amount of 
third install- 
ment received 
by wliite in- 
stitutions. 



Amount of 
third install 
ment received 

by colored 
institutions. 



Percentage 
received by 
white in- 
stitutions. 



Percentage 
received by ' 
colored in- 
stitutions. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Dela^vare 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland a 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Tennessee a ... 

Texas 

Virginia 

V/est Virginia. 



$9, 557. 76 

12, 363. 64 

13, GOO. 00 
8, 500. 00 

11, 303. 33^ 
14, 535. 00 
8, 232. 66 



442. 24 
636. 38 
400. 00 
500, 00 
666. 66f 
465. 00 
767. 34 



.56+ 

.72A 

.80 

.50 

.66J 

.85J 

.42+ 



.43+ 

.27A 

.20 

.50 

.33i 

.14^ 

.57+ 



7, 621. 37 
15, 058. 38 



378. 63 
941. 62 



.44+ 
.88+ 



.51+ 
.11+ 



12, 780. 00 . 
11,333.33^ 
14, 000. 00 



250. 00 
666. 66§ 
000. 00 



.25 

.33^ 

.17if 



a Pund not divided. 

It is a fact worthy of notice that of these schools no less than seven 
have the distinctive title of "normal" instilutions, and almost all of 
them offer some normal training as part of their course of study. The 
explanation, however, is not far to seek. It is simply the outcome of 
the educational conditions prevalent in the South immediately after 
the civil war. The idea was quite generally accepted that in order 
to secure the success of the attempts to educate the newly freed race 
it was necessary that they should find leaders and teachers among 
their own number — an idea that was adopted as the policy of many of 
the States, and material assistance was given to the movement by the 
establishment and partial support of schools for the training of colored 
teachers. Each State soon had its colored normal school, although*the 
introduction of manual and industrial training has to some extent en- 
croached upon the normal course and diverted the schools from their 
original singleness of purxDose. 

This normal education, indeed, has had a certain salutary effect upon 
the colored public school system of these States, not so much perhaps 
from the real efficiency of the so-called "normal training" as from the 
fact that the general standard of the students sent out to fill the posi- 
tions of teachers in the public schools has constantly tended to become 
higher, and their work as a consequence has been more intelligent. 
One of the greatest dangers of normal education — unless it be based 
upon purely scientific principles — is its tendency to destroy individu- 
ality, to substitute a rigid adherence to methods for the free exercise 
of judgment and natural common sense. It is almost invariably true, 
liowever, that the colored student, transpla,nted from the normal insti- 
tute into the schoolroom, soon loses whatever effect of " teaching by 



COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND THE MECHANIC ARTS. 623 

rule" lie may have acquired, and conducts his school precisely as he 
would have done did no such thing as normal training exist. Not that 
his sojourn at the institute has been of no service to him — quite the 
contrary, but the real benefit he has derived from it is the advantage of 
the thorough course of instruction in the various branches of a liberal 
education there afforded. 

But vrith the introduction of the agricultural and mechanical features 
and of the x^rovisious for the industrial training of women, these nor- 
mal schools to-day perform a different and perhaps a more important 
function. Thanks to the liberal assistance of the States and of the 
General Government, they are at present very fjiirly equipped with 
facilities for instruction in the useful arts. Especially since they have 
become the recipients of a portion of the endowment fund of 1890 have 
they made rapid strides toward the thorough titting out of their farms 
and workshops. Since tuition is generally free, and students are given 
every opportunity to support themselves while attending the schools, 
there is now really very little to stand in the waj^ of any young colored 
man or woman who desires to secure the benefits of an industrial edu- 
cation. 

As a rule the claims and avowed x)urpose of these institutions are 
very modest. Their aim is in most cases simply to turn out practical 
men and women. Their graduates arc able to step from the school 
into the workshop or the field as skilled mechanics or farmers, or, in 
the case of women, are able as teachers, housekeepers, domestics, or 
needlewomen, to earn for themselves' a competent and respectable 
livelihood. 

About twenty-five hundred pupils of both sexes are now being edu- 
cated in these schools at the least possible expense, and it may not be 
too much to predict that their popularity will increase to such an ex- 
tent with the further development of the industrial departments that 
the next five years will see their attendance almost doubled and their 
sphere of usefulness greatly extended. 

The trials through which such institutions have had to strive to reach 
a footing of comparative security have been truly great j there have 
been periods in the history of almost everyone when failure seemed 
inevitable. The acts of Congress have now made their position a very 
safe one. One of their most serious difiiculties has heretofore been 
that of securing continuous attendance on the part of students. Only 
during the months when farm hands were not needed — a very brief 
period of the year in the Southern States — would the rolls reach satis- 
factory^ figures. The same trouble was of course experienced with 
girls. As a remedy for this serious hindrance to .the school work, the 
establishment of farms and workshops in connection with the institu- 
tions themselves, where labor is offered and reasonably paid for, has 
worked most admirably. Since 1890 the complaint of irregular attend- 
ance is heard much less frequently. 



624 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1890-91. 

But tlie most widely felt check to progress in tlie schools for colored 
students is the almost total lack of preparation with which the pupils 
enter the course. As a consequence, a great part of the four or five 
years of their attendance is occupied in getting them ready for the real 
work of the school. The conditioas respoDsible for this trouble are, it 
is true, to some extent improving, but the question is still a burning 
one. Until more efficient work is secured in the lower grades of the 
colored public schools, the standard of the* colleges, at least in those 
branches which go to make up a liberal education, must remain un- 
fortunately low. 

In several institutions three or four distinct courses of study are 
offered, but in most the instruction is nearly uniform, except in the 
industrial training of the sexes. The basis of the course is laid in the 
study of the English language-and literature, mathematics, elementary 
natural and physical sciences, and generally the duties of citizenship. 
To this foundation three different kinds of practical instruction are 
added, namely: Agricultural science, with labor in the field; the prin- 
ciples of mechanics, with labor in the shops ; and the industrial train- 
ing of girls in the departments of household economy and the domestic 
arts. 

And here it seems proper to state, that to institute any comparison 
between the work of these schools for the industrial education of the 
colored race and the work of those colleges and universities which, as 
beneficiaries of the Federal endowment acts, are designed for the train- 
ing of the white youth of the land would be manifestly unjust to 
both classes of institutions for two very logical and sufficient reasons : 
First, the students, drawn from widely separated walks of life, reach 
the school with preparation wholly unlike, both in kind and in degree; 
they must therefore receive entirely different treatment. Secondly, 
whatever may be the dreams of those philanthropists interested in the 
elevation of the colored race, the fact reuiains a stubborn one that the 
positions in the social fabric which they respectively may expect to 
fill can never be the same; hence the instruction offered must be 
designed for different purposes. In the schools for whites we may al- 
most say that all practical instruction is but to demonstrate the theory; 
in the colored schools, that all theoretical instruction is but to exi^lain 
the practice. 

The facilities for instruction in those branches which form the basis 
of scientific agriculture have, uiltil the last few years, necessarily been 
somewhat meager in the colored schools; nor have the conditions 
under which most of the colored youths find place in these institutions 
admitted of much detailed laboratory work; and yet the instruction 
given in agriculture tias been of no less real value than that of other 
agricultural colleges, for the lack of time for technical work is more 
than counterbalanced by the greater amount of practical information 
acquired by constant farm labor. 



COLLEGES OF AGRICULTURE AND THE MECHANIC ARTS. 625 

All of the colored agricultural schools liave some farmland; many 
of tliem possess really valuable farms, and ux)on these the students do 
not merely observe the manner in which the farming operations are 
conducted, but they are themselves the actual farmers. In more than 
one such college all the labor exjiended in the cultivation of the soil is 
performed by students. The same plan is very generally followed in 
the mechanical shops, where, after receiving instruction in the hand- 
ling of tools and the first iDrinciples of mechanics, the student is ex- 
pected to labor productively. The furniture and household utensils 
used in the college, the simi)ler implements of husbandry, and often 
the shoes which they themselves wear are the products of student 
labor. To such an extent is this utilitarian idea sometimes carried 
that they are able to build and furnish any new buildings required for 
the use of the school. Among the trades most commonly taught are 
carpentry, brick making and laying, blacksmithing, shoemaking, mat- 
tress-making, house-]:>ainting, turning, and printing. 

It of course follows, that while such schools may and do turn out 
many skilled laborers, they i)roduce but few master mechanics. Their 
graduates have no difficulty in securing work, as the demand for in- 
telligent skilled labor is a constant quantity. As long, then, as they 
send forth young men, who, with a sound general education and the 
self-respect which the consciousness of such a possession is sure to en- 
gender, have been thoroughly trained in the management of farms, 
the use of machinery and the handling of tools, there can be no rea- 
sonable objection raised to the manner in which they fulfill the pur- 
poses of their organization, and no legitimate excuse for any change in 
their policy and their metliods. 

MILITARY INSTRUCTION IN COLLEGTeS OP AGRICULTURE AND THE 

MECHANIC ARTS. 

Perhaps no department of instruction maintained by the institutions 
whose work is described W the present report has been the subject 
of more criticism and adveree^omment than that which aims to add to 
the general and technical education oifered by them some knowledge 
of military science and som)B training in the use of arms and the dis- 
cipline of the field and bayracKS. 

As we have seen froi^ omAexamination of the several acts of Con- 
gress in aid of colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts, and from 
the iireceding review of the growth and develoi)ment of these colleges, 
and the already highly satisfactory results achieved by them, the Gen- 
eral Government ha[,s maintainedVtowards such institutions a most gen- 
erous policy from /the first. Instruction in the liberal arts and practi- 
cal industrial training have been thus placed within the reach of all 
desirous of profiting thereby. Aigreat stride has been made towards 
the goal at which all enlightened modern nations have been aiming — 
ED 91-r^40 



626 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. 



the liigiier educatiou of the industrial classes. In this ^e have an 
exhibition of what the'State has done for the individual. 

In speaking of the heretofore somewhat wides^^read fefeling of aver- 
sion to the introducoion of military training m colleges yof agriculture 
and the mechanic ar^s — a feeling which, while by no means confined 
to the farming element of their patronage, has certamly received its 
most frequent and opeb expression from that qnarter-7-it is but just to 
the spirit of fair-mindep. American i^atriotism to say/that such opi^osi- 
tion has arisen from ignorance of the ends proposed by such instruc- 
tion and from a lack of appreciation of the true value to the body politic 
of the military trainingiof the youth of tlie land. /To convey as clear 
an idea as possible of ihe purpose -and plan of jKhese deiiartmcnts of 
military science and tactics and the beneficial /results to be derived 
from them by the State and by the students, it will be well to consider 
the subject under the following distinct heads; 

I. How they have been\provided for, and ho/v these provisions have 
been met. 

II. What is exi:fected of Vhem on the part of the State. 

III. The manner in whictt they are of ben/fit to the college of whose 
organization they form a loaVt. 

IV. The manner in which they benefit ihdividual students. 



PEOVISIOKS FOR DEI\A-11TMENTS OH MILITARY SCIENCE. 

In section 4 of the original land- grant act of Congress of 1862 it 
is provided that the interest of the invested proceeds from the sale 
of granted land or scrii^ shall be a]3propriated "by each State which 
may take and claim the benefit of this/act, to the endowment, support, 
and maintenance of at least one college, where the leading object shall 
be, witjiout excluding other scieraifio and classical studies, and includ- 
ing military tactics, to teach such ^ranches of learning as are related 



s, etc." The act of 1890 being for 

colleges established in accordance 

considered as containing the same 



to a'griculture and the mechanic 
the more comx^lete endowment o 
with the act of 1862, may fairly 
provision 

In order to render practicable/ thte carrying out of the purpose in 
thus including military tactics iii the course of study to be offered by 
the endow^ed colleges, an act was passed and ap]3roved July 2, 1866, 
providing for the detail of army ofificlfers to act as instructors in such 
colleges. This act, as amended by the act aj)proved September 26, 
1888, is as follows 

Sec. 1225. The President may,/upoii the npiVlication of any established military 
institute, seminary or academy, college or university within the United States, hav- 
ing capacity to educate at the same time not less than one hundred and fifty male 
students, detail an officer of the Army or Navy to act as superintendent or professor 
thereof; hut the number of officers so detailed shall not exceed fifty from the Army 
and ten from the Navy, being a maximum of sixty, at any time, and they shall be 
apportioned throughout the United States, first, to those State institutions applying 



^CHAPTER XXVI. 

EDUCATION OF THE COLORED EACB 



I. Public Schools. 

The following table gives in detail the public school statistics of the former slave 
States, classifiecl by race: 

PiihUc school statistics, classified hy race, 1SOO~91. 



State. 



Alabama a 

Arkansas a 

Delawarcft 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland' 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

Total 



Number of persons 5 
to 18 years. 



White. 



290,935 
296, 117 
38,755 
40, 307 
75, 310 
33G, 525 
527, 800 
187, 600 
239, 455 
195. 201) 
802, 400 
362, 000 
161, 963 
461, COO 
621, 900 
334, 885 
251, 600 



5, 218, 352 



Colored. 



219, 201 

112, 472 

8,736 

21, 633 

59, 690 
315,817 

90,400 
199, 900 

69, 045 
281,200 

48, 900 
217, 000 
271, 837 
155, 800 
190, 500 
238, 315 

10, 400 



2, 543, 936 



Percentage of the 
whole. 



Enifolled in the public 
schools. 



White. Colored. White. 



53.85 
72.06 
81.60 
61.51 
55.79 
51.59 
85.38 
48.42 
77.62 
40.71 
94.26 
62.52 
37.34 
74. 77 
76.55 
58.43 
96.04 



67.23 



46.15 

27.94 

18.40 

35.49 

44.21 

48.41 

14.62 

51.58 i 

22. 38 I 

59.29 

5.74 
37.48 I 
C2.60 
25. 23 
23.45 
41.57 

3.96 



32.77 



180,125 

163, 603 

26, 778 

24. 239 

56, 677 

236, 595 

370,913 

75, 688 

154, 418 

154, 477 

605, 107 

214, 908 

93, 024 

377. 879 

394, 150 

219, 141 

191, 948 



Colored. 



3, 539, 670 



115,400 

59, 468 

4, 656 

14, 147 

37, 342 

150, 702 
55, 574 
55, 021 
34, 796 

173, 378 
34, 622 

115, 812 

116, 535 
105, 458 
121,929 
123, 579 

6,428 



1, 324, 937 



State. 


Per cent of 
persons 5 to 
18 years en- 
rolled. 


Average daily 
attendance. 


Per cent of 
enrollment. 


Length of 

school year in 

days. 


Number of 
teachers. 




White. 


Col'd. 


White. 


Color'd. 


White. 


Colo'd. 


White.'Color'd. 


White. 


Color'd. 


1 


8 


9 


lO 


11 


13 


13 


14 


15 


16 


ir 




63.98 
56.39 
69.10 
00.14 
75.26 
68. 52 
75.28 
40.34 
64.49 
79.15 
75.41 
59.37 
57. 44 
81.80 
63.37 
65.44 
76.28 


46.33 

52.87 
53.30 
65.40 
62.56 
47.72 
61.48 
27.53 
50.40 
61.01 
70.80 
53.37 
42.87 
67.69 
64. 01 
51.86 
61.81 


110, 311 


72, 156 


59.27 


62.48 


73.9 


72.8 


4,182 

3,770 

005 

530 

1, 950 
5,009 
7,915 
2,116 
3,331 
4,334 

13, 258 
4,177 

2, 592 
6, .505 
8,556 
5,710 
5,416 


2,136 
1,246 






16, 798 
18, 504 


2,851 
10, 500 


62.73 
76.34 


61.23 
74.26 


175 

al78 


109.5 

al77 


96 


District of Columbia . 


265 
685 
















2 500 




213, 816 
53, 503 
88, 897 
93, 282 


31,593 

38, 317 
17, 273 
104, 298 


57.65 
70.69 
57.57 
60.39 


56.85 
69.64 
49.64 
60.16 


WOO 
104 
185.7 


6100 
946 
175.2 


1 240 


Louisiana 


887 
636 




3,212 
7'>2 








Xorth Carolina 


iso, 747 

67, 599 

265, 136 


71,016 
81,004 
72, 682 


60.84 
72.67 
70.16 


61.32 
C9. 51 
68.92 


60,7 


59.5 


2,358 
1 671 








1 745 


Texas 


118. 74 
116 


111.30 
116 


2 553 




126,818 
120, 176 


66, 688 
3,811 


57. 89 
62.76 


53.96 
59.29 


2 008 




184 










Total 


67.83 


52.08 






62. 48 


62.14 






79 002 


24,150 















aInl8S9-"90. 
ED 91 Gl 



i Estimated by State suiicrintendent. 

SGI 



962 



EDUCATION EEPOET, 1890-91. 



From tlie foregoing table it appears that dnriug tlie scliool year 1890-91 tlicre 
were 3,539,670 white pupils enrolled in the public schools of the States under con- 
sideration, and 1,324,937 colored pupils. 

The white pupils formed 67.83 per cent of the total number of white persons 5 to 
18 years of age, and the colored pupils only 52.08 per cent of the colored persons 5 
to 18. 

The per cent of the colored population 5 to 18 enrolled exceeded that of the Avhite 
only in Texas and the District of Columbia. In nearly all the remaining States the 
per ceut of colored enrollment fell largely short of the white enrollment. 

In Louisiana scarcely more thau one-fourth of the colored population 5 to 18 j'cars 
of age were enrolled in school (27.53 per cent). This is only about two-Hfths of the 
general average for the United States. Nowhere else in the Union is there so poor a 
school attendance as among the colored jieople of Louisiana. 

The regularity of school attendance, as indicated by the relation of the average 
daily attendance to the total number of pupils enrolled, was nearly the same for 
botli races. About five-eighths of the whole enrollment of each race were present 
daily on an average. 

The percentage of the school poiiulation (5 to 18) enrolled, both white and colored, 
has made some gain since the preceding year The change is slight, it is true, but the 
movement is in the right direction, as will be seen from the following : 



Per ce'j.t of population 5 to IS years caroncLl la tlio public scliools : < QqI^qj-^^ 



1890-91. 




II. Secoxdary akd Higher Ixstitutioxs for the Color>;d Eace.o 









]S'"ormal selioola. 


I 


Institutions 


Universities and colleses. 
















for 


secondary 












































Pupils. 




instruction. 








Students. 


States. 




>s 














i^ 










s 






>> 






t 






H, 




5 


tA 








































.=1 


a 






^ 


o 




,_4 




A 




d 




; 








P< 


a 


c« 














p. 


d 












OJ 






^ 


a 






















ti 














(U 




Fh 








73 


H 


^ 


Ph 


Fh 


H 


xn 


H 


Ph 


m 


H 


U 


FM 


Ph 


H 




^ 


70 


877 


69'' 


805 


" 374 


4 


32 


949 


1 


7 


10 


35 


480 


525 




3 

1 


18 


160 


46 


80 


'286 








1 


15 


14 


29 


264 


307 


Delaware 












3 

13 


154 


52 
39 



67 


68 

260 


11 


13 
04 


5136 
3 473 








1 






9 


38 


23 


74 




940 


Kansas 



(> 






























Kentucky 












2 


7 


242 


1 


18 


31 


07 


"5S 


356 


Louisiana 


3 


9 


156 








ioo 


4 


31 


655 


4 


63 


16 


95 


1,571 


1,682 


Maryland 


1 


4 


77 








77 


1 


3 


62 


1 


9 


4 


50 


40 


94 


Mississippi 


4 


38 


293 


156 


403 


852 


3 


9 


563 


2 


17 


119 


90 


280 


495 




1 
10 


53 


42 
937 


103 
18-1 




182 


205 
1,303 


1 

7 


46 


05 
1,459 














North Carolina 


3 


23 


107 


159 


240 


506 


Ohio 


1 




5 


27 


27 





54 








1 
1 


9 
14 


12 
143 


- 25 
63 


127 



16.t 


Pennsylvania 

South 'Carolina 


1 


6i 300 


206 


5 


29 


613 


201 


523 


1,337 


+ 


28! 1,544 


2 


25 


•;i5 


139 


1,108 


1,272 




(> 


'Ifi 


440 


149 


506 


1 155 


1 


S SOR 




72 


93 

97 


194 




1 4^0 


Texas 


9 


14 


168 


o 


168 


338 
1, 027 
185 
160 
207 


4 


20 
18 


937 
666 


1 


H 


11 


147 


185 


Virginia 


2 
1 
2 


5] 

8 

12 


501 
185 
160 
207 

5,011 


467 


59 


2 






"West Viro-inia 














Dist. of Co'luinbia . 












1 


9 


24 
160 


40 





64 


Other States 










80 


160 




52 


375 




















Total 


2,178 


2, 853 


10, 042 


47 


317:11,837 


25 


324 


808 


1,071 


6,517 


8,396 



a For further statistics of education of the colored race, see Piirt ill of this Keport. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



963 



Sccondanj and lu 


ffhcr institi 


iious 


for th 


e colo 


red ra 


ce — Coutiniicd. 








Schools of theol- 

ogy- 


i Sclicols of medi- 
Schools of law. cine, clentisfry, 
and pharmacy. 


Schools for the 

deaf and dnrab 

and the blind. 


States. 


o 


CO 




o 


t 

a 
H 


o 

3 


i 

o 

o 


S 

o 

H 


a 
3 

CO 


to 

"o 
o 

o 


£ 

1 

o 


'a 




3 

1 


7 


57 
20 




! 










1 




1 


i io 


2 

1 
2 
2 


23 

6 

19 

26 


32 


rioriila 


i 




15 


Ocor"ia 


1 
3 

1 
1 


7 
2 
7 
3 
2 


iio 

19 
46 

8 
9i 


. ...1 




1 


50 










59 




1 




1 1 C 18 






1 




1 
1 

1 


4 
11 
33 
10 


22 




1 




1 


18 




i 1 


1 




i 


17 




3 1 7 


69 
G 

22 
65 
05 


1 
1 


1 
2 


9 


i 1 7 48 


57 


Oliio 


1 
1 
2 
3 

1 


3 

7 
7 
7 






j: 


1 






1 
1 


""a 


1 








1 
2 

1 


2 

20 

4 


24 




1 


18 


93 


42 


Texas 


68 




4 
IG 


CO 

78 
71 


1 














1 1 5 


G3 
20 


1 


15 


74 
63 














132 




1 






1 








Totals 


25 i 79 


755 


5 1 n i 121 i 5 


47 


306 1 16 1 158 


536 

























Number of each class of schools for the colored race, and enrollment in them. 



Clas.s of institutions. 



Normal schools.. 
Kormal students 

Prejiaratory , 

Elementaiy 



Schools. 



Total. 



Institutions for secondary instruction (including clerap:itary pupils). 

Universities and colleges 

Collegiate students 

Preparatory 

Elementary 



Total . 



Schools of theology 

Schools of law 

Schools of medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy. 
Schools for the deaf and duml) aad the blind.. 



Grand total . 



Enroll- 
ment. 



5,011 
2,178 
2,853 



10, 042 
11,837 



808 
1,071 
6,517 



8,396 



121 
306 
536 



31, 993 



Amount and distribution of the sums disbursed from the Slater fund from 1SS3 to 1S93, 

inclusive. 



18S3. 



Alabama $2,100 

Aikiiiisas ! 

El.rida 

Gi oit_ia 

Krntueky 

X.o)iisiaiia 

Missis.-ipi i 

North Carolina. 
Sniiili Carolina. 

Tennessee 

Texas 



$2,430 >5,0J0 ;$3,830 



Virgi ia 

Districi of Coluaibia 
Special 



Total- 



1,0-0 

2, OOil 

2, 00) 

950 



,000 



16, 250 



1831. 



1885. 188S. 



50!) 
1.0)0 

5^2 
2, UOJ 

740 

750 
4, 325 

600 
2,000 
1,000 

550 



17, 107 



6,814 
1,00J 
1.400 

2, OUO 
4, 400 

3. .500 
7,600 

600 
3,000 

1, !;oo 

450 



36, 7o4 



5,100 
700 

1, OJO 
2,000 
3, 600 

2, 700 
5,800 

COO 

3,650 

COO 

450 



1837. 



$4,400 
600 



1888. 



6,200 
7O0 
3,100 
4, 450 
4,200 
3,060 
6, 50 ) 
900 
4,190 

eoo 

500 



$t,6J0 

800 

1,01)0 

6,850 

7U0 

3, 500 

4,800 

5,30!) 

4, 300 

C, r.DO 

1,360 

4,190 

600 

500 



1889. 



0,000 40,(00 



$3, 600 

800 

8 JO 

9,700 



$3, 600 

800 

80:i 

9,700 



4,100 
4, 400 
5,100 
4,000 
0, SOU 
1,360 
3,150 



45, 000 



500 
4,310 



1890. 



3,100 
4,40;i 
4,700 
4, 000 
6, 80 I 
1, 360 
3, 150 



500 



42,910 



1891. 



*4, 900 
1,000 
1, OOU 

10, 500 



3, 700 
5,300 
5, 700 
5,000 
7, 400 
1.50' 
3, 15i) 



500 



49, 650 



U, 700 

6C0 

1,000 

8.400 



3,500 

4, ilCT 

5, 300 
5, 0(0 
7,100 
1 , 500 
3,150 



15, 217 



Totals. 



$39, 150 

4,600 

4, 600 

69, 964 

4,100 

23, 9H2 

35, 917 

41,010 

3 i, 910 

59. 775 

9, 78 ) 

31.0:0 

3,8 

:i.<'.^0 

3(j7, 208 



964 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. 

III. Prksext Statu;* of Colored Education as Recorded in State School 

Reports. 

ALABAMA. 

Observations of W. H. Councill, conductor of institutes for colored teachers in 
Alabama: The ]iight mass meetings, held at all the institutes, were largely attended 
— crowded — and always encouraged by the best white people in the communities, 
many of them attending all the meetings. 

While holding these meetings from year to year I have observed: (1) That there 
is great progress among the cclored teachers in every way. (2) That the desire 
for industrial instruction is firm and widespread. (3) That the masses are mak- 
ing marked progress in general intelligence and in support of education. (4) That 
the Avhite peoi)le and colored peoxile are increasing in good feelings on all moral, re- 
ligious, temiTerance, and educational questions, and that the whites everywhere are 
willing to aid the colored people along the lines. (5) That the proper kind of moral, 
industrial, and intellectual training is a check on any inclinaJtiou or temptation to 
racial conflict, and guarantees an honest, peaceful, industrious citizeushii> to the 
State. (6) That the institutes are of incalculable good to popular education. 

KENTUCKY. 

Encouraging prospects. — The superintendent of Mason County: The condition of 
the colored schools in our countjj^ has been to mo a matter of surprise and congratu- 
lation. The capacity of the negro children for acquiring education surpasses any 
thing I had supposed concerning this race. There are fifteen colored districts in our 
county, and most of them are taught by well-educated and trained teachers. At 
I)resent our teachers mostly come from Cincinnati, Dayton, Cleveland, and Steu- 
benville, Ohio. They bring with them a knowledge of common school training and 
drill which enables them to conduct their schools successfully, and I am able to 
report the colored schools of our county as being in a very encouraging condition. 

The suiierinteudcnt of Nicholas County also reports that the colored schools are 
progressing very Avell, and that the colored people seem to take a greater interest in 
the schools than the whites do. 

Superintendent of Scott County: The colored people are making material progress 
in regard to schoolhouses and equipments. Several houses will be improved this 
year, and two new ones built. They are very much in earnest in the matter of edu- 
cating their children, and are doing probably as much as they are able to do to 
accomplish that end. Teachers are improving in efficiency and qualification for 
their work. I am very hopeful of our colored schools. The people have the right 
spirit, and resi)ondto all school demands to the limit of their ability. 

The tvouMe loith colored trustees. — Superintendent of Bourbon County: A public 
school was taught in every colored district the past year. The colored peoi)le are 
too poor to support a private school. However, in a few places, school is continued 
beyond the public term, though with little profit to the teachers. The trustees are 
ignorant, and, in reality, not competent to select a teacher. With many ai^j)licants 
before them demanding the same compensation, thej^ often pass over the best for 
poor teachers. They do not understand, and can not properly appreciate, the dif- 
ference between the several grades of certificates. I may also add that in some 
cases I have had strong suspicion that the trustees of the colored schools have been 
bribed. But it is impossible to get any information on a subject as to which all par- 
ties, trustees and teachers, are equally interested in keeping quiet. So that the 
guilty go unpunished for want of sufficient evidence. It would be well if the su- 
l^erintendent could, out of the applicants for a school, select a certain number — say 
two or three — out of which number so selected the trustees would be compelled to 
employ. This would enable the trustee to get a qualified teacher, and at the same 
time allow some margin for their choice in the matter. Without some limitation of 
the kind, or some guard of this nature thrown around them, they are wholly at sea, 
unable to discharge their duty. The colored teachers are imi:)roving, but they are 
not, as a class, well qualified to teach. The list of certificates granted show that 
few get over a third-class certificate. This is an evil which can bo cured onlj'- by 
time. In a few years we will doubtless have capable colored teachers. Tlio younger 
teachers are generally the best qualified. Better training of teachers is much needed. 

LOUISIANA. 

The relations hetircen the races. — State Superiiitendeut W. II. Jack: The relations of 
the two races are harmonious andhapiiy, and each seems actuated by a true spirit to 
reach the highest possible standard of mental and moral culture. We are educating 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED EACE. 965 

the negro in the same Avay that we are educatiug onrown children, and are succeed- 
ing in developing him to an extent that is highly gratifying. Oiir method of solving 
the race problem is not by amalgamation or deportation, but bj^ educating the 
uegro children and bringing them under the renovating inliuences of white civiliza- 
tion. I would take occasion to observe, just here, that there is no such thing, in 
point of fact, as "race antagonism." The very kindest relations naturally exist 
between the two races, and there is not, and has never been, any such innate 
prejudice or antijiathy on either side as would prevent the two races from living 
happily together. They understand each other perfectly, and govern themselves 
accordingly. The white man feels the native superiority of the Caucasian height- 
ened by centuries of civilization, and the negro knows and recognizes the fact in all 
its meaning. * * * 

I know of no reason why the negro, by jiroper training and direction, can not be 
made a good citizen and his race be elevated to a much higher plane than he now 
occupies. 

Ignorance of negro teachers; one of hco iklngs should he done. — At a meeting of the 
Louisiana Educational Association, July, 1890, Col. T. Sambola Jones, of Baton 
Rouge, said: 

" Multiplicity of tongues and differences qf religion have made private, public, and 
sectarian school interests seem to retard rather than advaiice the cause of education. 
But there is no influence that has so reduced our general average, scattered our 
funds, or weakened the efficiency of our system half so much as the colored contin- 
gent in the public schools. Like the rain from heaven, that falls alike upon the just 
as well as upon the unjust, the funds obtained almost exclusively from the Caucasian 
element of the population are divided, share and share alike, with the children of 
their brothers in black. With a furtive glance at duty we do not consider binding, 
we appropriate funds for colored country schools and emj)]oy the ignorant and super- 
stitious to teach ignorance and superstition. Better have no education whatever 
than be organized into schools and clans where falsehood takes the place of truth, 
where A'irtue is turned to vice, and prejudice and hatred of their white superiors 
encouraged and taught." 

Here Col. Jones related some ludicrous incidents which occurred that forcibly 
demonstrated the capacity and standing of the average teacher of a negro public 
school, showing how uniit they were to advance the ignorant under their charge. 
He went on to say : 

"If, iudeed, j)overty and dejection occasionally drive a belated soul to such a pro- 
fession, the finger of shame is pointed, and while we pity we scorn and despise. No 
young ittan or woman here or elsewhere dares cross the black line or take a stand at 
the head of a negro school to teach good morals, sound philosophy, or beautiful 
rhetoric. If we must educate the negro let us no longer follow the unwise and sui- 
cidal policy of importing aliens, impractical, half-educated men and women, unac- 
quainted with the relationship of the races and the duties and responsibilities of one 
toward the other, to teach the inferior race heresies, to poison and j)rejudice them 
against their own welfare and our safety." 

Turning to the president, Col. Jones said: ''It is your duty as the head of the 
educational interest of Louisiana, asmolders of public opinion and directors of pub- 
lic thought upon the question of education, to do one of two things. You should 
stimulate public opinion in behalf of honest, upright, competent, and learned white 
instructors for the colored schools, or you should prick the huge bubble that claims 
for them equal rights, equal education, and an equal share of the public funds with 
the children of our own white race." 

iridic teachers for colored schools. — The following resolutions were adojited by the 
Louisiana Educational Association at its Shreveport (1890) meeting : 

Resolred, That we recognize it as the duty of those interested with the employ- 
ment of teachers for our public colored schools to select only those whose moral and 
intellectual worth shall fit him or her to the task of attempting to elevate the 
colored race. 

Iicsolved, That we henceforth bend our energies to having teachers thus qualified 
employed in the colored schools regardless of color. 

In another resolution the same association affirmed the ability and the duty of the 
people of the State of Louisiana to educate all its children. 

MAUYLAND. 

Schools for colored pupils.— Br. James L. Bryan, school examiner of Dorchester 
County, says in his rcjiort : 

The same generous and just appreciation of the rights of our fellow white men, 
leads naturally to the fair appropriation of common State funds for educational pur- 
poses to the colored people of the State. The school law, in Chapter xviii, section 
96, says: "It shall be the duty of the board of county school commissioners to 



966 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. 

establisli one or more inilalic schools in cacli election district for all colored youths 
between 6 and 20 years of age, to -which admission shall be free, and which sha'l be 
kept open as long as the other public schools of the particular county, provided the 
average attendance is not less than 15 scholars." 

And yet the necessary funds for the purpose are not pro\'ided. The State appro- 
priates more pro rata to the colored pupils than to the white ones, but the county 
appropriations are not so divided, nor are they sufficient to carry out the j)urposes 
of the law in this regard. 

We should never forget that public school systems result from the conviction that 
the education of the whole people of a State can not be accomplished in any other 
way than by a State system and by State aid. That to be of benciit to the very 
class which would be most injurious to a true republican statehood, the very means 
of education must be furnished systematically, regularly, and fairly, and this can 
best be done by a tax upon all the property of the State. Such tax once raised be- 
comes the property of the cause or interest for which it was levied, and then there 
can bo no difference between white and colored j)upils. Separate schools for the 
two races are a necessity, but there the difference ends, and all the expenses of the 
schools, their accounts, reports, are and should be upon a common basis and fairly 
proportioned. 

IV. iNriusTRiAL Training. 

In all of the twenty-five universities and colleges except two, Lincoln University, 
Pennsylvania, and Morgan College, Baltimore, Md., instruction was given in differ- 
ent lines of industry. In some of the institutions special attention v\'as given to such 
in.'truction. In CI afl in University, South Carolina, more than a dozen industries are 
taught and $20,000 have been expended in procuring the necessary outiits, and no 
student is allowed to graduate until he or she has mastered, some line of industry. 
At C^lark University, Atlanta, Ga., and Rust University, Mississippi, great attention 
is also given to training in the industries. Among the young men carpentry and 
printing, and among the young women plain sewing and dressmaking are the favor- 
ite branches. This is what was to be exjjected. Carpentry affords opportunities 
for earning good wages, besides having other inducements, while printing furnishes 
a good livelihood and at the same time offers excellent opportunities for educational 
advancement. Carpentry is tanght in all but five of the institutions, and printing 
in all but six. Sewing also is taught in all but five. Farming, gardening, shoe- 
making, and cooking were the other most frequent employments. 

A statement of the carpentry work done at Claflin University represents very 
fairly the work at other institutions. The cari^enter sliop at Claflin University is 
furnished with several sets of tools. But little machinery h.is been introduced, as 
it is the purpose of the managers to make the students familiar with hand tools, 
such as they would be most likely to use after leaving school. Students are taught 
the names and uses of tools a,nd how to keep them in order. A great variety of 
workhasbeenperformed, such asbuilding cottages, shops, repairing buildings, making 
and repairing furniture, ornamenting buildings and campus, building and repairing 
fences, making and repairing agricultural implements, making Avardrobes, etc. 

At Clark University, Atlanta^ Ga., students are taught how to make carriages and 
harness, which are sold in the market in comjietition wdth other manufacturing 
establishments. Buildings are fully equipped with tools,, machinery, and steam 
power for the prosecution of the following industries: (1) General blacksmithing, 
(2) carriage-making and carpentrj^, (3) carriage-painting, (4) carriage-trimming, 
(5) harness-making, (6) shoemaking, (7) x^rinting, (8) iron and com]Dosition molding, 
(9) planing-mill w^ork, (10) drawing and designing. 

"These courses of instruction are designed to fit i)ui)ils to become journeymen and 
foremen in the trades represented. The student is employed in model work until he 
acquires a sufficient knowledge of the use of tools to engage in the actual production 
of goods for the market. The sales of goods manufactured in these shops during the 
present year will amount to about $15,000. We compete with other shops and factories, 
and find sale for more than we can make. This is one of the very few schools in the 
South which combine tlieory, or model work, and the actual manufacturing of arti- 
cles for the markets. The graduates from our shops go at once as full journeymen 
into regular manufacturing establishments, and some of them as foremen. We could 
find places for ten times as many as we send out." 



EDUCATION OF THE COLOEED RACE. 967 

Industrial training in universities and coUcrjcs; numUr of students in each industry. 



Institutions. 



Sclma TTni versify 

Philander Smith College 

Jloward Uuivcrsity 

Atlanta University 

Clark University 

Berea College 

Leland University 

Now Orleans UuiVcrsity 

Soutliern University 

Straight University 

Morgan College 

Enst University 

Alcorn Agricultural and Mechan- 
ical College 

Biddlc University 

Shaw University 

Livingston College 

"Wilberlbrce University 

Lincoln University 

Allen University 

Claflin University 

Knoxville College 

Central Tennessee College 

Pisk University 

Eoger A\'illiani8 University 

Paul Quinn College 



(a) I (a) 
21 I 60 
(a) j (a) 
(o) 1 (a) 
10 ' 20 
(a) [.. 
(a) i («f 
U I 61 
....!(«) 
(a) (a) 
.... 
(a) I (a) 



(a) («) 
(a) (a) 
(a) I (a) 
.... 35 




(a) 



(a) 



(a) 



(a) 



(a) 



(a) (a)j(a) 
\a)\\a) 



(«) (.a) 



79 ilC5 
(«) 1 («) 
14 ! 34 
19 (a) 
8 21 
5 (a) 



02 



(a) 



21 



(a) 



(a) 



(«) 






(a) 



....|(a) 
(a) (a) 



--.-!(a) 
(a) (a) 
.... (a) 
.... (a) 



- , (a) 

(a) (a) (a) 

(a) I (a) (rt) 

(a) («) 
(a) ; (a) 

.... (a) 

(«) («) 

(a) 108 

.... (a) 

.... (a) 



19 i («) 



(a) j (a) 



08 I 15 



9 ha) 

--- (a) 



I (a) 

i(«) 
I 14 



(a) 

(a) j (a) I (n) 

'(a) 
(«) 
(«) 
(a) 
(a) 


....l....i(a) 
35 ISO !305 
(a) Il50 I («) 
(n) jlGS 
(a) I (a) 
....1(a) 



(a) 
(a)l 



1C7 



292 



17TBD 



{a) (a) 



I (a) 
(a) 
;(a) 



o Indicates that instruction was given in that branch, hut the number of students was not given. 

At the meeting of the general committee of the Freedmau's Aid and Soutliern Edu- 
cation Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, held in Harrisburg, Pa., Novem- 
hcr 7, 1892. the report on manual training in 23 colored schools was asfollovrs: Male 
students in manual training and trade schools as follows: Printing, 123; tailoring, 
6; painting, 43; c arp entry ,"32.5 ; cahinetmaking, 9; machine shop, wood, 6; machine 
shop, iron, 14; blacksmithing, 48; wagon-making, 1; tin shop, 8; masonry, 23; 
bakery, 4; shoemaking, 28; harness-making, 25; laundry, 95; agriculture, 91. 
Female students in domestic economy : Housekeeping, 195; sewing, 1,117; cooking, 
276; dressmaking, 248. 

V. — Coeducation of the Eaces. 

In the catalogues of many of the colored institutions it is stated that students will 
be received regardless of race or sex. Usually, however, there are not many white 
students in colored scliools. In quite a number of Northern institutions there can 
be found from one to five colored students, but generally these arc in scliools where 
the stiulcnts arc grown young men and whore their intercourse is practically limited 
to the lecture room. So far as reported th.e number of colored students in .Nortlicrn 
and Western schools in 1890-91 was as foUov.'S : In secondary schools, 80 ; universities 
and colleges, IfiO; normal schools, 207; theological, 71; law, 20; nu'dical, dental, and 
pharnuiccntical, 63. Most of the normal students here reported were attending nor- 
mal schools supported by the State or city. Wherever a suflicient number of col- 
ored students are fouiid'for a .separate institution, there is apt to be an institution 
for each race. 

On this subject of coeducation of the races, Eev. J. E. Rankin, D. D., president of 
Howard Univeivity, Washington, D. C, said at the :Mohouk Conference in 1891 : 

"It is true that tlie colored mancau go to Northern institutions of learning. That is, 
as an individual, one of him. But ten of liim together Avouhl break up any college 
class. Even Harvard would ceas-^ to elect him class orator. He can not be edacated 
in large numbers, except in institutions established and maintained especially for his 
benefit. He can go into a few of the white churches, but not in any largo number. 
There is scarcely a white church in the land that could exist long witli 50 colored 
people as members, if they came en masse, if there were a colored revival. I ani not 
complaining of this. I am speaking cold facts, frozen facts. I am not looking for it 
at present to bo otherwise. Christian as are our theological seminaries, I believe 
that while the white students of a class would regard 1 colored man as a curiosity, 



968 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1890-91, 

a phenomenon, and 2 colored men as a double enigma, 10 colored men vrould pu^ 
10,000 of them to flight. If, therefore, yon want to givo'colorcd men higher theologi- 
cal training, it must be provided for in schools established for colored mcn.'^ 

Eev. Samuel W. Boardmau, president of Maryville College, Teun. , says : "Not long 
ago there were said to be about 20 Afro-Americans in the different departments of 
Harvard University. NoAvhere have I seen such students appear to be more at 
home than in the libraries, reading rooms, and on the shady walks of Cambridge. It 
is well known that they are made welcome in the universities of England, France, 
Germany, and other countries of Europe. At Yale, Cornell, and other American col- 
leges, they have been well represented. They have Avon i^rizes, and received in some 
cases the especial recognition of their classmates in apiiointmcnts to class honors." 

There is probably a greater intermingling of the races at Berea College, Ky., and 
at Orange Park, Fla., than at any other places. Both of these institutions are as- 
sisted by the American Missionary Associatioji.,-aBdrit is stated in the catalogue'of 
Berea College that the school is intended as' a source of educational, moral, and social 
reform. The number of colored male and female students at Berea was 188, and of 
white students male and female, 166. They mingle together both in the school rooms 
and in the boarding departments. 

"At the Orange Park, Fla., school there are about 35 colored boys and girls and 
almost as many whites Avho board, together Avith many day pupils of both races. It 
seems that the majority of the whites in Orange Park are New Englauders, whohaA-e 
been there for some years. Having sj)ent their money to fix themselA''es in the South 
and, after getting there, failing to realize what they had hoped, they becajne poor — 
too poor to send their children off to schocl. Not satisfied that their children should 
forego the training giA^en in the Orange Park School, they were, because of circum- 
stances, forced to send there. It is a bitter pill, hoAveA^er, because many of them are 
Southernized Northerners. At first they strongly objected, and more than once 
used tlieir influence to haA'e the colored pupils withdraAvn, but Avith no effect. 

"In the beginning the white pupils separated themselves as much as possible from 
the colored pnj)ils. As the school work progressed and all the pupils became inter- 
ested in the common cause of education, the differences were forgotten, the storm 
outside abated, and the white pupils naturally became more intimately associated 
with the colored pupils in class work." 

VI. Vauious Expressions op OpiKioisr kegardixg Negro Education and Ad- 
vancement. 

THE education OF THE NEGRO. 

[From an article by V^'". T. Harris in tlic Atlantic Monthly, June, 1802, with annotations hy reprcscnta- 
tiA'e men to Avhom it had been sulamitted for criticism.] 

The negro was brought to this country as a slave almost from the date of its first 
settlement. Two hunclred and fifty years of bondage had elapsed Avhen the issue of 
civil war set him free. Ho had brought with him from Africa the lowest form of cIa^- 
ilization to be found among men — that in which the most degrading superstition 
furnishes the forms of public and priA'ate life. His religion was fetichism. But by 
contact with the Anglo-Saxon race in the A'ery close relation of domestic seiwitude, 
living in the same family and goA'erned by the absolute authority Avhich character- 
izes all family control, the negro, after tAvo and a half centuries, had come to possess 
what we may call the Anglo-Saxon consciousness. For the ne'gro of the South, Avith 
the exception of a stratum of j)opulation in the dark belt of large jilantations, Avhere 
he has not been brought into contact Avith white people through domestic servitude, 
but segregated as oxen and horses are — the negro of the South, with this exception, 
I repeat, is thoroughly imbued with nearly airthe ideals and aspirations which form 
the conscious and unconscious motiA'cs of action Avith the white people among Avhom 
he liA^es.i It would be very easy to couA'ince one's self of this by free conA'ersation 
with any specimen of the colored race, and a comparison of his thoiights with those 
of a newly arrived immigrant from Ireland, Italy, Germany, or Scandinavia. It 
would be found that the negro is in thorough sympathy, intellectually and emotion- 
ally, with our national point of Adew, while the immigrant looks through the dark 
glass of his own national presniiiiositions, and misinterprets most that he sees around 
him here. Only in the second generation, and after association with the natiA'e pop- 

' It is a matter for cTiscussion Avhethcr the negro has come into the possession of Avhat may be called 
" the Anglo-Saxon consciousness." I can not see hoAV, so long as the peojile of this race constitute a 
distinct and insoluble entity in our political society, it will be possible for them to acquire the charac- 
teristics Avhich it has taken such a long period of time to develop in the Caucasian race. {li. L. Gib- 
ton.) 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 969 

ulatiou in common scliools, the worksliop, and tlio political meetiug, docs the Eui'o- 
peau contingent of ouv population become assimilated. ^ 

Of course I do not say this in disparagement of the Euroj^ean immigrant, for he 
stubbornly resists our national idea only in proportion to the value of his o\yn. 
But I do insist on the practical fact that the negro of the South is not an African in 
his inner consciousness, but an American Avho has acquired our Anglo-Saxon con- 
sciousness in its American tyjie througli .seven generations of don stic servitude in 
the family of a Avhite master. That this has been acquired so completely because of 
the inherent aptitude of tbe African race to imitate may be admitted as probable, 
and it follows from this that the national consciousness assumed by the black race 
is not so firmly seated as in otlier races that have risen througli tlieir own activity 
to views of the Avorld more advanced than feticbism. Hence wo may expect that 
the sundering of the negro from close domestic relatious witb the white race will be 
accompanied witb tendencies of relapse to the old fetich worship and belief in magic ; 
and this would be especially the case in the dark belt where the large plantations 
are found. « ^ * 

Here is the chief problem of the negro of the South. It is to retain the elevation 
acquired through the long generations of domestic slavery, and to superimpose on 
it the sense of personal responsibility, moral dignity, and self respect which belongs 
to the conscious ideal of the white race. Those acquainted with the free negro of the 
South, especially with the specimens at school and college, know that he is as capable 
of this higher form of civilization as in slavery he was capable of faithful attach- 
ment to the interests of his master. 

The first step- towards this higher stage which will make the negro a valued citi- 
zen is intellectual education, and the second is industiial education.^ By the expres- 
sion "industrial ediication" I do not refer so much to training in habits of industry, 
for he has had this discipline for two hundred years,^ but to school instruction in arts 
and trades as applications of scientific principles. Kor do I refer even to niJinual and 
scientific training, valuable as it is, so much as to that fundamental training in thrift"' 
which is so essential to the iirogrcss of industry. Tlie negro must teach himself to 
become a capitalist. There are two stages to this: First, that of hoarding; second, 
that of profitable investment. The first stage of thrift may be stimulated by adopt- 
ing the postal savings device. If it be true, as is j^lausibly asserted, that the so-called 
poor white of the South is less thrifty than the negro, such adojition by ourGovern- 



1 Witlidi\iwn by force from liis original physical and moral environment, the negro lias adapted 
liimself to Iiis American surroundings, and in doing so lias necessarily acquired, so far as his lower 
intelligence permitted, the ideals and aspirations of the people to whom he was bound so long in slav- 
ery; but he is essentially still an African in the controlling tendencies of his character. When left 
to a7i exclusive association with his own people, there is a powerful iuclin.ation on the part of the 
Southern negro to revert to all of the distinctive features of his African ancestors. This is a fiict of 
the utmost importance in the consideration of the proper means to be emploj'ed for the improvement 
of his character. The principal cause of the many failures ■which have been made in the eftbrt to pro- 
duce this improvement lias been the unfortunate "misconception that the Soutliern negro jof to-day is 
simply an ignorant white man with a black skin. The American descendants of European immigrants 
are, in the second generation, tlioronghly assimilated with the surrounding -white population. The 
grandsons of an American, a German, and an Englishman difler but little, if at all, in the basis of their 
character. It c.in hardly be said that the negroes even of those Northern communities in which their 
race has enjoyed freedom for five generations are so assimilated with the surrounding white popula- 
tion that they are not to be discriminated from it in racial characteristics. (P. A. Bruce.) 

2 The first step really to be taken must be by the whites about him iu letting the negro feel that he 
possesses inalienable rights. "What he now possesses is by suffcrauco only. He knows that he is 
neither a citizen nor a man, in the full sense. (L. H. Blair.) 

^ I should prefer to define the course thus: Eirst, religious; second, industrial; and thixd, intellec- 
tual. An ideal public-school system for tlie Southern negroes for many generations to come would bo 
a system nndcr the oi^eration of which each schoolhouso would be devoted to the religious instruction 
of the colored pupils, witli a sufl'.cient amount of Indus? rial training to imp.art h.ibits of industry, and 
a sufficient amount of intellectual training to facilitate the inculcation of the religious teachings'. As 
far as possible the public-school system sliould be made supervisory of the moral life of the pu])ils; it 
should take the place of the parental authority, which is so much relaxed, now that the watchful eye 
and firm support of the slaveholders have been withdrawn. (P. A . Bruce.) 

* One of the discouraging features in the character of t\^e young Southern negro is that apparently 
hs has inherited but a small share of the steadiness and industry which were acquired under compul- 
sion by his fathers. I am referring now to the young negro to he found in llio agricultural commu- 
nities. He is in a marked degree inferior to the former .slave in agricultural knowledge and manipu- 
lating skill, for the very simple reason that his employer is nnablo to enforce the rigid'attention to all 
the details of work which ho would do if the young negro were his property. (7^. A. Bruce.) 

Br. Harris seems to me to overestimate the value of the slave's experience in developing the habits 
of punctuality and obeilience in descendants who were never slaves. I fear that the result is far 
other; that iii iho descendants of the slave there is an inherited disposition to be disobedient to law 
as a proof of the newly acquired freedom. (Anon.) 

* There is need of the inculcation and of the adoption in homo life, in daily conduct, of sounder 
principles of economy and of consumption. What to eat, what to wear, how to cook, how to provide 
and preserve homo conveniences and comforts, how to lay by for a rainy day, must be indoctrinated, 
ingrained, and become a habit. In other days the African slave was cared for from cradle to coffin, 
and literally tcok no thought for (he morrow. Comparatively few negroes now living were ever slaves, 
but the habits of servitude have been transmitted. (J. L. M. Curry ) 



970 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1890-91. 



mcnt of the postal savings institution would be a blessing to botb races.' We linow, 
indeed, that the poor ^vhite in the North is chiefly in need of the tlirift that has a 
habit of hoarding — tliat is, the habit of saving something from its weekly pittance, 
no matter how small. 

The introduction of manufacturing industries throughout the South is favorable 
to the rise of the poor white from his poverbj^. In the early days of cotton manu- 
facture in New England, the unthrifty white iieople, who hitherto had lived in cot- 
tages or hovels near the large farms, removed to the villages tliat were springing up 
near water privileges. They learned how to " work in the mill," all the members of 
the family, from the oldest to the youngest, and the aggregate wages was wealth 
compared with what they had known before. In fact, they earned more than the 
■well-to-do farmers in whose service they had formerly labored. The children now 
earned more wages than the parents had earned before. The work on the farm Avas 
A^aried and intermittent, depending upon the season. PloAving, planting, Aveed- 
ing, haying, haiwesting, thrashing, marketing, wood-cutting, etc., are regulated by 
the farmer's calendar. There are rainy days, when the day laborer loses his hire; 
and, besides these, there are interA^als betAveen the season of one species of work 
and that of the next, in Avhich no employment is offered him by the farm proprietor. 
If he had thrift he would find work of some kind for himseff at home; he would 
saA'e money and own his house. But thrift he does not possess. Hence, what he 
earns in the days of .the working season is jsrodigally expended while it lasts, and 
the days of idleness after harA^est are days of want in the household. The children 
are educated in the same habits of unthrift. 

Tlic rise of manufactures- and the removal of the ill-to-do families from the farm 
to the mill put an end to the j)eriodic alternation of want and plenty in the house. 
Plenty now preA'ails, but does not generate thrift, for there is less occasion for it. 
The week's wages may be expended as fast as earned, thanks to the demoralizing 
institution of credit at the grocery kept by the proprietors of the mill. But, nat- 
withstanding this drawback, there is more self-respect on the j)art of the children, 
Avho now liaA^e the consciousness that they earn their living. Manufactures and 
commerce bring about urban life as contrasted Avith rural life. The A'illage grows 
into the city; the railroad carries the daily newspaper from the metropolis to the 
suburbs and to all toAvns on its line, and thus extends urban life indefinitely. 

The difference between these two orders of life, the urban and rural, is quite im- 
portant, and its discussion affords us an insight into a process going on rapidly 
throughout the South. The old regime of the large farm, with its cordon of dcr 
pendent families, rendered possible a sort of patriarchal constitution. The farm 
proprietor, in the North as well as in the Soiith, Avielded great power over the un- 
thriftj^ families of day laborers V\'ho liA'cd near him. He helped them do their think- 
ing, as he mingled Avith them in the daily work. He was called upon to assist Avhen- 
ever their unthrift pinched them. His intellect and will in a measure supplanted 
the natiA'e intellect and will of his hired laborers, not merely in directing their work 
on his farm, but also in their private matters, it being their habit to consult him. 
The farm proprietor thus furnished a sort of substantial will power that gOA'erned 
his small community as the head of a family governs his. 

This semi-j)atriarchal rule which exists in the exclusiA'ely agricultural community 
produces its own peculiar form of ethical life. The head of the farm, who does the 
thinking and willing for the others in all matters that are not fixed by roiatine, so 
penetrates their liAa-s that he exercises a moral restraint OA^er them, holding them 
back from crime of all kinds. Such ethical influence is, hoAVCA-er, of the lowest and 
most rudimentary character in the stage next aboA'e slaA'ery. It presupposes a lack 
of individual self-determination in tho persons thus controlled. They are obsessed, 
as it Avere, by his will and intellect, and fail to develop their own natn-o capacities. 
He rules as a clan leader, and they are his henchmen. They are repressed and are 
not educated into a moral character of their own. There is'little outAvard stimulus 
compelling them to exorcise their independent choice. Hence agricultural commu- 
nities are conservative, governed by custom and routine, taking up very slowly any 
new ideas. 

The change to urban life through the intermediary step of village life breaks up 



1 ITntil the negro learns thrift he Avill never be a man, no matter Avhat his scientific or inclnstrial 
education may be ; therefore postal savings banks are especially desirable, indeed necessary, for him. 
(L. H.Blair.) 

^Itisvainto loolc for mannfactnres in the South. Manufactures flourish only in a cool climate. 
Manufacturing has for years been diminishing in the South, nress reports to the contrary notwith- 
standing. (L. II. Blair.) 

Tlie recent statistics of American cotton manufacture issued from the Census OfRce shoAV that 
great strides have been made by the Southern States between ISSO .and ISCO. Tlie atnount of capital 
invested in that iudusty in the Southern group has advanced from $21,070,713 to $01.12-1,090; the num- 
ber of hands employed has .advanced from 20,827 to 41,481, and the value of the manufactured products 
lias been raised from $21,038,712 to $40,971,503. This compares very favorably with the pr02:rcssniade 
by any other group of States within the same iuterval. (J. S, Means, in the '' Hoiithcrn States" for 
March, -1893.) 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 971 

this patriarclial cliuisliip, ;iud cultivates iu its place independence of opinion and 
action. Tlie laborer in the "'miH" recognizes his right to choose his cni]do5er and 
his place of labor, and exercises it to a far greater degree than the farm laborer. 
He migrates from village to village; in the city he lias before him a bewildering 
variety of employers to choose from. The city emjiloyer does not act as patriarch, 
nor permit his laborers to approach him as head of a clan. The urban life protects 
the laborer from the obsessing iullucnce of the employer, and throws a far greater 
■weiglit of responsibility on the individual. Hence the urban life stimulates and 
develops independence of character. * 

In the case of the Southern slave there was none of this alternation between idle- 
ness and industry, plenty and want, that comes to tlie j^oor white at the North and 
South by reason of his freedom. But his will and intellect were obsessed more 
elfectually because the slave could not be allowed the development of spontaneous, 
independent, self-activity. Since the civil var, however, the condition of the negro 
has changed, and in the agricultural region it now resembles more nearly the status 
above described as that of the poor white in rural in contradistinction from urban 
surroundings. Where the country is sjiarsely settled the proiirietor farmer retains 
the dominant influence. "Where the villages are getting numerous the tendency to 
indeiieudeiice manifests itself in a partial revolt from the patriarchal rule of the 
plantation, and the struggle leads naturally to an unpleasant state of aifairs for all 
parties. But the urban factor in the problem is certain to gain the ascendancy, and 
we must see in the near future, with the increase of railroads and manufacturing 
centers, the progressive decadence of the patriarchal rule. The old system of social 
morality Avill perish, and a ncAv one will take its place. In the formation of the 
new one the present danger lies. 

If the negro separates entirely from the white classes so far as domestic relations 
are concerned, and forms his own independent family, he separates from the clan 
influence also, and loses the education of the white master's family in manners.' 
He loses, too, the education of the master's counsel and directing influence. Unless 
this is counterbalanced by school education, it will produce degeneracy; for to 
remove the weight of authority is productive of good only when there has been a 
growth of individuality that demands a larger sphere of free activity. In case of 
entering upon village life and mechanical industries greater freedom from authority 
is demanded, and its efiects are healthful; but with the isolated life on the planta- 
tion the opposite holds. 

The remedy for evils incident to these changes is, as before said, school education, 
provided it is inclusive enough to furnish industrial and moral as well as intellectual 
training. 

Education, intellectual and moral, is the only means yet discovered that is always 
sure to hell) people to help themselves. Any otlier species of aid may enervate the 
beneficiary, and lead to a habit of dependence on outside help. But intellectual and 
moral education develops self-respect, fertility of resources, knowledge of human 
nature, and aspiration for a better condition in life. It jiroduces that divine discon- 
tent which goads on the individual, and will not let him rest." 

How does the school produce this important result? In what way can it give to 
the negro a solid basis for character and accomplishments? The school has under- 
taken to perform two quite diti'erent and opposite educational functions. The first 
produces intellectual training, and the second the training of the will. 

The school, for its intellectual function, causes the pupil to learn certain arts, 
snch as reading and writing, which make possible communication with one's fellow- 
men, and imjKirt certain rudimentary iusights or general elementary ideas with 
which jiractical thinking may be done, and the i)upil be set on the way to comprehend 

1 Tlic increasing isolation of tho negro of the South from the Tvliites is, so far as his o"wn advancement 
is conceriied, the most siiiiiificr.nt fact connected ■« ith Lis present condition. In one j)oint only does 
ho cor.io in contact with the white man, and tliat is in the formal relation of employed to employer. 
The negro and the white man arc driven into this relation of necessity. In their social spheres they 
are as wide apart as if tliey inhabited dilierent countries. They have'scpaiate churches and separate 
schools, and it is only a question of time for them to have, in all parts of the South, sejjarate jniblic 
conAcyances. The two races resemble two groat streams that flow side by side, never commingling 
nor converging. There is no disposition to unite. On tho contrary, tho tendency is to swerve still 
farther apart. This is a fact of sv.pren^.e importance in its bearing upon the prospects of the negro 
race in tlie South, for that race is essentially imitative and adaptive in its character, sliowing a 
parasitic loyalty to its environment. In a state of servitude, the ncOTO was disciplined into a tixed 
and indnstrion.s life by tho regulations of the system which enslaved liim; he was improvi d iu man- 
ners and elevated in his general conceptions by his daily association with the individuals of a superior 
white caste. This semi-military discipline of slavery is gone, and no social or personail tic now unites 
the home of the negro with that of the v.hite man. (P. A . Bruce.) 

2 Self-respect is near aliin to self-support. Any one who has lived in a foreign land where class dis- 
tinctions prevail knows how inefiaceable is deference to r.ank, sometimes ajiproaching servility. The 
negro seems to assume, to feel, to act on, his inferiority. The action of the Government, of party 
managers, of religious organizations, of givers of pecuniary aid, of adniiuis^trdtors of cliaritable bene- 
factions, lias tended to make him look to and rely iqion Hercules. Slavery .subordinated will, repressed 
intelligence, did not cultivate individuality or self-determination, and wliat is needed for the Atrican 
is a strengthening at weak points so as to build up self-reliant character. (J. L. If. Curry.) 



972 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1890-91. 

his environment of nature, and of humanity and history. There is taught in the 
huniljlcst of schools sonietiiing of arithmetic, the science and arts of numbers, by 
■svhose aid material nature is divided and conibined — the most practical of all knowl- 
edge of nature because it relates to ihe fundamental conditions of the existence of 
nature, the quantitative structure of time and space themselves. A little geography, 
also, is taught; the pupil acquires the idea of the interrelation of each locality with 
every other. Eacb place produces something for the world-market, and in return it 
receives numerous commodities of useful and ornamental articles for food, clothing, 
and shelter. The great cosmoxiolitan idea of the human race and its unity of inter- 
ests is born of geography, and even the smattering of it Avhich the poorly taught 
pupil gets enwrajos this great general idea, which is fertile and productive, a veri- 
table knowledge of power from the start. 

All school studies, moreover, deal with language, the embodiment of the reason, 
not of the individual, but of the Anglo-Saxon stock or peoijle. The most elementary 
language study begins by isolating the A\'ords of a sentence, and making the pupil 
conscious of their separate articulation, spelling, and meaning. The savage does 
not quite arrive at a consciousness of the separate words of the language, but knows 
only whole sentences. All inflected languages preserve for us their primitive form 
of language consciousness, the inflections being the addition (to the roots or stems) 
of various subjective or pronominal elements necessary to give definiteness of appli- 
cation. The Turanic languages are called "agglutinative," because the power of an- 
alytic thinking has not proceeded so far as to dift'erentiate the x^arts of speech fully. 
Every sentence is as it were some form of a conjugation of its verb. 

Now, the steps of becoming conscious of words as Avords involved in writing and 
spelling, and in making out the meaning, and, finally, in the study of grammatical 
distinctions between the parts of speech, bring to the iiupil a power of abstraction, 
a power of discriminating form from conteiits, substance from accidents, activity 
from passivity, subjectiA'^e from objectiA'e,' which makes him a thinker. For think- 
ing depends on the mastery of categories, the ability to analyze a subject and get at 
its essential elements and see their necessary relations. The jieople Avho are taught 
to analyze their speech into AA'ords liaA^e a constant elcmentarj' training through life 
that makes them reflective and analytic as compared Avith a totally illiterate peoiile. 

This explains to some degree the elfect upon a loAver race of adojiting the language 
of a higher race. It brings up into consciousness, by furnishing exact expressions 
for them, complicated series of ideas Avhich remain sunk below the mental horizon of 
the savage. It enables the rudimentary intelligence to ascend from the thought of 
isolated things to the thought of their relations and interdependencies. 

The school teaches also literature, and trains the pujjil to read by setting him les- 
sons consisting of extracts from literary works of art. These are selected for their 
intensity, and for their peculiar merits in exj^ressiug situations of the soul brought 
about by external or internal circumstances. Language itself contains the catego- 
ries of thought, and the study of grammatical structure makes one conscious of 
phases of ideas which flit past without notice in the mind of the illiterate person. 
Literary genious invents modes of utterance for feelings and thoughts that Avere 
hitherto below the surface of consciousness. It brings them above its Ica'cI, and 
makes them forcA^er after conscious and articulate. Especially in the realm of ethi- 
cal and religious ideas, the thoughts that furnish the regulative forms for living and 
acting, literature is jireeminent for its usefulness. Literature may be said, therefore, 
to reveal h^lnlan nature. Its A-ery elementary study in school makes the pupil ac- 
quainted with a hundred or more i^ieces of literary art, expressing for him with 
felicity his rarer and higher moods of feeling and thought. When, in mature age, 
we lookback OA'c-r our liA-es and recall to mind the influence that our schooldays 
brought us, the time sj)ent over the school readers seems quite naturally to hav^e been 
the most A^aluable part of our education. Our thoughts on the conduct of life liaA'e 
been stimulated by it, and this ethical knoAvledge is of all knowledge the nearest 
related to self-j)reservation. 

The school, eA^en in its least efficient form, does something on these lines of intel- 
lectual insight. For the most fruitful part of all intellectual education is the acqui- 
sition of the general outline and the basal idea — the categories, so to speak, of the 
provinces of human learning. This intellectual i^art of school education could not 
well be more accurately directed to aid the cause of civilization. For the kind of 
knowledge and mental discipline that conserA^es civil life is the knoAvledge that giA'cs 
an insight into the dependence of the indiAddual upon society. The school is busied 
vrith giAing the pupil a knoAvledge of the conditions of physical nature and human 
nature ; the former in mathematical study, the latter in language study. 

The school also educates the Avill through its discipline. It demands of the iiupil 
that he shall be obedient to the rules of order, and adopt habits that make it possi- 
ble to combine with one's fellows. The school is a small community, in which, many 
immature wills are combined in such a way as to prcA'ent one from standing in the 
way of another, while each helps all and all help each. For the pupil learns more 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 973 

by seeing the efforts of his fellows at mastering the lesson than he docs by hearing 
the teacher's explanations. In order to secure concert of action, the seniiniechanical 
moral habits of regularity, punctuality, silence, and industry are insisted on. Moral 
education is not accomplished by lectures on morals so much as by a strict training 
in moral habits. The American school is proverbially strict in the matter of these 
semimechanical moral habits. They constitute the basis of self-control as related 
to combination -with one's fellows. Lea^■« out punctuality and regularity, and no 
combination is practicable; leave out silence and industry, and the school work is 
not possible. AVithout industry and abstention from meddlesomeness (and this is 
the equivalent of silence in the school) there can be no combination in civil society 
at large. The school secures jieaceful cooperation, repressin,g the natural quarrel- 
someness that exists among boys who are strangers to one another, and insuring civil 
behavior. Good behavior is the general term that characterizes the ideal aimed at 
by the school in the matter of will-training. A mastex'y of the '' conventionalities of 
intelligence," as the "three R's'' are called by a thoughtful observer, characterizes 
in like mauner the ideal of its intellectual training. 

From these considerations Ave can sec how the common school may work, and does 
necessarily work, to civilize the intellect and will of the child, and how it must affect 
any lower race struggling to master the elements of civilization. For this scholastic 
training gives one the poAver to comiirehend the siirings of action that move the 
races Avhich ]iosscss the directive power, and thus he can govern himself. It enables 
the pupil to see the properties and adaptabilities of material things, and he can sub- 
due nature and convert things into wealth. 

Here is the ground for the addition of industrial training to the traditional course 
of study in the common schools. The negro must learn to manage machinery, and 
make himself useful to the comnuniity in which he lives b^' becoming a skilled 
laborer.' Every physical peculiarity may be converted by the cunning of intellect 
into some knack or aptitude which gives its possessor an advantage in productive 
industry. But the skill to use tools and direct machinery is a superior gift. luA'en- 
fion is fast discounting the value of special gifts of manual dexterity. Science is the 
seedcorn, Avhile artisan skill — yes, even art itself — is only the baked bread. 

The first step above brute instinct takes place when man looks beyond things as 
he sees them existing before him, and begins to consider their possibilities; he adds 
to his external seeing an internal seeing. The Avorld assumes a new aspect; each 
object appears to be of larger scope than in its present existence, for there is a sphere 
of possibility euA^irouiug it — a siiherc Avhich the sharpest animal eyes of Ij' nx or eagle 
can not see, but which man, endoAved with this ne\y faculty of inward sight, per- 
ceives at once. To this insight into possibilities there loom up uses and adaptations, 
transformations, and combinations, in a long series, stretching into the infinite behind 
each finite real thing. The bodily eye sees the real objects, but can not see the infi- 
nite trails; thej' are invisible except to the inward eye of the mind. . 

What we call directive power on the part of man, his combining and organizing 
capacity, all rests on this ability to see beyond the real things before the senses to 
the ideal possibilities iuAusible to the brute. The more clearly man sees these ideals, 
the more perfectly he can construct for his behoof another set of conditions than 
those in wiiich he finds himself. 

The school, in so far as it gives intellectual education, aids the pupil by science 
and literature. Science collects about each subject all its phases of existence under 
different conditions; it teaches the student to look at a thing as a Avhole, and sec in 
it not only Avhat is A'isible before his senses, but also Avhat is invisible — what is not 
realized, but remains dormant or potential. The scientifically educated laborer, 
therefore, is of a higher type than the mere "hand laborer," because he has learnecl 
to see in each thing its possibilities. He sees each thing in the persiiectiA'e of its 
history. Here, then, in the educated laborer, we haA-e a hand belonging to a brain 
that directs or that can intelligently comprehend a detailed statement of an ideal to 
be worked out. The laborer and the oA'erseer, or "boss," are united in one man. 
Hence it is that the productive power of the educated laborer is so great. 

The school may indefinitely reenforce the effect of this general education by adding 
manual training and other industrial branches, taking care to make the instruction 

1 It is well lo imderst.'md clearly tlie formidable character of the obstacles which the iiegro mechanic 
will be called upon to OAcrcome before he can acquire, in the mechanical trades, anj^ substantial advan- 
tage from the prosperity Avhich may surround him. In the first place, he AA'ill encounter race prejudice ; 
employers will prefer mechanics of their oAvn race, if other conditions are equal. Then he will h.ave to 
submit to the stress of modern competition. The skilled white mechanic protects himself by his trade 
union; into that he is not likely to admit the negro mechanic. If the skilled negro mechanics form 
their own trade unions, the superiority of the members must be of the most striking character to create 
a preponderating influence in tlieir favor in the mind of the employer, who naturally leans towards 
individuals of liis own race. Let the negro unions work at cheaper rates and tlic white mechaiiics be 
forced to come down to the same wages, the former would at once be exposed to those destructive con- 
ditions to which I have referred. These are tlie influences that diminish the prospect of the negro 
taking an active piart in the manufacturing development of the South, except in those branches of labor 
which are distinctly beloAV such as require special skill and training. (P. A. Bruce.) 



974 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. 

scientific; for it is science that gives scope and iiower of adaptation to new condi- 
tions. The instrument of modern civilization is the labor-saving machine. The 
negro can not share in the white man's freedom nnless he can Icaru to manage ma- 
chinery. Nothing but drudgery remains for a race that can not understand applied 
science. The productive power of a race that works only with its hamls is so small 
that only one in the hundred can live in the enjoyment of the comforts of life. The 
nations that have conquered nature by the aid of machinery can afford luxury for 
large classes. In Great Britain/ for example, 30 per cent of the families enjoy 
incomes of $1,000 and upwards per annum, wMle the 70 per cent, constituting the 
so-called "worlving classes," have an average of $485 to each family. When we con- 
sider how much this will buy in England, we see that the common laborer of to-day is 
better oft' for real comforts than the nobleman of three hundred years ago. In France, 
76 per cent, including the working classes, receive $395 per family, while tlie 24 per 
cent, including the wealthy, get an average of $1,300 and nj)wards. But in Italy the 
income returns show (in 1881) only 8,500 families with incomes above $1,000, while 
more than 98 per cent of the population average less than $300 for each familj-.^ Agri- 
culture without manufactures and commerce can not furnish wealth lor a large frac- 
tion of the people. But with diversity of industry there is opportunity for many, 
and will be finally for all. The increased use of machinery multiplies wealth, so that 
production doubles twice as often as the population in the United States. 

This is the significance of manual training in our schools. The youth leojus how 
to shape wood and iron into machines, and thus how to construct and manage 
machines. The hand worker is to be turned into a brain worker; for the machine 
does the work of the hand, but requires a brain to direct it. Human productive 
industry needs more and more directive power, but less and less mere sleight of hand. 
The negro, educated in manual training, will find himself at home in a civilization 
which is accumulating invention of all sorts and descriptions to perform the work 
necessary to supply the people with food, clothing, and shelter at so cheap a rate as 
to have a large surj)lus of income to p-archase the means of luxury, amusement, and 
culture. 

The friends of the education of the negro. North and South, have seen the impor- 
tance of providing industrial education for him. So long as he can work only at 
the cultivation of staple crops he can not become a salutary element in the social 
wh'ole."' When he acquires skill in mechanical industries his jiresence in the com- 
munity is valued and his person respected. Many colored institutions have been 
founded for the special promotion of skill in the arts and trades, and nearly all of 
the higher institutions have undertaken to provide some facilities for industrial 
education. " * « 

With the growing isolation of the negro in his state of freedom comes the neces- 
sity of a well educated clergy* to counteract an increasing tendency to relapse into 
fetichism and magic and all manner of degrading superstitious. The profession of 
Christianity in empty words does not avail auj^hing, and the practical interpreta- 
tion of those words by means of the ideas of fetichism secures and confirms the low- 
est status of savagery. The more highly educated the colored clergy, the more 
closely are the masses of the i^eoplo brought into intelligent sympathy with the 
aspirations and endeavors of the white race with whom they live. For it is not the 
abstract dogma that gives vital religion, important though it be as a symbol of the 
highest. It is the correct interpretation of that dogma in terms of concrete vital 
issues which make it a living faith. One must be able to see the present world and 
its Sphinx riddles solved by the high doctrines of his creed, or he does not i)05sess a 
" saving faith." The preacher who can not, for his illiteracy, see the hand of ProA'i- 
dence in the instruments of modern civilization — in the steamship, the railroad, the 
telegraph, the morning newspaper, the popular novel, the labor-saving machine, the 
investigations in natural science — is not likely to be of much help in building up a 

' See Mulliall's Dictionary of Statistics (new edition, 1890-'91), pages 320-322. ( W. T. H.) 

' Tlie English laborer has a greater income than the Italian, because England is tlie common manu- 
facturer for Italy . Southern climates, "whether occupied by negroes or Caucasians, are fatal to the 
rigorous demands of scientiiic iudiistry. (L. H. Blair.) 

^As yet public sentiment coniines him principally to agricultural or other similarly unrcmnncrativo 
employments, (i. S. Blair.) 

^ The improvement of the character of the negro preachers is even more important than the improve- 
ment of the character of the negro teachers ; but it is an end more difficult to reach, because the iireachers 
can not be selected like the teachers alter submission to an ordeal that tests their fitness for the posi- 
tions tobe filled. As a rule, the present spiritual guides of the Southern negroes are self-appointed. 
The most ieasible i^lan for promoting this improvement of character seems to^be the establishment of 
a largo number of seminaries, to be controlled absolutely by the white religions denominations, in 
■which the general system of instruction now pursued in the normal institutes, with religious courses . 
predominating, shall be employed for the education of the students. A second Peabody or Slater, 
instead of leaving alarge fund for the advancement of the usefulness of the normal schools for the South- 
ern negroes, should set aside the same amount lor establishing new seminaries for the education of 
negro preachers or enlarging the scope and improving the methods of those already in existence. (P. 
A. Bruce.) 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 975 

new civilization, altliougli lie may, it is true, administer consolation to souls world- 
sick and wcavy.* 

The Christian religion, as interpreted by the modern spirit, mc^us not only the 
preparation for death, but, more than this, a preparation for living. The true mis- 
sionary spirit is thoroughly of this character. It bids each Immau being lielp his 
brother in all ways that may secure his self-help. Hence the conquest of nature, 
first bj' means of natural scitmce, and secondly by means of useful inventions, to the 
endthivt man may be lifted forever above a life of drudgery iuto a life of intelligent, 
directive power, where brains count more than hands — this conquest is demanded 
by religion as a preliminary missionary movement. 

The labors in social science directed to the end of discovering the best means of 
administering charity so that it may create activity and enterprise rather than 
demoralize society's weaklings; the improvement of tenement houses, hygienic pre- 
cautious, public parks, and innocent amusements, all that goes to increase the interest 
of man in his fellow men, and especially all that goes to lift the burden from child- 
hood — the burden that is premature and causes arrested development, stunting the 
soul in its growth — these ai'e Christian instrumentalities, and are seen to be such by 
an educated clergy. But an illiterate clergy condemns them as works of Antichrist, 
because it can not see the spirit of the doctrines which it preaches. It sounds like 
a, paradox to say that the illiterate is bound by the letter and can not seethe spirit, 
but it is true. 

It is quite important that the higher education of the negro should include Latin 
and Greek. The Anglo-Saxon civilization in which he lives is a derivative one, 
receiving one of its factors from Rome and the other from Athens. The white j'outh 
is obliged to study the classic lauguages in order to become couscious of these two 
derivative elements in his life, and it is equally im]x>rtant for the colored youth. 
A " liberal" education by classic study gives to the youth some acquiiintauce with 
his spiritual embryology. * * * , 

It is clear, from the above considerations, that money expended for the secbndary 
and higher education of the negro accomplishes farmore for him than similarexpcndi- 
tures accomplish for the white people. It is seed sown where it brings forth a hun- 
dred fold,- because each one of the pupils of these higher institutions is a center of 
diffusion of superior methods and reiiuing intiueuces among an imitative and impres- 
sible race. State and national aid as Svell as private bequest should take this direc- 
tion lirst. There should be no gifts »r bequests for common elementary instruction; 
this should be left to the common schools, and all outside aid should be concentrated 
on the secondary and higher instruction, inclusive of industrial cducatioii. « * * 

The three symbols of our most advanced civilization are the railroad, the morning 
newspaper, and the school. Tlie rural population everywhere is backward in its 
sympathies for these "moderns." The good school is the instrumentality which 
mvist precede in order to create this sympathy. But the good school •will not spring 
up of itself in the agricultural community. It must be provided for by the urban 
influence of the State and nation. By judicious distribution of general funds, coupled 
with provisions requiring local taxation as a condition of sharing in these funds, 
even the rural districts may be brought uj) to the standard. The State as a whole 
gains in wealth and in the priceless increase of individual ability by education. 

It was revealed by thi' census of 1880 that the colored race furnished a dispropor- 
tionate share of illiterates even in the Northern and Pacific groups of States. In the 
Northern group the percentage of colored illiterates was nearly live times as large as 
the percentage of white illiterates — 16 jier cent for the colored and 3^ per cent for 
the white. In the Pacific group the same disproportion iirevailed. In the Southern 
section of the colored population of the ages 15 to 20 years the illiterates amounted 
to C7 per cent, while the white illiterates were only 17 iier cent of their quota; 
colored illiterate's froju 10 to 14 were 70 per cent and the white 30 per cent of their 
respective quotas. 

The illiterate person is ajit to be intolerant and full of race prejudice, and to this 
cause we may attribute the larger portion of the feuds ^ between the races wliere- 
ever they have existed in the South. But the worst feature of illiteracy is to be 

_' One of tLe chief dra-wliacks to higher civiliz.ition in the negro race is the exceeding difficulty of 
giving a pi'edominaiit ethical cliaractor to his religion. In the black belt religion .ind virtue are oi'ten 
considered ns distinct and separalde tlnngs. The moral element, good character, is eliminated from 
the essential ingredients of Christianity, and good citizenship, womanliness, truth, chastity, honesty, 
cleanliness, trustworthiness, are not always of the essence of religious obligation. An intelligent, 
pious, courageous ministry is indispensable to any hopeful attempt to lift up" the negro rao. (J. i. 
M. Curry.) 

2 The wisest course to pursue .at present is to employ every means to widen the scope and perfect the 
methods of the norgial schools for tlie negroes. The Ilampton Institute rejirescnts in an eminent 
degree tlie true principle to 1)0 applied in this a,go to their improvement throueh the public school, 
that principle being eni!)odiod in the careful selection of the best material which the race aifords for 
instructors of the young. (/'. A. Bruce.) 

^Tlio feuds spvi 'g .almost wholly from the enmity of the whites. The negroes generally stand for 
the lamb drinking below and muddying the stream above. (L. U. Blair.) 



976 EDUCATION REPOET, 1890-91. 

found ill tlio fact that it is impenetrable to the influence of the aowspaper. En- 
lightened public opinion depends so much on the daily ncATspaper that it is not pos- 
sible 'O'ithout it; and lacking this, an ideal self-government is not to bo thought of. 

The most advanced form of government is that by i^ublic opinion. This is essen- 
tially a newspaper form of government. The extension of the railroad system into 
all parts of the South will carry the urban influence to the towns and villages, every 
station being a radiating center for the daily newspapers of the metropolis. The 
education that comes from the daily survey of the events of the Avoiid, and a delib- 
erate consideration of the opinions and verdicts editorially written in view of tliese 
events, is a supplement or extension of the school. It takes the place of the village 
gossip which once furnished the mental food for the vast majority. School educa- 
tion makes possible this participation in the world process of thought by means of 
the printed page. The book and periodical come to the individual, and pre»,-ent the 
mental paralysis or arrested development that used to succeed the schooldays of the 
rural population. 

With tlie colored people all educated in schools and become a reading people inter- 
ested in the daily newspaper; with all forms of industrial training accessible to 
them, and the opportunity so improved that every form of mechanical and manufac- 
turing skill has its quota of colored working men and women ; with a colored min- 
istry educated in a Chistian theology iuterioreted in the missionary spirit, and find- 
ing'its auxiliaries in modern science and modern literature — with these educational 
essentials, the negro problem for the South will be solved without recourse to violent 
measures of any kind, whether migration or disfranchisement or ostracism. i Mu- 
tual respect for moral and intellectual character, for useful talents and industry, will 
surely not lead to miscegenation, but only to what is desirable, namely, to civil and 
political recognition. 

SusccptihUifii of the negro to advancement. — Prof. H. Clay Armstrong, jr. (Alabama) : 
We have but to look at his condition to-day and the illustrious examples of negro 
achievement in individual instances and compare these wdth the barbarian of two 
hundred and fifty j^ears ago and less, or even twenty-five years ago, to convince us 
that chopping cotton is not the limit of negro cai)ability. * ^ * In fact there 
are dangers tliat in some sections of the Soutii the negroes may win in the race for edu- 
cational advan cement. They are worshipful of intellect, and ambitious, you may Siij, 
as a race, and especially so in some communities; fond of exhibit, perfectly able and 
willing to live scantily and send their children to school when their white neighbor 
would think it necessary to have his sons to help him maintain his more j)i'etentious 
standard of life ; perfect children in their love of approbation; with these charac- 
teristics we need never fear that the negro will lose the elFects of all our educational 
efforts for him. We had rather fear that the result of the race between the negro 
and the plebeian class that now, as noticeably as before the war, stand between the 
slave owner and the former slave will be victory for the negro. 

Hace characteristics of the negro. — Dr. J. T. Searcy, in an address before tJie Alabama 
Educational Association: In the acquiring department, as exhibited on the planta- 
tions and in the schools, negroes are very apt up to a certain age — w' hen they begin to 
reach adult life. In the plays of childhood snid in the acquisitions of the primary 
schools, the negro children show abilities which compare very favorably, and taken 
as criteria- of mental abilities to come they are often misleading. The negro chil- 
dren who show the same acquiring abilities in childhood, fall further and further be- 
hind, as a rule, as the activities incident to adult life come into play. They fall 
behind then in acquiring abilities, further behind in judgment and reason, and still 
further behind in tenacity of purpose and decision of cihLaracter. Such differences 
come into strong relief as age advances, and as the tests of competitive life bring 
them into view. I believe it is very evident that the more advanced the type of 
race, the later in life do brain capacities ripen, or fully mature. This is another 
point in which individuals in the same race diff'ei', and one in which races diifer. 

These facts all contribute to explain the manifold disappointments of those enthu- 
siastic friends, who in the past twenty-five years rushed into the field, filled Avith 
the wildest expectations, believing, on the basis of old-fashioned philosophy, that 
all that is necessary in his case is to give him instruction and education, wlicn he 
would stand out in all the cajjacities of the highest manhood, fully able to hold his 



'Preeclom itself is ecTticatory. The energy of representative institutions is a valuable sclioolmaster. 
To control one's labor, to enjoy tlie earnings of it, to make contracts freely, to have tlio right of loco- 
motion and change of residence and business, have a helpful influence on manhood. TJu-ao concrete 
and intelligible acts atfect the negro far more than abstract speculations, or effiLiive sontiincnt, or the 
low processes of remote and corabiued causes. They require proaipt and spontaneous action, and one 
learns from personal experience that he is a constituent member of society. Unquestionably, he some- 
times makes ludicrous mistakes, is gailty of offensive self-assertion, but despite these errors there is 
perceptible and hopeful progress. (J. L. If. C.) 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 977 

own ill the competitions of tlie Enroiiean society wliicli surrounds liim. I have been 
showing that such ideas are often a delusion as regards the children of European 
parents, and it is the most natural of all facts that it should be the case with the 
African children. 

The philanthropists of the past have held these ideas to their practical disappoint- 
ment in a great many cases as regards the civilization of the so-called heathen races. 

They have thought that all that is necessary, in their several cases, is that some 
one shall he sent to instruct them in the ways of the civilization of the advanced 
races of Europe, when they would be equally as capable. The history of such 
work all over the world has shown that the races civilize just to the level of their 
several inherent abilities, and afterwards maintain civilization in accordance with 
their capacities. The ethnologist could almost anticipate the degree of the success 
of the missionary by a study of the type and lineage of the race, and by giving an 
opinion on their inherent mental abilities. * * * 

I have said that no race or people is uniform in membership. There are some 
notable exceptions to the general average among the negroes, which can be accounted 
for on natural principles. There are higher and lower grades among the negroes, 
because there were to some extent differences smong them when first imported and, 
secondlj', to their forced artificial culture and improvement during their servitude; 
thirdly, to causes known nowadays as natural and sexual selection, and, fourthly, 
to miscegenation. These causes have produced some lines among them pointing 
towards excellent ability to compete, safety, and sur\ival, but the very large major- 
ity hold the level, in the European society that surrounds them, of the classes point- 
ing towards elimination. In intellectual and in ethical abilities they occupy the 
ranks of the eliminating classes as a rule. 

Like all such classes of men, white or black, the negro does not bear success well. 
Acquisition of proi)erty, more rapidly than among the Avhites, begets at once inac- 
tivity and idleness, and consequent rapid deterioration of line. The children of for- 
tunate parents among them, by reason of idle deterioration of ability, rapidly lose 
their property, and when in some lines examples of excellent intellectual abilities 
are shown, because it is excej)tional in the course, the next generation seldom show 
it. 

Time and the same natural processes that are of universal applicatioTi over the 
whole world, by which races have risen into excellence and again fallen into deca- 
dence, prevail among the negroes as well, notwithstanding synij)athy and sentiment 
have endeavored to show their case as an exceptional one. There is abundant lati- 
tude in this country for the negro, as well as evei-ybody else, to help himself. 
Self-help improves. Strength and accomplishment come only by practice and exer- 
cise. The auto-activity of the line of descent alone gives permanency to capacity, 
and it can not be donated, it can only be acquired. 

Progress of tJie negro. — Samuel J. Barrows (Boston) : My recent trip through the 
South covered about 3,500 miles. It led me through portions of Virginia, theCaro- 
linas, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Tennessee, and Kentucky. I spent 
proportionately more time in the black belt. 1 visited the great centers and went 
through the agricultural districts. I paid special attention to social, industrial, 
and educational conditions. One question was constantly before me : What is the 
result of twenty-five years of freedom? Four lines of inquiry Avcre constantly pur- 
sued : What is the negro doing for himself? What is the white man doing for him? 
How are the two races getting on together ? What is the negro's view of the 
situation? 

Industrially. — There Avere many who predicted that, when freedom came, Uncle 
Ned, in the spirit of the old song, would " lay down de shobel and de hoe;" but 
Uncle Ned did nothing of the kind. He took a firmer grip upon it, and advertised 
for a situation. He did not have to go far to seek one. His old master was the very 
one who Avanted him. I Avas impressed in the South Avith the general fact that the 
negro had remained pretty much Avhere the Avar left him. Pie was at first only a 
farm laborer. Many haA-e since become farm renters, and others are on the way to 
become farm owners. The economic conditions are hard. 'J'he negro is handicapped 
by the mortgage system, or the lien upon the crop. He buys his goods on time. 
The time price is twice as high as the cash price. lie pays exorbitant rates of in- 
terest, and heavy commissions for freight.age, storage, etc. Zaccheus still exists, but 
it is the colored man who is up the tree. Yet there are thousands of negroes AA^ho 
haA'^e shown that they can break from this commercial bondage. In the mechanical 
trades, in commercial life, in the professions, the doors stand open to them, and they 
are entering into them. There is a new stimulus to inventive genius. 

Socially. — It is possible to see the negro in all stages of social evolution. In the 
black belt you find the one-roomed cabin without windows; but cabins with one 
window, or two windows, with two rooms instead of one room, are becoming more 
common in the agricultural districts. Home-buying is rajiidly going on. There is 

ED 91 G2 



978 EDUCATION REPOET, 1890-91. 

a steady accumulation of property. Social refinements are increasing \v'itli the bet- 
ter environment. Gradually a prosperous and moneyed class is rising. The love of 
color and the love of music, two fine tastes of the negro^ may he expected to become 
important factors in his development. 

Educationally.^ — The interest of the negroes in education is immense. They have 
discovered that it is the ladder on which they must rise. Both children and parents 
are malring great sacrifices to secure it. They are not only availing themselves of 
the primary schools, but are supplementing the school fund and establishing and 
supporting higher schools. The enrollment of colored children in schools has im- 
mensely increased. In some districts they literally fill the doors and windows of the 
schoolhouses. Their capacity for higher education has been demonstrated. A new 
interest in industrial education is exhibited. 

Keligiou. — The negro has always been marhed by strong religious feeling. It has 
found expression mainly in emotional forms. His religion has been marked by 
Toodcoism and other superstitions. With his growth in education, he is breaking 
away from these. There is a marked difference between the rising generation and 
their parents in this respect. In the cities, especially, the extravagant emotionalism 
that characterized the slave days is much less frequently found. 

Ethically. — Before the war the negro had no rights of property. He therefore 
could have little conception of Avhat rights pertained to property. With the 
acquisition of projjerty he is learning the difference between mine and thine. The 
family relation was not respected. There is still a great work to be clone in" elevat- 
ing the moral standard of the colored race, but a gain is evident. Too much de- 
pendence must not be placed upon criminal statistics. A great many negroes are put 
into prison or the chain gang who do not belong there. The fault is more with the 
system and its administration than with the offender. Indeed, the prison system of 
the South, both as relates to white and colored i^eople, greatly needs reformation. 

Cooperative tendencies. — The negro has had to learn how to organize. The 
growth of building associations, benevolent associations, banks, and, in a few cases 
of cooperative organizations, illustrates the deA'elopment of the organic spirit. 

What is the Avhite man doing for him? I have sj)oken of what the negro is doing 
for himself, but a chapter might be written also on what the white man is doing 
for him. Statistics will show how large a sum j)roj)ortionately to their means the 
white people are paying for the education of the negro. The Southern whites of 
the better class recognize the fact that the colored man must be educated. This sen- 
timent is finding fresh expression in educational, religious, and political gatherings. 
Many instances might be given of the individual generosity and helpfulness of 
Southern whites toward their colored neighbors. I simply wish to recognize in a 
general way the kindly, helpful, and sympathetic spirit which the better class of 
Southern white people exhibit toward the education and development of the negro. 

My third question, How are the two races getting on together? will, perhaps, be 
sufficiently answered in the fourth. What is the negro's view of the situation? 

In going through the South I was greatly interested to find what the average 
negro and the great mass of colored people, educated and imeducated, think of the 
situation. I visited the centers of negro jjopulation and sought the testimony of 
their acknowledged leaders in social, industrial, and political matters. * * * 
What impressed me in these conferences was the cheerful, manly tone of the stu- 
dents when they gave their own opinions. Their grievances were the last thing 
they spoke of. In one respect their testimony was nearly unanimous — that the col- 
ored peoxjle can do more to settle the negro problem than the white people can do 
for them. 

Another fact seems equally eAndent to the negro and to the intelligent white man. 
It is that the problem, such as it is, is to be settled in the South. The negro is 
there, and means to stay there; and the white man means to have him there. The 
problem can not be shifted by emigration or any other device; first, because the 
negro is taking root just where he is ; and, secondly, because the white man is rooted 
alongside of him. A colored man in Alabama saitl: '' If a colored man knows how 
to use his muscle, I think he can do as well in Montgomery as in any other place." 
Another said : "In regard to living in the South, I think if a man has a trade he can 
g-et along there as well as anywhere else. He can do better than in some j)laces." 
Another man from Georgia said: " A good point in the South is that all trades are 
open to colored people. They do not seem to be shut out of any. My brother is a 
carpenter, and he builds as many houses for whites as for colored. I have just re- 
ceived a letter," ho said, "from my brother, saying that he had bought a white 
man's home i)lace. The white men are going to the cities, and the colored men are 
buying their property." The same man from Georgia said: " I do not think our 
condition in the South is so bad. Under the circumstances, I think it is very good. 
The prospects of the colored man in the South are better than in the North. It is 
for him to come up, and show himself worthy of what he has got." Similar testi- 
mony was given by a colored lawyer in Baltimore: 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 979 

"My belief is that the best avenue for the colored man is in the South. In the 
North he gets a better show for civil privilege, but in the South he gets a better 
chauee to accumuhue sonu'thing." This man was born in Virginia. In a public ad- 
dress he said: "■ The best friends of the colored man are at the South. The colored 
people are not among the Northern people in sufficient numbers for them to line a 
policy in regard to them. Baltimore is a city intensely Southern in seutimeut, but 
this city oft'ers every opportunity that the white man h.is. I have almost as much 
white practice as colored practice. AVe lind members of all the learned professions 
to be of the better class of people. If they meet a man, they expect him to be up to 
his profession. If they are going to -meet him on equal grounds, they expect him to 
be equal to them. I do not ask anything for the colored man except an equaf op- 
portunity with the white man; and then, if he can not keep up, let him take aback 
seat." Such testimony might be multiplied. It is the testimony of the colored peo- 
ple on the ladder, the men who have climbed and the men who are climbing. 

The colored man is rapidly learning another lesson: That the dollar will buy not 
only food and clothing, but social position and influence. The colored preacher 
does not now often j)reach that ''the love of money is the root of all evil." 

Avenues of employment. — Rev. J. Braden, president of Central Tennessee College, 
Nashville, at Colored P^ducators' Convention, December, 1891 : To the query, Wbat can 
the highly educated colored man do? What places of honor, trust, responsibility are 
or will be opened to him? AVo answer that we need not cross a river till we reach 
it, nor climb a mountain till it is in our path. Let us give the white i>eople a little 
credit for the usual amount of common sense and common selfishness which behmg 
to our common humanity. In the days of slaverj- they knew how to avail themselves 
of our labors, of our skill as mechanics. They took some pleasure in employing us 
because we could do the work they wanted done. They found that we could clear 
and plow their plantations, and they let us do it. Wo could cook their food, wash 
their clothes, nurse their children, and we did it. They found we could mend their 
plows, shoo their horses, make their wagons, build their fences, their pens, their 
stables, and even their houses, and they let us do it. They found that we were good 
to black shoes, brush their clothes, wait on table, drive their carriages, and they let 
us do it. 

As freedmcn they have been equally as willing to employ us in all these avoca- 
tious. They have done more. They have let us work their land as renters, work on 
shares, paying for rent often as much as the land was worth. Scmietinies we have 
come out a little ahead, but more frequently behind. But what is that when we 
have been trusted with the responsibility of managing a plantation in our own way ? 
We have bossed the job, and have nobody to blame, perhaps, but ourselves, the man 
who weighed the cotton, and the merchant who sold us the corn meal ;aul bacon. 
But they have done more than this; they have taxed themselves to build school- 
houses for us, and have actually put thousands of us in these schoolhouses as teachers 
of our own children. They have done more; they have perm tted us to educate 
many of our young men in medicine on this sacred southern soil, and have licensed 
them to practice medicine without limiting that practice, by law, to colored peoi)le; 
they have turned these colored M. D's loose in this southland to practice on patients 
who may choose to call on them, when needing medical aid. 

They have admitted our young men to practice in all the courts of the country, 
and the gentlemanly, cultured, well-equipped lawyer who has the ability to conuuaud 
the respect of the bench and other members of the bar, has it, though he be black 
enough to be invisible. The white man has found it to his interest to use us as 
slaves, as servants, and to open the higher avenues of labor to us in the professions. 
If he has done all this for us, will he not use us in any capacity in which we can 
serve him, when we are prepared for it? 

What cares the sick man for the color of the man whom he believes is most skill- 
ful in diagno-sing his disease and jirescribing the proper remedies? What cares the 
injured man, whose broken bones need the skill of the experienced surgeon, about 
the color of the hands that set the bones and give him back the use of his limbs? 
What does the dying man care about the color of the hand that ties an artery and 
saves his life? What does the man care for the color of the lawyer who wins his 
case, saves his home, and keeps his family from want? What the country is waiting 
for is white men or black who have develojied to the utmost their intellectual power, 
who have schooled themselves to think soberly, deeply, righteously; who have con- 
victions on the great, live questions of the day, and who have both the ability and 
courage to maintain these convictions. 

Training schools. — Rev. J. E. Rankin: Schools of training for the African arc espe- 
cially needed, because no man will take him as an apprentice, and no man wants to 
work by his side as only his equal. This is one of the fangs of slavery which will 
be slow to come out. Here are 8,000,000 of people. Shall they not have the i)rivi- 



980 EDUCATION REPORT, 1890-91. 

lege of building lionses for themselves and for each other ? Must the Anglo-Saxon 
insist upon the great industries as his monopoly? The problem which Afro-Amcri- 
caus have to solve is not really solved without that independence which can come 
only from a kuowled,!;e of handicrafts. Intellectual culture should go hand in hand 
with industrial training. The African ought to be supplied with men of his own 
color, competent to plan houses and build them, to take the lead in any of the trades. 
Thus, and thus only, can he stand alone; wherever you throw him he will land on 
Ms feet. 

Need of colored dentists. — G. W. Hubbard, m. d., of Meharry Medical College, Nash- 
ville, Tenn. : It was formerly supposed that colored people seldom required the serv- 
ices of a dentist; however this may have been in the past, it certainly is not true 
now, and at the present time one or more well qualified colored dentists would be 
well patronized in every large city in the South; and as the peox)lo increase in intel- 
ligence and wealth they will realize more and more the importance of caring for and 
preserving their teeth. Owing to public sentiment the Southern white dentists can 
not, in many localities, treat colored patients, and they would gladly Avelcome well- 
educated colored dentists Avho could relieve them of this embarrassment. 

Industrial excellences of the colored man. — Judge A. W. Tourgee, at the Mohonk 
Conference : So much has been said this morning about the industrial deficiencies 
of the colored people of the South that I have been greatly surprised at the omis- 
sion of any reference to the other side of the question — their industrial excellences. 
I have always been less impressed with the industrial needs of the colored man than 
his industrial achievements. From 1865 until 1880 I had a peculiarly good oppor- 
tunity for observing his qualities both as an agricultural and mechanical laborer, 
having first and last had some hundreds in my employ, and during much of the time 
each year travelling in different parts of the State in which I then lived. As a re- 
sult of constant study of their conditions since emancipation, I do not hesitate to 
say that the colored people of the South have accomplished more in twenty-five 
years, from an industrial point of view, than any peojjle on the face of the earth 
ever before achieved under anything like such unfavorable circumstances. 

The manner in which they live and the things they do not do have been alluded 
to here as if they were racial qualities, and not fortuitous, resulting conditions. I 
was much impressed with the suggestions of more than one who has spoken as to 
Avhat they should be taught to do, as if they were industrial babes. I would like 
to sec any of their advisers give the colored man lessons in the management of a 
mule, or teach him to raise a crop of corn or cotton or tobacco, or Avork a bad hill- 
side at the South. In those forms of industry which they have had an opx>ortuuity 
to acquire, they have shown an aptitude and success which are simply amazing, 
when we consicler their previous lack of opportunity to learn management, thrift, 
and economy. The Northern man is always prompt to criticise their agricultural 
methods, yet the Northern farmer who goes South and relies tipon his own judgment 
and his own labor is very generally a failure. 

Industrial education. — Gen. S.C.Armstrong: The main thing, then, in the indus- 
trial system is to open as Avidely and broadly as possible opportunities for agricul- 
tural, mechanical, and household industries, which shall provide Negro students 
means to support themselves and to develop character. Character is the foundation. 
The training that our pupils get is an endowment. An able-bodied student repre- 
sents a capital of, perhaps, a thousand dollars. We propose to treble that. When 
they learn a trade they are worth threefold more in the labor market. Last Satur- 
day I gave my final words to our graduating class. I said to those forty-five schol- 
ars : "How many of you can go out into the Avoiid and, if you can not get a school, 
how many can work in some line of industry and so support yourselves?" There 
was a roar. Every one said, "I can," and every one laughed. They go out into the 
world smiling at diflicnlties, happy in their pluck and purpose and skill. 



CHAPTER XXVII. 
EDUCATION OF THE COLORED EACE. 



Puhlic school sfaiinfics, classified hy race, 1891- D2. 





Estimated number ppr<.oi,tao-P of th« 
of persons 5 to 18 ■^^'^*'®"!^^ff,''* ^^^ 
years of age. yMaole. 


Enrolled in the pub- 
lic schools. 


Per cent of persons 
5 to 18 years en- 
rolled. 




"White. 1 Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


Alabama a 


290, 935 
302, 600 
39, 850 
42, 320 
78, 150 
347, 020 
535, 900 
190, 930 
242, 120 
197,700 
819, 540 
364, 650 
164, 330 
467, 700 
644, 000 
339. 360 
255, 700 


249, 291 

117, 300 
8,980 

23, 280 

61, 950 
325, 680 

91, 800 
303, 370 

69, 880 
488, 000 

49, 860 
218, 650 
275, 770 
157, 800 
197, 200 
241, 440 

10, 500 


53-85 
72-06 
81-60 
64-51 
55-79 
51-59 
85-38 
48-42 
77 -62 
40-71 
94-26 
62 -52 
37-34 
74-77 
76-55 
58-43 
96-04 


46-15 
27-94 
18-40 
35-49 
44-21 
48-41 
14-62 
51-58 
22-38 
59-29 

5-74 
37-48 
62-66 
25-23 
23-45 
41-57 

3-96 


186, 125 

187, 261 

28, 316 

25, 188 

57, 181 

240, 979 

332,160 

80, 972 

154, 855 

161, 986 

606, 286 

215, 919 

92. 430 

380, 456 

395, 517 

218,946 

194, 332 


115, 490 
64, 191 

4,858 

14, 490 

36, 599 

156, 836 

57, 700 

59, 261 

34, 274 

178, 941 

34, 513 

119,439 

113, 219 

107, 051 

132, 797 

116, 700 
6,457 


63 
61 
71 
59 
73 
69 
61 
42 
63 
81 
73 
59 
56 
81 
61 
64 
76 


98 
87 
03 
51 
13 
43 
97 
40 
97 
92 
98 
21 
25 
34 
42 
52 
00 


46 -33 




54-71 
54-07 
62-34 
59-07 




IMst. of Columbia.. 
Florida 




48-16 




62-86 




29 -15 


Marj-land 

Mississippi 


49-10 
62-13 
69-20 


is""©!!!! Carolina 

South Carolina 


54-64 
41-06 
67-84 


Texa.s 


67-33 




48-34 


West Tirginia 


61-23 


Total 


5, 322, 805 


2, 590, 851 


67-26 


32-74 


3, 558, 909 


1, 352, 816 


66-87 


52-21 





Average daily 
attendance. 


Per cent of enroll- 
ment. 


Length of school 
year in days. 


^Number of 

teachers. 




White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored . 


White, j Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


Alabama a 


110,311 


72, 156 


59-27 


62-48 


1 
73 -9 j 72 -8 


4,182 
4,468 
734 
562 
2,006 
5,383 
8, 204 
2, 255 
3,384 
4,634 
13, 034 
4,524 
2,C11 
6,783 
8,047 
5,752 
5,560 


2,136 
1,173 




& 19, 746 
18, 929 


&2,947 
10, 833 


69-74 

75-17 


60-66 
74-75 


6166 
185 


6126 
185 


106 


Dist. of Columbia. . 
Florida 


283 
776 




142, 289 

210, 684 

56, 372 

88, 007 

96,818 


91,942 

35, 508 
40, 103 
17, 056 
100, 457 


59-04 
63-43 
69-63 

56-82 
59-77 


58-63 
56-34 
67-66 
49-76 
56-14 






2,731 




clOO 
109-8 
184-9 


ClOO 
06-8 
179-6 


1,296 


Louisiana 

Maryland 


930 
667 


Mississippi 


3,288 






711 


Korth Carolina 


132, 001 
67, 934 
274. 482 
261, ,549 
123, 545 
124, 181 


06, 746 
80, 827 
75, 001 
74, 708 
62, 481 
3,863 


61-14 
73-50 
72-15 
66-11 
56-43 
63-90 


55-87 
71-38 
79-07 
56 -25 
53 -54 
59-83 




63-3 


60-7 


2,426 
1,787 








1,829 




107-3 
118 


100-8 
118 


2,374 




2,041 






187 










Total 






d 63 -77 


d 60. 09 






83, 325 


24,741 


1 









a In 1890. 

6 Apjiroximately. 



c Average of most of the schools. 
d Average of 14 States. 



863 



864 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. 

Secondary and Higher Institutions for the Colored Race, 1891-92. 









Normal schools. 








1 
o 


CO 


Pupils. 




Nor- 
mal. 


Second- 
ary. 

95 


Ele- 
men- 
tary. 


Total. 




5 
3 
1 
1 
3 
3 
1 
6 
3 
6 
1 
2 
1 
2 


67 

15 

6 

5 

18 

39 

7 

28 
24 
37 
9 
43 
7 
19 


780 
407 

79 

43 
142 
191 

42 
434 

83 
392 

34 
456 
171 
222 

75 


1,395 
8 


2 270 




415 




79 








43 








142 




22 
153 
125 


504 

'"'313' 
620 
676 
140 

277 


695 




205 




769 




856 




1 193 




174 




733 




171 


District of Columbia 






222 


Other States 






75 














Total 


38 


324 


3,551 


558 


3,933 


8,042 









Institutions for second 
struction. 


ary in- 




UniTcrsities 


iind colleges 









IE 

E-i 




Pupil 


3. 






.a 


Students. 




'6 

1' 




8 




'So . 




'6 


IB 


1 

H 


Alabama 


5 
5 
2 
11 
2 
9 
1 

1 
9 


24 
21 
10 
65 
11 
19 

5 
32 

2 
43 


46 


315 


815 
901 
583 

3,563 

277 

274 

84 

919 

65 

1,721 


1 
1 


8 
13 


12 

7 






101 




30 


292 


329 


Florida 


44 
226 


539 

1,562 






2 

1 
4 
1 
2 


41 
15 
71 
10 
21 


16 
31 

12 

4 

97 


168 
77 

115 
49 

143 


716 
225 
1,602 
137 
230 


900 
333 




Louisiana 

Maryland 


6 


193 


1,729 
190 


Mississippi 


257 

54 

209 


435 

11 

933 


470 


Missouri 






3 
1 

1 
2 
4 
1 


33 
9 
14 

37 
77 
12 


129 
21 

143 
29 
96 
30 


120 

30 

63 

185 

221 


267 
114 

"246" 
1,015 


803 
165 


Ohio 


Pennsylvania 


1 

12 
5 
4 
6 


6 
60 
25 
89 
34 


50 
104 


250 
596 


300 
3,289 

755 
1,219 
1,403 


206 


Soutli Carolina 


1 034 


Tennessee 


1 332 


Texas 


305 
90 


688 
603 


215 


Virginia 








District of Columbia 


1 


8 


27 
137 


55 




82 


Other States 






09 




69 


137 


















Total 


72 


396 


1,460 


6,125 


16, 237 


25 


369 


791 


1,256 


4, 838 


8,116 



States and Territories. 


Schools of theology. 


Schools of law. 


Schools. 


Teachers.' Students. 

1 


Schools. iTeachers. 


Stiiilents. 


Alabama 


3 
1 
2 
1 
3 
1 
3 
1 
1 
1 
2 

1 

2 


6 
1 
9 
1 
6 
2 
8 
3 
8 
4 
4 
4 
9 


70 
17 
94 
10 
32 

8 

74 
10 
28 

5 
38 
60 
87 
44 


1 




Arkansas 


1 




Georgia 


1 




Kentucky 


1 




Louisiana 


j 




Maryland 


1 




North Carolina 


1 
1 


1 
3 


9 


Ohio 


2 


Pennsylvania 




South Carolina 


1 
1 


2 
5 


4 




3 


Virginia 




District of Columbia 


1 


5 


77 


Other States 


19 














Total 


22 


65 


577 


5 


16 


119 







a Totals larger than sum of elements becau.se in some schools the -whole number of pupils only was given. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED EACE. 



865 



Bigher institutions for the colored race, 1S'J1-'D2 — Continued. 



States and Territories. 



Arkansas 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

District of Columbia 
Other Stales...,, 



Total 



Schools of medicine, dentis- 
try, and pliariuacy. 



Schools. Teachers. Students. 



73 

is? 



137 
78 



Schools for the deaf, dumb, 
and blind. 



Schools. Teachers. Students. 



1 
1 

1 

1 

* 2 

1 



139 

581 



Number of each class of schools for the colored race, and enrollment in them. 



Class of institutions. 



Normal schools . . 
Normal students. 
Secondary . 



Elcmentaiy 

Total 

Institutions for secondary instruction (incliuliiig elementary pupils) . 

Universities and colleges 

Collegiate students 



Secondarj' 

Elementary 

Total (including unclassified) 



Schools of theology 

Schools of law 

Schools of medicine, dentistry, and pharmacy. 
Schools for the deaf and dumb and the blind. . 



Schools. 



38 



Grand total . 



Enroll- 
ment. 



3,551 

558 

3,933 



8,042 



16,237 



791 
1,256 

4,838 



8,116 



577 
119 
457 
581 



Univkhsities axd Coli.kges for the Coi.or.Ei) Race. 

There are twenty-five universities and colleges, located mainly in the Southern 
States, devoted to the education of young men and women of the colored race. These 
twenty-five institutions have grounds and buildings estimated at $3,054,433, and 
they have permanent productive funds to the amount of $757,446. The two univer- 
sities in Atlanta, Ga., have property valued at half a million dollars, while thothreo 
in Nashville, Tenn., have property valued at considerably more than half a million, 
Fisk University alone having a valuation of $350,000. Lincoln University, Pennsyl- 
vania, has property valued at $185,000 and an endowment of $237,450. 

The most salient point in connection Avith colored education in professional schools 
is the rapid increase in the number of students engaged in the study of medicine 
and law in the last few years. In theology the number has not increased of late 
years ; in fact, there seems to have been a slight decrease. In 188G-'87 there were 033 
theological students ; in 1889-'90 there wero"734 ; in 1891-'92 there were 577. In the 
law schools, however, the number has been increasing; 81 students in 1886-'87 and 119 
in 1891-'92. But in the medical schools we find a still larger increase; 165studcntsin 
1886-'87, 310 in 1889-'90, and 457 in 18tll-'92. It is very probable that there will bo 
an increase for some years in all of these lines, for, notwithstanding the occasional 
averment of moral obliquity in some of the clerical order, the devout will only recog- 
nize the greater need of earnest, consecrated men to proclaim the saving truth and 
to establish the people in the paths of rectitude, while the less punctilious will feel 
that there should be more of that charity which hopctli all things and is not easily 

» ED 92 55 



866 EDUCATION 

proYoked, and all will be attracted by the opportunities of coming before the people 
and exercising the oratorical gifts which they so frequently i^ossess. It is but natu- 
ral to expect, too, that the thousands of colored people will furnish employment to 
many of their race both in healing the sick and in representing their claims in the 
courts, and so long as there shall be room for more iu these pursuits the candidates 
will probably not be lacking. 

For the last three years the number of students reported as engaged in collegiate 
studies has been about 800. The question may be asked, why is it there are not 
more collegiate students when there are twenty-five universities and colleges pre- 
pared to receive them? In the first i>lace, a large number of colored boys and girls, 
especially those living in the rural regions, do not have the opportunity of finishing 
even the elementary studies with much success, on account of the brief term of three 
to five months in the public schools and the defective instruction imparted therein. 
This eliminates a very large number of possible candidates for higher education. 
In many of the schools for white children, when the public term expires, the school 
is continued without interruption, each pupil payiug a small tuition fee; but here- 
tofore the colored people have not been able to continue their schools in this way. 

Again, in the Southern States it is comparatively easy for a young colored man of 
energy and a good secondary education to find employment which at once enables 
him to begin saving np something and to get a start in the world. When he once 
begins to accumulate means, the desire to increase the amount comes to him just as 
to others, and consequently he soon has plans formed in which further education is 
not considered, especially when ho sees that it would take several years to secure the 
funds and finish the course. He naturally concludes to let well enough alone. As 
there are comparatively few colored parents able to bear the expense of sending 
their children through a college course, those who are qualified to begin higher 
studies fall in the number just mentioned and do not attend for the reasons there 
stated. 

The work of the colored universities and colleges, therefore, is at i^resent to a 
largo extent, below the grade of a university, but they are now only laying the 
foundation of their future work. Many of their students who are grown young men 
and women aro only engaged in secondary work, and they are entitled to commenda- 
tion for that degree of progress. The colored boy in getting an education encounters 
manj' difficulties. The school which he first enters probably continues three or four ' 
mouths; the rest of the year he labors at whatever he finds to do, and if he fortu- 
nately gets a good place he probably keeps it for a year or two. Then he spends 
another short term in a school which probably scarcely deserves to be called a school — 
the teacher incompetent, no apparatus whatever, possibly not a single blackboard, 
and children of all ages and sizes crowded into a building seemingly constructed to 
avoid any financial loss when the cyclone shall have leveled it to the ground. After 
several years spent in this haphazard way of getting an education, he resolves to 
enter a college, but as his i^arents have little means, he has to work his way through. 
But all through the course and in after years he labors under difficulties on account 
of his defective elementary education. But notwithstanding the difficulties under 
which they labor, many young colored men manage to acquire a very valuable 
training. 

" A law student at Shaw University helped to support a widowed mother and 
worked his way up, teaching a school of 80 scholars 4 miles in the country, walking 
both ways, and yet studying law and reciting at night, nearly a mile away from 
home. He Avas finally graduated with honor and admitted to the bar, sustaining 
decidedly the best examination in a class of 30, all the others white, mostly from 
the North Carolina State University, and he as black as you will often see, yet com- 
plimented without stint by his white competitors and by the chief justice himself." — 
[^American Missionary , June, 1893. 

While the controversy is going on as to whether the negro is capable of receiving 
the higher education, and while many reasons are being advanced why he is not, the 
colored man himself is saying nothing about it, but is going forward learning all he 
can and endeavoring to increase the number of object lessons with which the theorist 
must contend. The number of highly educated colored ministei's, lawyers, doctors, 
and educators is small, indeed, as yet, and they are scattered over a wide expanse of 
territory, but each year sees the number increasing, for the very rarity of the highly 
educated coloredman is best known by his own race, and hence when they see oueof 
their number possessing talents so cultivated as to command the admiration of all, 
or when one of them is able to secure a positioii of high honor and distinction, it is 
observed by none more quickly than by the colored people themselves. One colored 
man in the House of Eepresentatives of the U. S. Congress will excite a thou- 
sand hopes and aspirations in the breasts of his admiring friends, and for every 
one who is thus able to rise to distinction hundreds of others will enter the doors 
of some university or college resolved that if they shall not be able to reach the 
acme of their ambition, they will at least attain to the highest point their oppor- 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 867 

tunities and diligence will permit them. The colored parent, too, -will be stimulated 
to give his children the advantage of every educational facility possible, even though 
he recognizes that it will require great sacrilices on his part, for ho feels that in so 
doing he will be assisting in the elevation of his race, something in which he takes 
a personal interest. 

NORTIIEKN AID TO COLORED SCHOOLS. 

The great work of educating the colored race is being carried on mainly by the 
public schools of the Southern States, supported by funds raised by public taxation 
and managed and controlled by piiblic school officers. The work is too great to be 
attempted by any other agency, unless by the National Government, the field is too 
extensive, the officers too numerous, the cost too burdensome. Societies and 
churches may temporarily take hold of places neglected by public-school officers 
and show by their work what is needed, but they can not attempt the work legiti- 
mately belonging to the public schools. This aim is kept steadily in view by the 
societies which have been long engaged in helping the colored child lift itself up 
in the world and begin work on a higher plane. 

But while the work as a whole can bo carried on only by public taxation, it is 
being aided very substantially by the societies and churches in the Northern and 
Western States, which have had their missionary teachers engaged there since the 
first oj)portuuity was offered them, even before the war had ended. Most of the 
aid given by these States goes through the regular channels of some organization, 
but there are quite a number of colored schools which depend entirely on appeals to 
individuals for help. 

At the close of the war the different denominations began to vie with each other in 
the education of the freedmen, who had hitherto not been allowed in a schoolroom. 
Young men and women full of missionary spirit left home and friends to go into dis- 
tant parts of the Soiith to educate children, parents, and grandparents, for they 
were all in the same classes, and they began at the beginning. These teachers soon 
found that it required a missionary spirit indeed, for there was something of pathos 
as well as romance in the work. Now, scattered all over the South, at one place 
representing one denomination, at another place some other denomination or society, 
are to be found schools filled to overflowing with eager learners, taught generally 
by teachers selected for their comjietency and missionary zeal. These schools are 
not intended to antagonize the public schools. Generally they are of a higher grade 
than the public schools, and when not they serve as model schools and are carried 
on in .a way to enable needy children to work out an education. Not only have such 
schools been established and maintained and help given to deserving pupils, but 
with almost every school a church has also been established to furnish religious 
instruction. But reference is intended to be made here to school work only. 

The Freedmen's Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church was one of the 
earliest to enter upon the work of colored education, and it is now one of the most 
important factors in the work. The extent of its eifort among colored people in 
1892-'93 is indicated by the following summary of institutions, teachers, students, 
and property: Schools, 23; teachers, 214 ; students, 5,396; property, $1,183,000. In 
addition to the regular teachers, 165 practice teachers were employed from the nor- 
mal departments. Its expenditure for colored schools in 1892-'93, after deducting 
tuition fees paid by the pupils and the amount paid by the State of South Carolina 
to the agricultural school at Clafliu University, was about $200,000. 

Another very important factor in the work is the American Missionary Association, 
one of the pioneers in entering upon this work of education and one of the largest 
contributors up to the present time. The Daniel Hand fund, amounting to 
$1,000,894, was placed in the hands of this association by Mr. Hand himself, while 
still living, and the income (but the income only) is to be used in educating colored 
boys and girls in the recent slave States. 

The John F. Slater fund is held by a board of trustees, of whom Dr. J. L. M. Curry 
is the general agent, and the income is distributed to various schools, but not nec- 
essarily to the same schools each year. It is intended mainly to supplement local 
funds and to stimulate local effort. The Peabody fiind also aids very materially in 
this work. 

The Board of Missions for Freedmen of the Presbyterian Church is taking an active 
part in the education of the colored race. During the year 1892-'93 it had 86 schools, 
15 of them being boarding schools, 2.52 teachers, and 10,520 pupils. Biddle Univer- 
sity, Charlotte, N. C, Scotia Seminary, and Mary Allen Seminary were among those 
supported by it. Schools have also been established by the Baptists, Lutherans, 
United Presbyterians, Catholics, Episcopalians, and Friends. 

There is a wonderful contrast in the character of the schools established for col- 
ered children. Many of the schools, especially those in the remote rural regions, 
are as defective as one could imagine a school to be ; but, on the other hand, most 



868 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. 

of those established by the missiouary societies, are better managed, and have 
a bettei class of teachers. These teachers have generally been educated in the 
best Northern schools; and coming as they do from different States, they com- 
bine the best methods of different schools. Freqiicntly, too, they have undertaken 
the work from philanthropic motives and are filled with aspirations not only to ele- 
vate the intellectual capacity of their pupils, but to implant in them high and 
ennobling principles, and by means of this training given at school to elevate the 
entire race. In some cases these teachers have refused much larger salaries, in order 
to continue what had become to them a labor of love; they preferred the satisfac- 
tion of helping to build up a race rather than to enter into the contest for pelf. 

SCHOOLS CONDUCTED BY COLORED INSTRUCTORS. 

That the institutions for the colored race are beginning to accomplish the purpose 
for which they were mainly founded, namely, that they might train up leaders for 
the colored people from their own race — preachers, teachers, doctors, lawyers, etc. — 
is shown by the fact that there are now some institutions of high grade and of 
growing popularity that are conducted entirely by colored instructors, and these 
are educating others who will be able to fill their places with equal if not greater 
success. While many schools are being conducted wholly oi in part by colored 
teachers, a few conspicuous examples are given of what they sometimes accomplish. 

Allen University, Columbia, S. C, was established in 1881 by the African Metho- 
dist Episcopal Church, and has been conducted solely by colored teachers. From 
the very first it has enjoyed great success, and during the year 1891-'92 there was 
an attendance of 465 students. 

In Biddle University, Charlotte, N. C, all of the eleven instructors except one in 
the industrial department, are colored. This institution ranks among the very best 
in the land for colored education of high grade. Although it is a school for colored 
Btudents and taught by colored teachers, it has some of its strongest friends among 
the white people who live in that part of the State, and who are therefore well 
acquainted with the work accomplished by it. Senator Zebulon B. Vance and Dr. 
Drury Lacy, lately president of Davidson College, North Carolina, have spoken of it 
as accomplishing great good for both the educational and religious welfare of the 
race. (Further notice of this school on page 869). 

One of the most conspicuous results of colored enterprise and ability is the Tus- 
kegee Normal and Industrial School, of Tuskegee, Ala. This institution is an 
achievement of Mr. Booker T. Washington, a graduate of the Hampton Normal Insti- 
tute. Opened in 1881 with 1 teacher and 30 pupils, it attained such success that in 
1892 there were 44 officers and teachers and over 600 students. It also owns x)roperty 
estimated at $150,000, upon which there is no incumbrance. Gen. S. C. Armstrong 
said of it: "I think it is the noblest and grandest work of any colored man in the 
land. What compai'es with it in genuine value and power for good? It is on the 
Hampton plan, combining labor and study, commands high respect from both racies, 
flies no denominational flag, but is thoroughly and earnestly Christian; it is out of 
debt, well managed and organized." In Alabama Mr. Booker T. Washington is rec- 
ognized by all as one of the leaders of the race, facile pnnceps. His efibrts and influ- 
ence are not confined to building up and sustaining the large institution which he 
has established. Several conventions of leading colored men have been held at Txis- 
kegee, at his suggestion, to consider ways and means for the moralj educational, and 
financial elevation of the colored people in general. 

INDUSTRIAL INSTRUCTION. 

Most of the colored institutions bear a close resemblance to a large household 
which carries on the work of education, the cultivation of the farm, the building and 
repairing of houses, the raising of cattle, and in which the pupils are furnished an 
object lesson in the proper management and conduct of a household of which they 
form part, and can therefore continue afterwards when oisportuuity shall present 
itself. 

Tougaloo University, Mississippi, for instance, is situated about half a mile from 
the Illinois Central Railroad, and 7 miles north of .Tacksou, the capital of the State. 
The grounds cmbrsjco about 500 acres of land, and furnish a temi^orary home for a 
family of about 200 persons, who have built the houses in which they live, who raise 
the largo quantities of corn, Vi'heat, potatoes, fruits, and vegetables necessary to 
supply their table, who raise their own cattle, milk their own cows, cook their own 
food, laundry their clothes, and, lastlj^, provide for their own instruction. In a 
word, they are, to a largo extent, independent of the rest of the world. This method 
of training is the kind specially needed by them, for, on account of their meager 
circumstances, they are too little acquainted with model home and family life. Once 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



869 



having felt and learned to appreciate its elevating influences, however, they have 
an ideal to which they ever afterwards aspire and without which they can never 
rest contented. 

Moreover, the education they receive in these collective households will enable 
them to earn good wages, teach them how to use their earnings to the best advan- 
tage, and consequently they will in all probability have the opportunity of carrying 
out on a smaller scale their ideal home methods. 

In fact, the desire to own a homo is already quite common among the colored peo- 
ple, and that many of them are beginning to do so is shown by the great increase 
during the last decade in the amount of property which they own in Georgia. la 
that State there is kept a separate account of the assessed property of colored peo- 
ple. In 1882 the amount of assessed property held by colored people in Georgia was 
$6,589,876; in 1892, the amount was $14,869,575, an increase of more than 100 per 
cent. 

In Claflin University, South Carolina, is to be found the same family life as that 
of Tougaloo University, but on a still larger scale. 

Although specially adapted to the needs of the race, it is probable that this 
methofi of conducting an educational institution was not selected as being tberaort 
desirable, but rather because it was well recognized that in no other way coula 
the attendance of a large number of students be expected. What would be regarded 
as a very moderate cost of education in most of the institutions for white students 
would have been beyond the reach of most colored students, but by the plan adopted 
at Claflin the expenses for board and tuition are reduced to $8.50 per month, and at 
Allen University to $5.50 per mouth. Quite frequently, too, part of these expenses 
is paid by manual work, either for the institution or for adjacent residents. It 
is by reason of this low cost of education that we And over 600 boys and girls 
attending Claflin University, and in fact that avo find all of the colored schools tilled 
to overflowing. Many of the students begin a school year with about as much means 
as would be thought sufflcient for a month or two, but they manage to pull along 
the entire year, and after three more mouths of work, instead of that much time 
spent in idleness, they are again found on the grounds of the institution, happy on 
account of their growing independence and ability'. They have no fear of not being 
able to find some work to do, for they know how to work and above all are willing 
to work, and when one possesses these two qualifications he will rarely lack employ- 
ment. 

INSTITUTIONS KOK THE COLOIJED KACE. 

Value of grounds and buildings and amount of permanent productive funds, in 1891-93. 



lustitulions. 



Selina University, Selina, Ala 

Philander Smith Colloge, * Little Rock, Ark 

Howard University, Washington, D. C 

Atlanta University, Atlanta, Ga 

Clark University, Atlanta, Ga 

Berea College, Berea, Ky 

Leland University,* New Orleans, La 

New Orleans University, New Orleans, La 

Southern University,* New Orleans, La 

Straight University, New Orl(;ans, La 

Morgan College,* Baltimore, Md 

Rust University,' Holly Springs, Miss 

Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College, Kodney, Miss 

Biddle University,* Charlotte, N. C 

Shaw University, Raleigh, N. C 

Livingstone College,* Salisbury, N. C 

Wilberforce University, Wilborforce, Ohio 

Lincoln University,* Lincoln University, Pa 

Allen University, Columbia, S. C 

Claflin University, Orangeburg, S. C 

Knoxv ille College, KnoxviUe, Tcnn 

Central Tennessee College, Nashville, Tenn 

Fisk University, Nashville, Tenn 

Roger Williams University, Nashville. Tenn 

Paul Quinn College,* Waco, Tex 



Total 3, 05-1, 433 



Value 
of grounds 

and 
buildings. 



$30, 
20, 
400. 
207, 
250, 
125, 
150. 

TOO, 

33, 

100, 
45, 
40, 
51, 
80, 

175, 

100, 
92, 

185, 
20, 

100, 
75, 
90, 

350, 

200, 



Amount of 

permanent 

productive 

funds. 



$185, 000 
27, 873 



100, 000 
95, OOO 



22,000 



31, 000 



20, 623 

237, 450 

8,000 



500 

15, 000 
15, 000 



757,446 



870 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92. 

Lincoln University, Fa. — Rev. W. P. White, in Church at Home and Abroad says: 
Of institutions making the advanced education of colored youth and their training 
as teachers and preachers to their own people a chief end and aim, one of the fore- 
most, as "well as the earliest established, is Lincoln University. 

It is located in eastern Penusylvania, ou the line of the Philadelphia and Balti- 
more Central Railroad, 46 miles from Philadelphia and 61 miles from Baltimore. 
No better physical or geographical location could be found. 

It is near enough to the border line of the South to be easily accessible to the 
great majority of those needing and desiring its benefits, and yet far enough from 
the associations and influence to which they have all their lives been subjected. 

It was founded in 1854, si^ years before the war which gave emancipation to the 
colored race. During this period it had to contend with prejudice strong and 
bitter. The negro's right to be a man and to receive the blessings which Christ 
offers freely to every race was not then so universally admitted. 

Previous to 1864 it was known as Ashmun Institute, but in that year an amended 
charter, with additional privileges, was obtained for it, and a new name was assumed, 
one that will be forever linked with the freedom of the negro and with the most 
eventful crisis of American history. 

Since then the institution has grown largely in resources, in influence, and in 
adaptability to the end for which it was established. The results of its work will 
compare favorably with those of any institution of like age in the history of our 
country. Five hundred young men have been sent from the preparatory depart- 
ment and from the lower classes of the collegiate department, many of whom are 
engaged in important positions as teachers in the Southern States. 

Nearly 400 have been graduated from the collegiate department' after a course of 
instruction extending through four and in many cases seven years. Most of these 
graduates are engaged in professional and educational labors in the South. 

About 200 have graduated in the theological department and received ordination 
as ministers in different evangelical denominations. Thirteen have gone to Africa 
as missionaries of the cross. 

The institution has so commended itself to noble men and women of wealth during 
the past twenty-five years as to lead them to place it upon a firm financial basis, 
thus securing to it a large degree of success in its work. 

Mr. Fayerwether, in including it, a few years since, with other representative 
institutions of the land, for a share in his munificent bequest to the extent of 
$100,000, testified in the most striking way to its importance and tisefulness. 

The campus or grounds of the university consist of 78 acres, on which are four dor- 
mitories for students; Livingston Hall, for commencement assemblies, capable of 
seating 1,000 persons; University Hall, a four-story building, containing eighteen 
rooms, designed largely for recitation and class purposes, carefully constructed and 
conveniently arranged, and surmounted by a revolving observatory for the reception 
of the telescope recently presented to the university; and the Mary Dod Brown 
Memorial Chapel, containing an audience room for Sabbath services, seating 400 
persons; a prayer hall for daily use, communicating with the chapel by sliding 
frames, and two class-rooms similarly connected with the prayer hall. 

The nine professorships, including the president's chair, are all endowed and filled 
by able and efficient scholars and teachers. ■ 

For twenty-seven years Rev. Isaac N. Rendall, D. d., has been its president, and 
to his eminent fitness for the position is owing largely its success and present proud 
position among institutions of its kind. 

The connection with it in earlier years, as instructors, of such men as Revs. E. E. 
Adams, E. R. Bower, Thomas W. Cattell, and Casper R. Gregory served to give it 
its wide reputation. 

Each successive year of its history has brought to it an increased number of stu- 
dents, until now 240 crowd its halls and tax to the utmost its measure of accommoda- 
tion and means for their support. These 240 students represent twenty-two States 
of the Union, the West Indies, South America, and Africa. Among them are seven 
sons of alumni. Three-fourths of them at least are professing Christians. Perhaps 
one-half of them will study for the ministry. 

In their eager desire for knowledge and in their aptness of reception of it, in 
their application to study and their readiness in recitation ; in their observance of 
the rules of the institution and in the conduct of their devotional meetings, little 
difference is observed between thein and those of white institutions. 

From the Howard Quarterly, January, 1S93. — The fact that the 141 colored students 
in white colleges keep up with their classes without difficulty, and in many cases 
have been the recipients of special honors for proficiency in their studies, shows 
that they can pursue these higher branches with a success equal to that of their white 
classmates. Many individual examples may be cited besides that of the colored class 
orator of Harvard two years ago. The last one is from the Chicago University, 
where a colored girl led the entire entrance class in the December examinations, and 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED KACE. 871 

received a very substantial reward in a scholarship Avhich will pay all expenses of 
the four ycars'course. This young lady prepared for college at Howard University. 

Private HcliDoJs should not antar/onhe public schools. — J. L. M. Curry: In some of the 
towns and cities there is, possibly, an unwiso multiplication of denominational or 
independent schools. Christian denominations are rivals in their establishment, in 
getting the largest number of pupils, and in making the most attractive exhibition. 
It seems to be a weakness and an error common to all to seek to catalogue as many 
names as possible. The aggregate means not the habitual and average attendance, 
but all who, for any time, one day or several months, have matriculated. This mili- 
tates against the usefulness and popularity of the free schools. In so far as these 
institutions, not under State control, impair tho efliciency of, or divert attendance 
from, the public schools, they are mischievous, for the great mass of children, white 
and black, must, more in tho future than at present, dei^eud almost exclusively upon 
the State schools for the common branches of educat'on. These schools, permanent, 
not subject to caprice or varying seasons, incorporated into the body politic, into 
the organic law, must be the chief factor in the education of the people. At great 
sacrilices, the Southern States have provided means of education, constantly improv- 
ing and enlargiug, for- the colored children. The large number at school, over 
1,200,000, is the proof that no obstacles are thrown in tho way of their getting such 
rudiments as tho common schools impart, and of occasionally rising to higher grades. 
An educational charity would sadly fail of its purpose if any, the least imiiedimeut 
were placed in the path of free shools. 

George II. Sviilli College, Sedalui, Ala. — The cornerstone of George R. Smith College 
was laid June 1, 1893, Rev. J. C. Hartzell, of the Christian Educator, being master 
of ceremonies. This institution dates its inception from the gift of 25 acres of land, 
valued at $25,000, at Sedalia. Mo., by two daughters of Gen. George R. Smith. The 
building, when completed and furnished, it is estimated, will cost $35,000. The 
superintendent of construction, Mr. La Port, will take a lively interest in the work, 
not only from his connection with it, but on account of his own dramatic history^ 
Born a slave, he ran away at 12, but afterwards worked fourteen years to obtain the 
money necessary to secure his freedom. He is now worth $75,000, and supports 
his aged mother and the widow of the master from whom ho purchased his freedom. 

Of the amount required for building, the conferences of Missouri assumed $14,000, 
of which amount $3,000 was paid at the time tho cornerstone was laid. Rev. P. A. 
Cool was appointed president of tho institution, and will devote his attention to 
raising funds until the building is completed. 

American Missionary, December, 1SD2 — We have one woman 48 years old, mother of 
9 children, who walks daily to and from her house, 3 miles distant. She brings with 
her 2 daughters and an adopted son, but leads them all in her classes. This woman 
was a slave before the war and having brought up a family since, this is her hist 
chance to attend school. 

The Tribune. — It is an interesting and significant circumstance that tho highest 
honor at Boston University this year has been awarded to a colored man, Thomas 
Nelson Baker, who was born a slave in Virginia in 1860. He has j^aid his own 
college expenses by teaching, and the disadvantages under which he has labored 
account for the fact that his age is considerably greater than that of the average 
college graduate. He was fond of books from hi.s boyhood, and was bound to get 
an education. AVhat he has accomplished should be an inspiration to others of 
negro blood. 

Straight Vniversily, New Orleans. — On the night of November 30, 1891, the uni- 
versity building of Straight University, New Orleans, was destroyed by fire, 
together with the library of 2,500 volumes, printing press, chemical and philo- 
sophical apparatus. A new building, however, was soon planned and has been 
finished. It is three stories high, of a pleasing style of architecture, and contains 
on tho first floor the chapel (seating 350 j)ersons), four recitation rooms, a large 
college room, music room, libraries and offices ot the president and treasurer; on 
the second floor are the rooms set apart for the chemical department; and on the 
third floor are dormitories for theological students and their reading room. 

Biddle University, Charlotte, N. C. — Rev. E. P. Cowan: The present faculty of 11 
men, all of whom are colored but one, arenotonly engaged in attending to the duties 
of their respective places as professors, but they are also engaged in demonstrating 
before the world the proposition that educated colored men are caiJablo of success- 
fully carrying on the education of other colored men. 

The proposition to many is so simple that it seems hardly to need demonstration; 
yet some have doubted. 

As not ali educated white men are capable of successfully administering the affairs 
of large institutions designed for the education of their kind, so it is not claimed 
that every educated colored man is capable of becoming a successful educator; but 
it is claimed that out of the product of our educational work of the last twenty- 
f^'ght years more than enough selected meu can bo found x)erfectly comijetent to do 



872 EDUCATION REPORT, 1891-92, 

the work to be done even at so large ami important an educational center as Biddle 
University. 

The best argument in favor of Biddle University, as at present organized, is the 
good condition in which it now is, and the good worli that is now being done. This 
can bo seen by any one who will take the time and trouble to visit the place and 
examine for himself. The number of students has largely increased, and the gradu- 
ating class will be the largest that has ever gone out from the college since it 
obtained its present charter. 

The order and decorum of the students is remarkable. The rules are stringent, 
and are obeyed. The buildings are well kept, as far as the age and dilapidated con- 
dition of some of them Will allov^. 

The industrial department is better organized and more eflficieut than it ever was 
before in the history of the institution. Prof. Hunt, a graduate of Atlanta Univer- 
sity, is a x^ractical carpenter. Under his direction the students have just finished 
building a dwelling house for one of the professors. ^ > '- 

Look into the shoo shop and you find a dozen young men (the room will hold no 
more) who, an hour before, were reading Greek and Latin; now they are sitting on 
cobbler's benches and are driving wooden pegs. In the next room a dozen more are 
setting type, while two others are turning a large printing press, and a third man is 
"feeding" the machine. 

In all these industrial departments the students spend one hour a day that is 
regarded as practice, and this is set down to " tuition." Later in the day the same 
student gives an hour to some industrial work, which is regarded as "service." For 
this he is paid, or leather he is allowed so much to his credit on his individual account 
with the institution. If a young man receives pecuniary aid, as many do, he does 
not get this help for nothing. He must render service, either in Prof. Hunt's indus- 
trial department or Prof. Carson's home department, of which service an accurate 
account is kept and the worth of his work is charged up to his credit. In this way 
the student does indeed get aid; but ho also is made to feel that he is, at least par- 
tially, working his way. This arrangement is admirable, and is all that could be 
desired. » • * 

The institution is now running up to its utmost capacity as regards numbers. 
The enrollment so far this year,"l893, is 236. The boys are stowed away in their 
cheap dormitories, in many cases eight in a room. Two students sleep in the engine 
room and over thirty in the main building, which was never intended for dormitory 
purposes. If the university only had the necessary accommodations and scholar- 
ships, the roll Avould easily run uj) to 500. 

Higher cducailon of the negro race. — Dr. F. G. Wood worth : For the sake of the race 
as well as for their own sakes, those individuals who have the capacity should have 
opportunity for and be urged to seek the so-called higher education, and the highest 
and broadest culture they can obtain. 

There will be constant and increasing need of leaders for the negro race, men who 
will be able with wise forethoiight and ripe judgment to guide the people on an 
upward way. The great uplifters of the race must bo from the race. They must 
be men who can be in wholly sympathetic touch with those whom they would ben- 
efit, a sympathetic touch found only in kinship, understanding their needs fully, 
feeling their heart-beats, the stirringof their aspirations, able to touch their natures, 
as wo can not touch them who are cast in the Saxon mold. If the white race, with 
its advantages and its inheritances of culture, needs the stimulua of men of high 
education, how much more the colored people? 

Perhaps I may be met by the skepticism whether the negro can take on this higher 
culture. This rests on the assumption that the negro is essentially inferior. It is 
an assumption. No apriori assumption can determine the question either way. It 
must be settled by facts as time shall bring them to light. To-day the evidence of 
facts points in the direction that some of the negro race can and do take on the 
higher education, and make valuable use of it. Each year sees additions made to 
the small army of cultured and successful doctors, lawyers, teachers, and preachers. 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 73 

<;omprehend the profound sigDificance of this missiou wrought iu their 
midst by their sisters of the North, or oa the other hand recognize 
what a service has already been rendered to the welfare of Southern 
society by the young Negro men and women in the common schools; 
while different classes iu both sections are sometimes pushing this work 
in a narrow spirit of sectarian proselytism and mutual distrust; and 
while the lower strata of politicians, by their miserable jealousies and 
malignant misrepresentations, have arrested the wise and benevolent 
scheme of national aid for the overcoming of Southern illiteracy; and 
the so-called upper strata of whole sections of the country i)roclaim a 
boycott of the New Testament law of love by drawing the social line at 
a white woman teacher in a negro school ; yet the good Providence 
that has waited on our national develoi)ment from the first has been 
calmly superintending and directing all beneficent endeavors for the 
ultimate good of the children and youth, bringing nearer the time when 
all these conflicting parties will confess, with wondering gratitude, that 
they have been the instruments of a higher power. 

It is not strange that a work so difficult, gigantic, and original, begun 
amid the receding waves of a prodigious civil war, should, for a time, 
have separated its best workers into hostile camps, apparently striving 
for irreconcilable ends. As a noble fleet caught by a tempest in mid- 
ocean may be threatened with wreck by collision or blown apart by 
raging hurricanes, only to find itself together iu some far distant haven 
on another slope of the globe, so the powerful rival forces engaged in 
educating the Negro for American citizenship, even yet almost incapa- 
ble of mutual understanding, are destined, even in our day, to a great 
awakening, when all shall cry out with joyful amazement, ''Stand still 
and see the salvation of God." 

XLIV. 

The fit appreciation of this educational work depends on some knowl- 
edge of its origin and growth. With this view we invite the reader to 
a brief sketch of the beginning and progress of the effort to educate the 
Southern Negro successively as '' contraband of war," '' freedman," r.nd 
" citizen of the United States," during the past thirty years. With no 
attempt at detail, the account of this iuterestiug experiment is offered 
from authentic sources. 

Negro slavery was not established in the British American Colonies 
as a missionary institution, but never in human history was a transfor- 
mation so vast and rapid effected in the life of any great body of people 
as in the condition of the ancestors of the seven millions of our Negro 
American citizens. During the past two hundred and seventy years 
these people have been transported from a condition of absolute barba- 
rism and paganism in the dark continent, 3,000 miles away, to the only 
country that had ever been in fit condition to attempt their emancipa- 
tion and elevation to republiean citizenship. For, in spite of the roman- 



74 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE EECENT 

tic legends whicb captivate the imagination of some of the historians 
of this people, our British and colonial fathers, three centuries ago, 
only knew the Negro as an African savage and pagan, gathered at 
home into contentious tribes and nationalities, "easy to be entreated" 
to sell his own flesh and blood to supply the greed of servile labor for 
a new country. From 1620 to 1808 a steady current of these people 
was pouring across the Atlantic into our Southern States, how many 
can only be guessed. The legal suppression of the slave trade, in 
ItOS, only checked the current. The traffic lingered in New England 
till 1820 and was never entirely suppressed in the Gulf region of the 
South until the final abolition of slav^ery. Whatever may have been 
the horror and waste of life in the transfer, the African slave " increased 
and multiplied," until in 1860 there were hardly less than five millions 
of servile and a quarter of a million of free Negro population in the 
country, all but 200,000 of whom were to be found south of Mason and 
Dixon's line. 

With such a people, so circumstanced, education through books and 
schools could have little to do. The majority of the N'orthern States, 
up to 1860, were shamefully negligent of their duty to their colored 
people, and schooling was an impossibility for the slaves. In the earlier 
periods there seems to have been less public opposition to the teaching 
of the Negroes in the South, perhaps from general indifference to edu- 
cation. But after the first great political division over slavery exten- 
sion in 1820, with the growth of the abolition sentiment in the North, 
the lines were more closely drawn. The leading Southern States enacted 
severe laws against the instruction of the slaves, and, in the absence of 
law, public opinion forbade it in them all. Later, the free blacks found 
the slave States no place for comfortable living. 

Yet, by the nature of the case, such laws were liable to frequent eva- 
sion. The slaves were owned by the cultivated and ruling class of the 
South. Probably at no time were more than 2,000,000 of its white peo- 
ple directly concerned with the institution. These 2,000,000 largely mo- 
nopolized the educational, social, religious, financial, and civic forces of 
fifteen States. With the 5,000,000or6,000,000ofnonsiaveho]ding whites, 
the Negroes had little to do. Thus it was practically impossible to pre- 
vent any slaveholder, especially of those who lived in the open country, 
from giving to favorite servants such instruction as bis good nature or 
sense of religious duty might demand. A considerable number of supe- 
rior house servants, in this way, picked up a good deal of instruction, 
and the schooling of free Negroes was not absolutely neglected in the 
larger cities. . 

In Washington, for thirty years before the war, there had been per- 
sistent and successful efforts to establish schools for the free Negroes. 
The result of this schooling was a body of remarkable colored people 
in the District who took up the work with the advent of freedom. The 
present excellent colored schools of Washington are supervised by the 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. ?5 

the sou of OTie of these okl scboolmastiirs, assisted by two young men 
who were born in freedom in Louisiana. The heroic effort of Myrtilla 
Miner to establish a normal school for colored girls in Washington was 
for several years represented by the training school for teachers, built 
up by an excellent woman of that race, Miss Briggs, born and educated 
in Massachusetts. The Catholic Church had also done something in 
this direction in Washington, Baltimore, and Louisiana. 

But the chief educational training of the southern Negro before 1860 
was in the severe university of slave life. It could not be otherwise 
than that a savage people thus distributed through the superior class 
of fifteen republican States should greatly profit by the contact. Apart 
from occasional exceptions, the condition of these people was not one 
of special hardship; indeed, it was favorable to the growth of the 
strongest attachments in the more favored househouid servants. For 
more than two centuries the American Negro received the most effec- 
tive drill ever given to a savage people in the three fundamental condi- 
tions of civilized life: First, regular and systematic work ; second, the 
language; and, third, the religion of a civilized country. During the 
same period the American Indian, in the exercise of a haughty independ- 
ence, rejected all these conditions and, with exceptions that emphasize 
the rule, remains a savage to-day. 

It was a prodigious step towards civilization when these Africans 
were put to steady labor and trained even to the slow and unskilled 
type of agricultural industry developed in the South. Their abler work- 
men became mechanics, and at present the leading builders in some of 
the Southern communities are of the same class. The plantation of 
the Davis families was once owned and well managed by a man who 
before 18G0 is said to have become the commercial agent for the sale of 
the plantation products in New Orleans. It was another step towards 
civilization to learn the English language, the great language of free- 
dom. It was imperfectly learned by the masses, but the upper class 
learned and used it with better effect than a considerable portion of 
the present inhabitants of the British Islands, and along with this came 
a marked cultivation from the conversation and social life of the supe- 
rior sort of white people. The better off Negro was really the humbler 
member of the family in thousands of the best homes of the South, and 
with his great natural aptitude for language and manners his educa- 
tion went on apace. 

The most important element in his training was his reception of the 
Christian religion at the hands of the ruling Southern people. It is 
easy to ridicule the mixture of pagan and Christian faith which is the 
actual religion of multitudes of our colored citizens, and they have 
fallen too easily into the crowning heresy of white Christianity, the 
separation of religion and morality ; but no man except a professional 
enemy of Christianity can doubt the prodigious influence for good of the 
religious training of the Negroes in their estate of slavery. The Chris- 



IG southp:rn ^\omen in the recent 

tiau master and mistress, aad a large i^ortion, often the most distin- 
guished of the clergy, wrought faithfully oa this line ; and never was 
a more genial soil for profound religious impression than the tropical 
nature, intense imagination, and kindly social aptitude of this child of 
the sun. 

XLV. 

So when the ruling class of the South made war for the disruption of 
the Union and the establishment of a new confederacy, they were not 
only able to bring in a majority of the nonslaveholding whites, but to 
control the valuable services of an equal number of slaves for the con- 
duct of things at home. It was not because the Negro was cowardly 
and stupid that he stood by the South everywhere until liberated by 
the advancing armies of the Xorth. As fast as the Nation set him free 
he worked and fought, 200,000 strong in the Union Army, for freedom. 
But he stood by " the old folks at home," till he saw the Stars and 
Stripes, as the best thing to do. He loved the women and children, 
served them with beautiful fidelity, and loves them to-day best of all 
on earth. Bishop Haygood, the foremost educational observer in the 
South, declares that the conduct of the Negroes during the war was 
largely owing to their sense of religious duty. But they were wise 
enough to know that this "white man's war" was all for them. No 
body of people, 5,000,000 strong, so circumstanced could have gone 
through that awful period as they bore themselves, without a most 
effective schooling in the fundamentals of civilized life, the result of 
their training in the university of Southern society through two hundred 
and fifty years. 

By one stroke of the pen slavery was abolished, on paper, and by the 
fall of the Confederate armies, in fact, in 1865. Within the subsequent 
five years these 5,000,000 emancipated freedmen found themselves citi- 
zens of the world's chief Republic, voters, members of legislatures, 
filling every oflSce but the highest in State and Nation. And, as by a 
dramatic change of scene, a plantation of the Confederate presidential 
family became the property of a family slave, and the immediate suc- 
cessor of Mr. Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, in the Senate of the United 
States was Mr. Eevels, the first colored member of that body. The fact that 
this prodigious revolution, apparently the wildest experimentin human 
affairs, did not swamp the Southern States in hopeless anarchy and 
destroy the Nation, we owe, first, to the training of the Northern people 
in republican institutions and the rapid development of the American! 
idea of self governD:!ent which, in 1876, practically forbade the persist- 
ence in the insane attempt to govern 15,000,000 of people by their own 
emancipated slaves. We owe it also to the republican training of the 
Southern white people, who, through a good deal of violence, did place 
their State governments right side up and compelled the Northern people 
to stand by the rale of the upper strata of society. 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 77 

But now comes iu another element in the problem, even yet half de- 
veloped, tlie education of the freedmen for reliable American citizenship, 
and this is the last word concerning Southern aifairs. If the Souch- 
eru Negro, within half a century, can be reasonably trained in the edu- 
cation of the heart, the head, and the hand, he will find his own place, 
and an honorable place at that, in the great brotherhood of our new 
republican life. Otherwise, the most thoughtful man has the most 
profound concern for the woes that will befall that devoted portion of 
our land. The education of the freedmen now inv^olves the whole ques- 
tion of republican civilization in our Southland, not only the success of 
free labor and free government, but the higher question of the social, 
mental, and religious progress of the white population of these States; 
for the grandest work given to any people to-day is the duty and privi- 
lege offered to the Southern people to educate the Negro citizen for the 
Republic that is to come. The effectual doing of this work, with the 
help of the North and the Nation and the sympathy of all civilized 
peoples, will lift it into the highest place in the confidence and love of 
Christendom. 

XL VI. 

In the stormy years of the past centuries we read of the priesthood 
of the Catholic church following the conquering armies of the European 
powers on two hemispheres to convert the conquered peoples to the Gos- 
l)el of Christ. But in the history of the human race there is no record 
like that of our great civil war; when, in the very midst of the conflict, 
the Christian people of the North and the National Government sent 
forth an army of teachers and poured forth money without stint to carry 
the knowledge of letters into the very heart of a hostile country, among 
a population in revolt against the existence of the Union itself. 

It was inevitable that, at first, the helping hand thus offered should 
be taken by the colored people that were thrown across the track of 
the advancing Union armies. Very early in the war, the Government 
forces came in possession of large districts along the Southern Atlantic 
coast, of the city of New Orleans, the valley of the Mississippi as far 
as Vicksburg, and a good portion of Tennessee. At the same time, 
multitudes of vagrant freedmen and destitute whites were thrown 
across the border, often a serious incumbrance to military operations 
at critical points. With an instinct that seemed to behold the outcome 
of this great conflict the friends of Christian education in the North 
pressed in wherever there was an open door. 

As early as September, 1861, the American Missionary Association, 
representing the evangelical Congregational church, opened its first 
school for "the contrabands," at Hampton, Va. In thefollowing January 
schools were opened at Hilton Head and Beaufort, S. C. In March, 
1862, 60 teachers were sent to the eastern Atlantic coast from Boston 
and New York and in June, 1862, SQ teachers were at work at va- 



78 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE EECENT 

rious points between HainiDtou Koads and Hilton Head. The great 
influx of destitute colored people along this shore compelled the mili- 
tary authorities to appoint Gen. Rufus Saxton to the superiutendency 
of these people in the Oarolinas and the work grew apace. In March, 
1862, the American Tract Society gathered 50 destitute contrabands 
in a building near the Capitol at Washington, D. C, with Dr. Johnson 
for instructor. Under the encouragement of Gen. Wadsworth this 
school increased and multiplied until more than 2,000 pupils of all ages 
were being instructed in 1864, partly by act of Congress appropriating 
a portion of the taxes of the District, but largely by the free gift of 
the people from the North. 

Early in 1862 teachers were sent to Tennessee, who began the work 
of instruction in the same way. In 1863 the gathering of vast crowds 
of colored people threatened the most serious embarra.ssment to the 
armies of Gen. Grant advancing upon Vicksburg. With the remarka- 
ble pov-zer of laying his hand npon the right man for important military 
duty, characteristic of this great commander, Gen. Grant called to his 
office in Holly Springs, Miss., the youngchaplain of an Ohio regiment^ 
the Rev. John Baton, a native of New Hampshire, teacher in Cleveland, 
and superintendent of public schools in Toledo, Ohio, and placed in 
his charge perhaps the most distracting task given to any mania those 
days: the duty of superintending the colored people through the en- 
tire region included in the Army operations. This meant, first, the 
separation of these people from the active Army, the employment of 
their effective men and women in various kinds of labor, the snpi)ort 
of the myriads of their poor, with an indefinite military authority to do 
all things possible for their welfare. Gen. Grant had not mistaken his 
man, and to John Eaton the country owes the largest and most 
eifective system of educational operation in any one district of the 
Southern States between 1863 and 1865. 

Without definite instructions the military authorities in the Valley of 
the Mississippi began to encourage the teachers from the Northwest. 
They gave them transportation, rations, opportunities to gather their 
-schools; turned over vacant buildings to their use, and, in various 
ways, assisted in their work. The desire of the freedmen to learn was 
something marvelous. In their ignorance they associated knowledge 
with power, and multitudesof their adult people flocked to these schools. 
When enlisted in the army, their white chaplains became schoolmasters, 
and 20,000 of the 80,000 enrolled in the armies of the Southwest were 
thus taught to read. 

The work assumed vast proportions, and in 1866 Col. Eaton had 
770,000 of these people under his superiutendency, with several sub- 
ordinate officers in charge, and a vast system of instruction in four 
States. In Memphis nearly all the colored children of school age were 
gathered in schools, and multitudes of adults were willing to pay from 
25 cents to $1.25 per month for tuition. Within six months the freed- 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 79 

men paid $87,000 for schooling and perhaps a quarter of a million dollars 
was first aud last gathered from their scanty earnings for the instruc- 
tion of themselves and their children in school. Industrial schools 
were also opened for women, and orphans were gathered in temporary 
asylums. The teachers who througed to this work were an excellent 
representative of the best miud aud heart of the North. Many of the 
men who went in at that time have become the presidents and prin- 
cipals of important seminaries for both races, aud hundreds of the 
choicest women from Eastern and Western homes gave their time aud 
often their life to this beneficent work. 

The poor white people were not neglected whenever it was possible 
to include them in this dispensation of letters. Indeed, there was never 
in the history of Christendom a movement that had in it less of any 
base alloy, more thoroughly born out of the heart of Christian good 
will, than this spontaneous advance to the educational front by the 
Christian people of the North. 

The churches of every denomination engaged at once in this most 
Christian endeavor to give the Negro that mental and moral training 
without which his new-found freedom would be only a curse to himself 
and a peril to the country. Foremost in tiiis effort was the American 
Missionary Association, for many years the most thorough, intelligent, 
and successful of all our Christian agencies for the schooling of the col- 
ored race. This association had its central support from the Congre- 
gational churches, though, at first, assisted by people of all creeds 
and assisting wherever its means would permit. The Freedman's 
Education Commission, including all churches, was established, with 
branches in the New England, the Middle and the Western States. 
Large sums of money and vast stores of provisions and clothing were 
disbursed through these channels. One book-publishing house in Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio, sent $15,000 worth of school books to the front for free 
distribution at the occupation of Nashville, Tenn. The beginnings 
of the colored school which has since grown to Fisk University were 
laid in the barracks of that cityj and Nashville, which had already 
gained an enviable reputation for its public aud private schools for 
white j)eople, before 1860, rapidly grew into the great educational cen- 
ter for the Southwest which it has now become. 

XLVII. 

But already the educational work was outgrowing the ability of the 
military authorities to control it, while the zeal of rival organizations in 
the North threatened complications at every point. lu 1805 the Govern- 
ment of the United States appeared npou the field in the organization 
of the Freedman's Bureau. For seven years, under the superintend- 
ence of Gen. O. O. Howard, this organization besides doing a great 
deal of other work was the central agency through which the Govern- 
ment aud various orgauizatious among the people of the North aud 



80 SOUTHEKN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 

foreign lands contributed to this great work of education. All funds 
in the hands of the military superintendents of freedmeo, rents 
licenses, fees from abandoned plantations, and properties of various 
sorts thrown into the hands of the Government during the war, were 
consolidated into the "refugees and freedmen's fund." The sale and 
rents of property belonging to the (confederate States were, by act of 
Congress in 1866, turned over to the Freedmau's Bureau for the sup- 
port of schools. Another large source of income was the direct appro- 
priation of money by Congress. From these three sources, beginning 
with the moderate sum of $27,000 in 1865, the income of the Freed- 
mau's Bureau reached nearly a million dollars ($976,853.89) in August, 
1870. Between January 1, 1865, and August 31, 1871, when the Freed- 
man's Bureau ceased to exist, the sum of $3,700,000 in money passed 
through its hands, which, added to $1,500,000 worth of other than cash 
appropriations, amounted to more than $5,000,000 expended under the 
direction of the G-overnmeut of the United States for the education of 
the Negro in seven years. 

At the close of its labors not less than a quarter of a million of pupils 
were receiving instruction in the various schools under its supervision. 
Normal schools for the instruction of teachers and the foundations of 
academical, collegiate, and professional schools were then laid, which 
have since risen to commanding importance in the various Southern 
States. There is no record more intensely interesting to every friend 
of humanity or more deeply instructive to the student of pedagogy 
than the enormous literature which grew up around this work between 
the years 1861 and 1871. In the reports of Su^jt. John Eaton and 
others in the early period, and in the subsequent voluminous docu- 
ments issued by Secretary Alvord, of the Freedman's Bureau, and the 
various agents in all the Southern States ; in the records of a score of 
Christian and other educational associations that vied with each other 
and with the Government in this great enterprise, and in the enor- 
mous amount of writing in the newspaper and periodical press. Con- 
gressional debates, political and educational addresses of the period, 
will be found the materials for a volume of thrilling incident and in- 
structive history in the record of that eventful time. 

In 1861 Gen. N. P. Banks, in command in Louisiana, made the first 
regular attempt to tax the Southern people for the support of a system 
of free schooling, and for a time the scheme had as much success as 
could be expected under such circumstances, 50,000 colored people hav- 
ing learned to read. During the existence of the provisional govern- 
ments the national authority was invoked for the protection of these 
systems of popular education established in several of these States. 

While much can doubtless be said in disparagement of this early effort 
to plant the common school in these conquered Commonwealths with- 
out the consent of their leading classes of people who were still dis- 
franchised, there is no doubt that much was accomplished in the way of 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 81 

awakening an interest in popular education among the humbler classes 
of the people. The men from the North in official position during this 
period were not veteran schoolmasters, but youug soldiers. Their 
Southern associates in office, of both races, were largely untrained, 
either in civic or educational affairs. It was a hazardous experiment to 
impose a complete school system, like that in the North, upon a people 
who never had enjoyed and were largely distrustful of it, and to support 
it by a taxation often absurdly beyond the means of the country. In 
some quarters the attempt was made to force the coeducation of the 
races. In others dishonesty and ignorance made a wreck of the enter- 
prise. It was well that this great effort to push the cause of popular 
education finally gave place to the proper activity of the Southern people, 
restored to their civic duties. Yet this effort, revolutionary as it might 
be, was largely instrumental in preparing the ground for the work of 
coming years. 

XLVIII. 

Meanwhile, it may be well to follow out the work of the National 
Government incidental to the Freedman's Bureau, and show how far 
the South is indebted to national interest in education to-day. From 
1861 till the present year Congress has given a great deal of incidental 
aid to education in all these States. In many cases, as at Harpers 
Ferry, Hampton, and other points, it gave valuable Government prop- 
erty and facilities for both races. At Charleston, S. C, it passed over 
to the hands of Dr. Porter a valuable property, the United States Bar- 
racks, to be used in his admirable school for white boys, the sons of 
reduced people in that State. Every session of Congress has witnessed 
more than one grant of this sort for the encouragement of education in 
the South. Some of the more recent of these appropriations are the 
gifts of valuable military properties in Fort Smith, Ark., and Baton 
Kouge, La., also Government swamp lands in Louisiana, and a' rich 
mineral tract in Alabama. All these have been donated outright by 
Congress for the common school, secondary, and university, and, in one 
instance, denominational education of -white youth. 

In 1862 Congress paused amid the tumult of war to make a ne^ ap- 
propriation of public lands for the establishment of agricultural and 
mechanical colleges in all the States, and the sixteen Commonwealths 
of the former slaveholding region have received 3,420,000 acres of land 
from this munificent donation. Every State has made some use and 
several a valuable use of this fund both for its white and colored people. 
In 1 890 Congress supplemented this gift of public lands by voting a sum 
of money to the agricultural and uiechanical colleges of all the States — 
$15,000 a year at first, increasing in ten years to $25,000, with a proviso 
that the colored citizens should be fairly considered in the distribution. 
Every Southern State is now supporting or preparing to support indus- 
trial education for the Negro under this form of national aid. 
8819 6 



82 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE EECENT 

The National Government has also established and contributes largely 
to the support of the admirable system of public schools for white and 
colored children in the city of Washington. These schools for colored 
pupils are a model for all similar communities in the States southwest 
of the national capital. The system includes all grades, with a high 
school and training school for teachers of both races, which ^re attended 
by many children of the most distinguished o£&cials of the Government, 
and are, beyond question, the best schools in the city. The Government 
also laid the foundation of and still subsidizes Howard University, 
Washington, which offers the most ample opportunity for collegiate, 
legal, medical, and normal training at moderate cost to colored youth 
of both sexes from the whole country. 

XLIX. 

With the close of the Freedman's Bureau, in 1870, the direct action 
of the National Government upon the growing education of the South 
came to an end. One by one the Southern States were organizing a 
system of elementary common-school instruction for both races, which, 
although painfully inadequate to grapple with the fearful illiteracy of 
the poorer classes and not entirely in favor with the leaders of pub- 
lic opinion, was yet gaining ground and promised to become the same 
permanent agency of Southern society as it had long been in the North. 
The various private and church movements that had been largely occu- 
pied with elementary education now gradually withdrew, and for the 
past ten years there has been no general habit of aiding in the school- 
ing of Southern children below the age of twelve, either by the contri- 
butions of money or the supply of teachers from the North. Butit soon 
became evident that, for many years to come, the impoverished South- 
ern people would not be able to offer to the freedmen any general sys- 
tem of secondary or higher education, or even the normal training of 
teachers to take charge of the common schools for the colored race. 
And upon this point especially has the Northern private and church 
work for the freedmen been concentrated since 1870. 

The great mass of work now done by the North for the colored peo- 
ple is concentrated in a score of associations, representing the different 
religious bodies, acting without interference, in a field so vast that 
there is room enough for all. The Catholic Church has not forgotten its 
old habit of bringing instruction to the colored people, and is repre- 
sented in several useful establishments, latterly by the munificent gift of 
Miss Drexel, for the training of the superior children which are the upper 
grade of its system of parochial schools. The Episcopal Church seems 
waking up to the same obligation, and at Raleigh, N. C, supports a 
flourishing seminary for the training of colored clergymen, besides ef- 
forts in various localities through these States. The Friends, in i)ropor- 
tion to their numbers and means, for the past thirty years, have done a 
great deal for both the colored and white children of the South, and still 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 83 

are supporting a considerable number of schools. It is not unlikely 
that this small religious body has contributed near half a million dol- 
lars to these efforts since 1860. The Presbyterian Church, North, now 
supports 58 schools, with 6,000 pupils, white and colored. Of these, 
the most important are of the higher sort for the freedmen. The 
Baptist Missionary Society has several large and nourishing colleges 
for the freedmen, and its labors and expenditures for the last twenty 
years must be estimated at mau^'^ hundred thousand dollars. Several 
of the smaller denominations, both of the evangelical and liberal 
churches, have contributed with great generosity ; the latter chiefly 
through the constant donations of tbeir wealthy people to institutions 
like Miss Bradley's school for whites at Wilmington, N. C, the Hamp- 
ton, Va., Normal and Industrial Institute for Negro and Indian students, 
and the excellent Normal Institute at Tuskegee, Ala. 

L. 

Butthe most prominent of these agencies has been the Freedmen's Aid 
Society, representing the Northern Methodist and the American Mis- 
sionary Associations, chiefly supported by the Congregational churches 
of the country. 

At present the Freedmen's Aid Society supports 21 schools for col- 
ored pupils, at an annual expense of $220,000. During the past twelve 
years $1,577,917 have been expended in its colored and white in- 
stitutions of learning in the South. Its 21 schools for colored pupils 
employ 233 teachers and contain 4,971 students. Several hundred 
thousand children are now being taught by the colored teachers trained 
in its seminaries. Several of these larger schools have valuable de- 
I)artments for educating ministers, for housework for girls and farming 
and carpentry for boys, and support an excellent school of medicine. 
This organization also is establishing schools of superior grade for white 
pupils, and seems on the point of a prodigious eftbrt to which its pres- 
ent achievement is only the introduction. 

But perhaps the most notable success in the secondary, normal, and 
higher training of colored youth has been achieved by the American 
Missionary Association. Since the day, in 1861, when it set up its first 
little school for "the contrabands" in sight of the beach vexed by the 
first slave shiptbat landed at Hampton, Va., this association has been 
indefatigable in dev^eloping that peculiar type of academical and colle- 
giate education among the freedmen which has made the Congrega- 
tional body of Christians so famous in the higher educational life, first 
of New England, and afterwards of the northern portion of the West. 
The American common school was esfablished in New England when 
this denomination was in the ascendant, and it is only justice to say that 
no body of Christians has, on the whole, been so firm in its allegiance to 
the common school. At present its labors in the South are largely 
directed to training superior colored youth of both sexea for the work 



84 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE EECENT 

of teaching in the new public scliools. It now supports six institutions 
called colleges and universities, in which not only the ordinary English 
studies are pursued, but opportunity is offered for the few who desire a 
moderate college course. In each, special attention is given to training 
common- school teachers and in most of them a valuable department 
of education for boys and girls is under way. There are besides, 73 
schools of a less pretentious type, being practically high schools, for the 
colored people in the larger cities of the South. Last year this associa- 
tion disbursed ^287,000 for 13,395 pupils of various grades. During 
the past thirty years, $10,000,000 has thusbeen. wisely and economically 
admiral nistered for the colored people of a dozen States, and probably 
more than a million children have been taught by its graduates. 

LI. 

Nearly all these institutions educate young men and women together, 
and the majority, theoretically, are open to white pupils ; but only at 
Berea, Ky,, and afew smaller schools, is there a noticeable mingling of the 
races. Their school buildings areuniformlythe most striking and modern 
of any in the South, occupying conspicuous positions, often surrounded 
by spacious grounds, and in many cases including a well-cultivated farm 
and workshops. Their teachers are almost entirely white people from 
the North, although colored and white Southern teachers are being in- 
troduced. They all require tuition fees, and the larger schools furnish 
board, in spacious dormitories, where the young women are instructed 
in domestic pursuits. The ordinary expense is usually within $100 a 
year, and a considerable proportion of their pupils are able, by work at 
the schools and teaching at vacations, to raise that sum, although the 
majority are more or less supported by student aid from the North, 
The presid(Mits, professors, and teachers in all these schools are an ex- 
cellent representative of American schoolkeeping, the men and many 
of the women being graduates of leading colleges, normal schools, and 
higher institutions. Through all these schools is constantly passing a 
throng of distinguished visitors from North and South, who contribute 
valuable addresses and sometimes courses of lectures. Several years ago 
the Congregational and Baptist schools were placed under the able super- 
vision of superintendents of instruction, and all are rapidly improving 
as educational institutions. They are all under the most pronounced 
Christian influence, each with its church afiBliation, and the moral, re- 
ligious and social training is perhaps the most valuable part of the 
work. 

It is impossible to estimate the widespread influence of this group 
of 22 colleges and 100 normal and academical schools, disj)ersed from 
Harper's Eerry to Texas, with 25,000 of the superior young colored peo- 
ple under instruction. No less than S 15,000,000 have, first and last, been 
put into this special work. Already the leaning people of the South are 
thoroughly awake to the great value of these establishments, Each of 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 85 

them includes distinguished Southern men ou its board of trustees 
and the States of Virginia, West Virginia, South Carolina, and Mis- 
sissippi make an annual appropriation for the industrial and normal de- 
partments of several of them. 

At present the chief support of this class of schools comes from the 
Xorth. Within the past few years large sums have been contributed 
for new buildings and facilities, Mrs. Valeria Stone of Massachusetts 
being one of the largest contributors. Mr. John F. Slater, of Connecti- 
cut, made a bequest of $1,000,000 for the education of colored youth, 
and a corporation similar to the Peaoody education fund, with ex- 
President E,. B. Hayes for president and Bishop Atticus Haygood, of 
Georgia, and Dr. J. L. M. Curry, of Washington, as secretaries, has 
been formed for the distribution of its income. Mrs. Mary Hemenway, 
of Boston, has been conspicuous among the large number of Northern 
women who have been known as generous contributors to these insti- 
tutions. Mr. Rockerfeller has largely aided Spelman Seminary, in 
Atlanta, Ga., and United States Senator McMillan, of Michigan, has 
made a generous contribution to the Mary Allen school for colored girls 
in Texas. The most conspicuous of these recent gifts is the great dona- 
tion of $1,000,000 by Mr. Daniel Hand, of Connecticut, to the American 
Missionary Association, to be used largely for student aid. Indeed, it 
would be impossible to do justice to the wise and persistent benevo- 
lence of the !Northern churches and individuals, moved by the Chris- 
tian and patriotic impulse of training these 2,000,000 of colored chil- 
dren and youth for American citizenship. The present policy of all 
these associations seems to be the development of these great colored 
seminaries for the jjermanent use of the South, encouraging the South- 
ern people to unite in their management and support, until they shall 
become the future universities for the higher professional and industrial 
education of the superior class of the colored race. 

In this way have the North and the Nation extended the helping hand 
to the Southingiving, first, to the freedman the elements of knowledge, 
and, of late, that higher training which has raised up a body of many 
thousand colored teachers, clergymen, and enlightened young people, 
who are now the most powerful agency in the new leadership of the 
race. 

When it is objected that all this schooling, above the primary grade, 
has been of little value to the Negro, the objector forgets that no people 
can get on without a head ; a genuine aristocracy of character, intelli- 
gence, and executive power. The head that the great body of our col- 
ored citizenship will ultimately follow is not found on the shoulders of 
any class of white men. The American white man can do, just now, 
but one radical thing for the colored man, outside respect for his equal- 
ity before the law, and that is to help him to that education which 
shall develop a genuine upi)er class which will lead him to his own place 
in American affairs. 



86 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE EECENT 

LII. 

With the information afforded by this brief sketch of the rise and 
progress of this vast adventure of educating the American Negro for 
his new American citizenship, I now proceed to record my own expe- 
rience in a twelve years' careful observation of that portion of the work 
especially in charge of the Christian churches and people of the North- 
ern States. In a subsequent chapter of this circular I will treat of 
the corresponding effort of the Southern people, in the establishment 
and support of a system of free common schools for the Negro in every 
State, now supplemented by normal and industrial training for the same 
race. 

In the winter of 1880, after a previous summer tour of observation in 
Virginia and North Carolina, I finally entered upon the "ministry of 
education," which for the past twelve years has engrossed my entire 
energies and carried me into all the sixteen States once known as the 
South. I came up to this deeply interesting ministry through many 
years of observation, study, journalism, lecturing, and service on edu- 
cational boards of all departments of school life that occupied the leis- 
ure of a crowded ministry in the TJniversalist and Unitarian churches 
in the Eastern, Middle, and Northwestern States. For the past twelve 
years the Southern work in the field has occupied two-thirds of each 
year, the remaining months having been spent in the equally important 
service, through speech, the press and private communication, of giving 
to the Northern educational public a truthful account of Southern life, 
as far as it is involved in the great educational movement for the last 
twenty years ; the most interesting and characteristic feature in what is 
sometimes called the New South. The work done in the Southern States 
has almost entirely been " a labor of love," including the visitation and 
careful observation of all varieties of educational institutions, constant 
school talks to children and students of every age, courses of lectures 
to teachers in all classes of seminaries, common scliools, normal schools, 
and institutes, with frequent public addreses and preaching and con- 
stant intercourse with all classes of people of both races. For six years 
this work was combined with an important position as chief editorial 
writer in the New England and National Journal of Education, and the 
press of all sections has been with great unanimity opened for my use. 
A small library of pamphlets has also been written and distributed con- 
taining the results of ray observation ; two of these published by the 
National Bureau of Education. Several of these pamphlets, now out 
of print, by the suggestion of the United States Commissioner of Edu- 
cation, are included in this circular, as throwing additional light on the 
subject and further illustrating the work of Southern and Northern 
women in this department. 

It should be said, in justice to my own religious denomination, that, 
for the past twelve years, this ministry of education has been supported 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 87 

by the American Unitarian Association and benevolent men and 
women, chiefly with a view to its operations in behalf of the common- 
school system and the education of the colored people. It shonld be 
understood, in this connection, that, outside its own theological schools 
and a somewhat indefinite connection for a time with Harvard Univer- 
sity, Antioch College, Ohio, and an occasional undenominational acad- 
emy, the Unitarian is the only Christian church in the country that has 
never seriously attempted the work of what is called denominational 
Christian education. Its distinguished representatives in the educa- 
tional field, following the leadership of Horace Mann, in every State, 
have been foremost in the support of the people's common school and 
every phase of popular education. It is, therefore, perfectly in the line 
of this educational policy that the present representative of this min- 
istry of education has been probably the only educational missionary sup- 
ported by the people of one religious denomination for a work through 
the Southern States entirely disconnected with theological or ecclesias- 
tical obligations, the primary object of which is the development of 
the American system of common schools, in their best practical methods 
of operation, in every community of these sixteen States. The uni- 
versal approbation with which this ministry has been received by all 
classes of the Southern people, with full understanding of its meaning, 
is one of the most significant indications of the steady growth of pub- 
lic confidence through all these great Commonwealths in the people's 
co?uuion school ; a warning that may well be taken to heart by every 
class of the opponents of this, the most radical, essential, and inde- 
structible of the foundations of republican government and American 
society. 

LIII. 

Under these circumstances, I have regarded it a subject of personal 
congratulation and an evidence of a growing liberality in the religious 
public that, through the past twelve years, almost every religious de- 
nomination — Christain, Hebrew, or Ethical — has cheerfully afforded me 
the most ample opportunities for my work, with constant invitations 
for public addresses on every day in the week. But the most valuable 
of these opportunities have been found in the universal invitation to 
visit every class of educational establishment, with the most thorough 
opportunity for observation of their work ; with friendly and even con- 
fidential communication with their teachers and managers. The first 
invitation of this kind, and one of the most important in its results, 
was the proposition in the year 1880, the first year of my continuous 
work, by the American Missionary Association (Congregational) and the 
Freedmen's Aid Society (Methodist) to visit all their mission schools 
for the Negro in the Southern States, deliver courses of lectures to their 
students and teachers on the art of instruction, meanwhile carefully in- 
specting their entire educational management. These schools wereestab- 



88 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 

lished in every Soutliern State at the most vital centers, and in no way 
could such correct information be obtained concerning the entire status 
of the Negro population of the South as by this familiar communication 
with their students, drawn from every portion of this vast area. For 
two years this engagement held, only suspended because the special 
work contemplated was accomplished. It involved a residence in these 
institutions during a considerable portion of these years, with every op- 
portunity for close observation. It was soon apparent that, without ofti- 
cial invitation, I was expected to visit the similar schools of all the 
religious denominations of the North on my line of operations, with sub- 
stantially the same opportunities. 

The intimate connection with this class of schools was no bar to the 
most friendly reception by every class of educational institutions 
through these sixteen States. Armed with the best testimonials, I 
placed myself at once in connection with the public-school authorities, 
State, municipal, and local. I also found the ''latchstriug out" of 
every important private and Protestant denominational and collegiate 
school for white students in every Southern State, with opportunities 
for observation and work only limited by personal ability. I was con- 
stantly among the new Southern common schools for the Negroes, and in 
constant and friendly relations with the educational public of the sec- 
tion. In this way I was saved from the chronic temptation to a partial 
view, enabled to compass the entire circle of life in which the question 
of Negro education is involved. Meanwhile I have never lost my hold 
on this body of Northern Mission Schools, which still remains practically 
the citadel of the whole system of the schooling of the seven millions of 
these people, furnishing a large majority of their superior teachers and 
professional leaders. 

I regard it a peculiar advantage in the just estimate of this depart- 
ment of Southern education that I have been able to study it from a 
point of view singularly favorable. I have traversed all the Southern 
States as an educational observer, fully committed to the most advanced 
ideas of universal education, with no question concerning the essentials 
of American civilization; with as little partisan, sectarian, or sectional 
prejudice as is consistent with a devout belief in the religion of Jesus 
Christ and an immovable faith in American republican civilization ; 
with a sincere and growing appreciation of and affection for all classes 
and both races of the Southern people. 

My first impression of Negro education at Hampton, Nashville, Mem- 
phis, New Orleans, Austin, Montgomery, Talladega, Atlanta, and other 
important centers of the secondary and higher instruction was a pro-' 
found astonishment at the intelligence, mental vivacity, teachableness, 
remarkable subordination to discipline, and general good conduct of 
the pupils in all these great schools. During these first two years I 
probably saw in them 10,000 colored students in all the Southern States 
east of the Mississippi, besides Texas. I found in them all an audience 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 89 

for my familiar lectures, not alone on school work, but ranging tbrougli 
the whole theme of their new American citizenship, which gratitied me 
by its intelligent and responsive appreciation, and let me into many of 
the secrets of effective public speecL. Since those years I have rarely 
prepared an educational address, even for a Northern university, which 
has not been "tried on" as a familiar extemporaneous talk before a 
colored audience; and the talks that most deeply interested them have 
proved to be, with due elaboration, the most acceptable to the critical 
student crowd in the college chapel or the great assembly on com- 
mencement day. 

LTV. 

I was constantly asking myself and everybody I met, how this con- 
dition was to be explained ? These students were generally from the 
superior class of colored people, at least the class which had the great- 
est desire for good schooling. But, as late as 1880, they were chiefly 
the children of parents who had once been enslaved, with small oppor- 
tunity for scholastic treatment at home and receiving little advantage in 
the poor country schools from which they came. They had not been so 
long under the influence of their present discipline as to be essentially 
changed in these particulars. It was the first of the numerous puzzles 
in Negro education which I encountered, and I doubt if I should so soon 
have begun to unravel this tangled skein had I not all this time been 
among the people who, in some respects, know more of the general ca- 
pabilities of the Negro ; certainly have been more intimately connected 
with him, than the people of the North. I found the more zealous of 
the workers in these schools quite carried olf their feet by this i^henom- 
euon which, along with the mysterious " magnetic " quality of the race, 
often seemed to involve the whole life of their teachers in a mental and 
spiritual mirage, in which all things were magnified, and these children 
of nature loomed uj) as a new-found superior race. Not only was it 
claimed by many of these teachers, especially the religious workers, 
that the Negro student was as capable as his brother in white of every 
grade of mental training, but in religious capacity was actually the 
superior of the American white child and youth of European descent. 
Many of the Northern churches and communities were lifted to a strange 
and i^owerful enthusiasm by the fervid reports of this class of workers, 
enforced by the interesting platform exercises and pathetic singing of the 
troups of traveling students that usually accompanied the missionary. 
It was certainly a temptation to the young college graduates, often sol- 
diers, who were appointed to the supervision of these great schools, to 
believe the testimony of their mthusiastic subordinates concerning their 
new constituency. They honestly enough assumed the titles — president 
and professor — in institutions christened by the most venerable educa- 
tional names — college and university — and governed essentially on the 
same plan as Harvard, Yale, and Princeton. It was no disparagement 



90 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 

of these teachers, often gathered from the best schools of the North, al- 
ways drawn from a good social class, frequently reijresenting the most 
distinguished society, that in the mental and moral intoxication of this 
singular environment, possessed by a coDsecration in which religious 
and patriotic considerations were intimately blended, they should be 
swept along the swift " tide of successful experiment." Successful it 
was, in a striking degree, in the enthusiastic desire for education and 
the sacrifice it inspired in thousands of these young people, their parents 
audfriends ; successful in the devoted and exhausting toils of their faith- 
ful teachers — living under the same roof, bound with a tie almost as close 
as the family relation to this palpitating crowd of dependent, affection- 
ate and exacting boys and girls ; uniformly successful in the glorified 
reports of the work before excited congregations of Northern Christian 
people, trained by fifty years of missionary support in foreign lands, 
elated by the still recent triumph of the national arms, emancipation 
and reconstruction in the South, ready to put forth more money and 
receive with distinguished honors their own children and friends re- 
turning from the Southern field for the usual summer campaign at 
home. 

LV. 

But I could not fail to see what an advantage it would have been at 
the early stage of this great enterprise, could these workers liave been 
brought into friendly relations with the superior class of ihe Southern 
people, who within twenty years had been the masters and mistresses 
of this enslaved race, and who had j^eriled and lost their all in an hon- 
est and heroic defense of Southern society as it existed up to 1860. It 
would have given these new comers the inside view, without which the 
most vital facts concerning a people so circumstanced can not be cor- 
rectly known. It would have somewhat cooled the ardor of the early 
enthusiasm, dimmed the rainbow hues of many a splendid prophecy, 
but also have saved many a noble man and woman from the reaction 
into a disappointment and disgust as misleading as the mount of exal- 
tation from which they had descended. Still, only in this way could the 
marvelous fact of this wonderful liveliness and eagerness of mind and 
undeniable capacity for many sorts of information find an intelligent 
explanation. 

But, unhappily, this intimate communion even with the Christian 
people of the South had not then become possible, and even today is 
very imperfectly established. I found a group of admirable Southern 
men, as often laymen as clergymen, in all these educational centers, 
with a remarkable appreciation of the service rendered to the South 
by these schools ; ready to welcome all the sensible teachers and work- 
ers to a personal acquaintance that often ripened to friendship 5 in all 
practicable ways standing between the schools and the majority of the 
community. And there were " noble women not a few " who, in spite of 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 91 

the disparagement of society aud tlie indiffereoce or hostility of the 
churches, persisted in a close cotnmuiiiou with the correspoudiug class 
of these workers, always ready to aid to the uttermost of their power. 

But the work was so exacting in itself, the situation of the majority 
of the schools so remote from the residence of the better sort of people 
in the towns, and the home and outdoor duties of their Southern 
friends so overwhelming, that less came from this acquaintance than 
could be hoped. And it must be remembered that some of these work- 
ers were neither qualified by previous culture nor breadth of view to 
appreciate anything beyond the immediate task at hand. This class re- 
garded themselves, honestly enough, as persecuted apostles in heathen- 
dom ; often interpreting as slights, neglect, and malignant opposition 
what had no such real intent. At all events this was the situation in 
1880. And such, in a modified degree, it remains, after the growing 
mutual understanding of the past ten years. 

But meanwhile the more thoughtful educational and religious pub- 
lic at the North has learned to put a more sober estimate on the ac- 
counts of this work by its immediate workers ; while direct opposition 
and unfriendly feeling in the South has gradually subsided, with a 
decided movement in State and church among the Southern people for 
building up institutions of the same grade for the same object. Indeed, 
several of the more important of these great seminaries are already un- 
der a mixed management of Northern and Southern trustees, or subsi- 
dized by the States or communities in which they are established. 

LVI. 

But the radical j)roblem still remained unsolved. How should I 
account for the condition in which the better sort of these students 
presented themselves at these schools, or even for the singular aptitude 
of considerable numbers who came up from the most unpromising sur- 
roundings ? One reasonable explanation could only be found ; the pre- 
vious training of tbe colored people through their generations of servi- 
tude, especially by the Southern women aud the clergy. 

Whatever may have been the original aptitudes or disabilities of the 
native African, three centuries ago in his home beyond the sea, and what- 
ever of truth there may be in the enthusiastic estimate of his capabilities 
for all sorts of excellence by some of his new teachers, this factor must 
come, as a large element of the situation, as I first observed it, in the 
year 1880. Any race, in circumstances similar to the colored people 
previous to 1860, finds a way of concealing its higher aspirations and 
develops the habits essential to making a comfortable estate of an inev- 
itable system of bondage. The friendly Northern and European man, 
especially the woman, does understand the upper side of the Negro 
nature as it can hardly be divined, even by the most faithful worker 
for his uplifting of Southern birth and association. Still, the lower 
side of this people is best known through long and troublesome expe- 



92 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE UECENT 

rience in the communities of which they are a vital part. Unhappily, 
the average Southern white man and woman have become so accus- 
tomed to the " often infirmities " of the " brother in black" that the 
suggestion of a common human nature is somewhat of a strain upon 
the imagination and the story of his actual advancement, under the 
educational discipline of freedom, is apt to be rejected as a delusion or 
resented as an affront upon the superior race. On the other hand it is 
almost impossible for the Northern man of British descent to con- 
ceive the possibility of any growth toward the higher estate of man- 
hood in such a condition of chattel bondage as enveloped the colored 
race previous to the civil war. 

But a little exercise of the reason and that interpretative imagination, 
without which logic is the champion liar and even experience the chronic 
misleader in human affairs, should long ere this have opened the eyes 
of fair-minded people to the indebtedness of the American Negro to this 
element in the schooling of his house of bondage. And when, as in my 
own case, an exceptional opportunity was offered for jearsto observe 
and work, in the confidence of all sides of Southern society, save an occa- 
sional jealous, conceited, or grumbling schoolmaster or a small editor 
spoiling for a E^orthern " head to hit," I should be unfaithful to our 
American civilization in all its varied constituents did I not bear hearty 
testimony to the great work of preparation on the old Southern planta- 
tion for the new schoolhouse imported from the North. 

LVII. 

Here is a great estate in the heart of a wide country, connected with 
others, great and small, by broad spaces of partially occupied lands. 
The family in possession stands to its working class in a relation more 
nearly resembling the patriachal family of the Oriental world than is 
elsewhere possible. If of the superior class, it is a group of people 
educated by the usual methods of the secondary and higher academical 
and college training of half a century ago, possibly one or two members 
improved by travel and graduation from Northern or European schools. 
But, whatever may be the attraction abroad, the home life offers the one 
quality that appeals most strongly to the educated man and woman; 
the opportunity for the exercise of an almost absolute power and an 
influence practically irresistable. The men of the household, if ambi- 
tious and able, represent at home and abroad the most powerful aristo- 
cratic class in Christendom. The women of similar qualifications are 
received at the National Capital as social magnates and pass for their 
full worth as guests, even in portions of the country in a growing polit- 
ical hostility to their own. 

But the mass of good women in any country are not magnates of 
fashion ; rather home-keepers, careful mothers of children, good man- 
agers of the domestic environment. And here is the center of the mar- 
velous power exerted by the Southern woman of the better sort through 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 93 

long geueratiou"!. Powerless to cUange the social organization into 
whicli she was born, early schooled to turn away from more than one 
pit of perdition, along the slippery edge of which she moved in her daily 
round, she turned to the genial social life of a new country in a South- 
ern clime for entertainment. But her best womanly energies were con- 
centrated on the few points in her home life, where her own will was 
law. We have seen how her influence prevailed in the home and family 
education of the Southern girl, often compensating for the serious defects 
of the old academic school system of the South. But even more exact- 
ing was her relation to her husband's slaves. This whole area of men- 
tal and moral destitution lay open beneath her gaze. Whatever may 
have been the fidelity to the higher duties of mastership in the mascu- 
line side of that old plantation life (and I am disposed to credit the 
master with a good deal of good service, especially in the arrangement 
of outward affairs and the administration of practical justice between, 
man and man), still the peculiar relation of almost irreponsible power 
sustained by the white man to the slave woman was a temptation at 
once to self-forgetfulness and the capricious overindulgence of his 
favorites that no quality of saintship yet developed this side the water 
has been able to resist. With full comprehension of the perils amid 
which she walked, the wise Christian woman was forced to become a 
missionary at every point. All that woman's power could accomplish 
was done by her. Even the woman of the world, if not hopelessly de- 
moralized by vanity and childishness, instinctively acquired some of the 
most valuable elements of the religious character in such a " strait 
between two " as her life must be. 

LVIII. 

The most promising of the young slaves in such a place come espe- 
cially under the eye of the mistress and are promoted to household 
service. And that youth must be a "fool and blind" who does not 
profit, in a score of ways, by the university of the old-time planter's 
home, with its attractive habits of confidential life and outspoken sen- 
timent and opinion, abiding in an atmosphere of genial social inter- 
mingling, with its everlasting '<talk by the way" with every eligible 
guest that could be allured to its boundless hospitality. So the "old- 
plantation home" became the best possible training school for the gen- 
eral enlightenment and discipline of a people whose fathers, perhaps — 
certainly whose grandfathers — had been captured, brought across 
3,000 miles of ocean, and landed, a crowd of pagan savages, upon a 
foreign shore. 

And it was the most natural thing in the world for this woman to 
call in her clergyman as adviser and colaborer, especially the Protestant 
minister, whose power is sheathed in an elastic theology of influence, 
representing, chiefly, the great dissenting bodies of Christians, schooled 
in the conflicts of British ecclesiasticism. The better the pastor the 



94 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 

more readily does he cooperate with the mistress of the little kingdom 
for the religious and moral uplifting of the people. Bishop Haygood 
is probably not far from right when he declares that the wonderful 
behavior of the slave population during the war was largely the result 
of its previous religious training. It is true that on the great planta- 
tions of the lower South, multitudes of these people would hardly feel 
the touch of this double relation of the church and the woman side of 
the planter's mansion. But, in the border States, and along the vast 
Piedoiont region, the association of servant and master was closer and 
the influence from above more widely diffused. 

The four years of the war intensified this peculiar training of the 
women of the household. On thousands of lonely estates, indeed every- 
where in the country, the woman came to the front. Left with the 
children, the infirm men, and the slaves, she toiled on, under a strain 
of mind, heart, and circumstances almost inconceivable. The abler of 
the negro youth learned the lesson of the hour apace and took on some- 
thing of responsible manhood and womanhood impossible before. No 
wonder that the personal attachments between the races, especially the 
generation that went through the war, are still the most characteristic 
and beautiful manifestations of our Southern life. Indeed, the love of 
the Negro, especially for the white woman and the child side of the 
home, still abides in a depth far below his gratitude, confidence, and 
attachment for his Northern friends, to whom he owes freedom and 
citizenship. This persistent affection of the ordinary Negro, especially 
for the "old folk at home," the women and children, is one of the most 
precious possessions of the South ; far more important to the future of 
these States than the wealth of material resources so loudly heralded 
to the nations. This confidence once gone, the Southland, with all its 
magnificent opportunities, becomes a social i)andemonium. That pre- 
served, all good things are possible through the might of time, the 
reconciler of all discords here below. All the more abhorrent is the at- 
titude too often assumed by a class of Southern politicians who pander 
to the lower element of race prejudice by an insolence and injustice of 
speech and behavior, to which the old-time relation of master and ser- 
vant in respectable classes is a stern rebuke. 

LIX. 

I found among the more thoughtful class of the teachers and workers 
in these great schools a growing appreciation of all this, and a gratitude 
to God for what had been done by the Southern women and the clergy of 
the old time to make their own work a possibility. And here I put in 
my earnest protest against the too common habit of a portion of the 
Southern political and religious leaders, of charging on these teachers a 
studied and systematic depreciation, even defamation, of the better class 
of the Southern people. Of course, these men and women are in their 
places to represent the American idea of to-day ; to prepare their pupils 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 95 

for the full citizeuship guaranteed to them by the National Constitution 
and laws J to do what every fair-minded and broad-hearted Southern man 
believes is the only way to escape perils that can not be raaguitted. 
There has been and still remains a good deal of misinformation concern- 
ing the actual conditions of Southern life before and since the war. 
Doubtless there is still undue credulity in listening to the representa- 
tions of their pupils and their friends, who naturally can see only their 
own side of a realm so vast as the complex life of the Eepublic. And it 
would be strange if among the many thousands of workers who have 
drifted through these schools during the past thirty years there had not 
been some whose influence was mischievous and who deserved the dis- 
pleasure of all sensible Christian people. 

But with the qualifications that must always go along with the fair 
estimate of any great moral enterprise, worked amid especial complica- 
tions and perils, I pronounce this general charge of unfriendliness to 
the Southern people by the respectable class of these teachers ground- 
less and, as sometimes pressed in high quarters, simply malignant. I 
have visited every one of the great, and many of these secondary 
schools, in all the Southern States during the past twelve years, and 
known, in the confidential way that belongs to such relations, the habit- 
ual influence of these leading institutions. And I unhesitatingly de- 
clare that influence thoroughly friendly to the South, according to the 
ideals of its own superior class. I find everywhere the influence of 
tbese schools most resolutely opposed to all the results so often imputed 
to the education of the Negro by its opponents. Whatever failure there 
may be, and there must be a considerable margin of failure, is not due 
so much to the schooling as to the prodigious difficulties surrounding 
the enterprise of developing the offspring of a slave population into 
responsible American citizenship, with its varied mental, moral, social, 
and industrial constituents. 

Especially have I known that the longing desire of these good women 
instructors is not for what is called " social recognition." They are all 
socially respectable and many of them represent families of distin- 
guished position. Their time is so occupied that social life, in its ordi 
nary acceptation, is almost as impossible as to the inmates of a Catho- 
lic convent. But what they are longing and praying for is the sympa- 
thy, confidence, and communion with the Christian women of the South 
for aid in their diflQcult work. Such a cooperation is perfectly practi- 
cable, and nothing prevents it but a chronic habit of elevating a pro- 
vincial social law to the rank of a Christian principle. As it is, I be- 
lieve no body of people, especially of superior women, ever wrought in 
any good work, in this or any land, with a more single eye to the wel- 
fare of their constituency and a more delicate consideration for the 
people amid whom their lot has been cast than these teachers and mis- 
sionaries. 



96 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 

LX. 

There is no compromise with a true spirit of Christian freedom and 
patriotism in claiming what has been now asserted for the educating 
in fluence of the old order of Southern society in preparing the freed- 
m;m for his new American citizenship. It only confirms the fact that 
there is a God-side to a great deal that is only temporary and often 
largely opposed to human development in this world. It is this which 
keeps our human life, with all its follies and diabolisms, after all, worth 
living, and at last comes in, at the downfall of every great institution 
outgrown by humanity, as a saving grace in the reconstruction for a 
higher estate. Certainly there can be no excuse for one situated as I 
have been to remain insensible to the prodigious work done by the 
women of the old South and the Southern clergy, in the mitigation of 
the hardships of slavery and the invaluable preparation for the "good 
time coming," by their faithful labors in the long years before the flood. 
And it should be remembered that in comparison with the toils, trials, 
and sorrows of this life on the old plantation, the most devoted mis- 
sionary of education and religion in the Southland to-day has no cause 
for spiritual pride or special discouragement. And here, in a future 
not far away, will be woven a bond of sympathy between the Christian 
women of the North and South, all the stronger because its recogni- 
tion and expression have been so long delayed by circumstances beyond 
their control. 

LXI. 

In studying the mental aptitudes of these students, I was impressed 
anew with the fundamental truth of what is called "The New Educa- 
tion." Its ground principle is the fact that the mental, moral, and in- 
dustrial training of the child and j^outh must proceed along the path 
drawn by the instinctive mother-sense. When Pestalozzi, in his famous 
book, "Leonard and Gertrude," set forth the divine law of education in 
the two propositions that the mother is the inspired teacher of the gener- 
ations and that the natural methods of instruction and discipline in 
a good home must be followed in every grade of school, he spoke also 
the reconciling word concerning the training of the Negro for American 
citizenship. These students, even of the better class, were the children 
of nature, with no heritage of school culture, educated solely in the 
university of life, in the environment of their narrow lot. The next 
step should have been far more apparent than it was to many of these 
new teachers : to place these children in a school, organized, disciplined, 
and instructed according to the most rational handling of these natural 
methods which make the school an enlarged and glorified home. Where- 
ever these beautiful and effective methods were adopted, I saw the most 
gratifying results. The young Negro, born and reared in the country, 
had already developed a sense-faculty and habit of observation that 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 97 

furnished the greatest opportunity for the skilled teacher. I have re- 
peatedly seen, In primary schools for colored children under eight years 
of age, evidences of ability in this direction full of encouragement to 
every friend of the race. 

It was one of the inevitable educational disabilities of this Southern 
work that it proceeded so exclusively from the church as hardly at first 
to recognize the school side of the North. What is called, in theolog- 
ical parlance, "Christian education," includes that department of paro- 
chial, academic, and collegiate training under the special charge of the 
clergy of the different denominations of Christians. In respect to 
methods of instruction, it is usually half a century behind the so called 
"secular education " in the better sort of the common schools. Even 
in the realm of moral discipline, where its asserted superiority exists, 
its methods of operation are often, in comparison with the discipline 
and moral training of the New Education, narrow and ineffective. The 
managers of these great seminaries for colored youth were chiefly 
clergymen or young graduates from colleges where the reformation of 
the past quarter of a century in educational methods wrought by the 
common schools had not been duly appreciated, often disparaged, in 
the double interest of sectarian theology and scholastic pedantry. A 
great amount of devoted labor was thus being wasted in the vain 
effort to school these children by reversing all the methods of nature ; 
forcing the school-book between the learner and the thing to be learned; 
endeavoring to demonstrate the capacity of the race for the higher cult- 
ure of the university ; wrestling with problems that still divide the 
greatest educators in the most eminent seats of learning. I attributed 
a good deal of the failure of these graduates, especially of the mass of 
pupils who only linger a few months or a brief year within college 
limits, to these erroneous methods of instruction. A better system at 
first would have greatly helped along the movement and taken out of 
the mouths of objectors the most telling arguments against its influence 
on the pupils. 

But, within the past twelve years of my acquaintance with these in- 
stitutions, this defect has been gradually modified. A better class of 
teachers has been enlisted. Skilled supervision has been called in. 
Some of the ablest school men and women of the country have been 
brought into this work. The Hampton Normal and Industrial Institute 
is now one of the best models of a great school for this class of pupils 
in America ; and all the leading seminaries have, more or less, profited 
iu this respect. The majority of them, now recognize the imjierative 
need of special instruction and practice in pedagogy for the large num- 
ber of their graduates who go forth to teach in the common schools. 
Their buildings are often occupied during the summer vacation by 
normal institutes, conducted by distinguished experts from all portions 
of the country. A great original treatise on the natural methods of 
education is yet to be written in our country, and its writer may pos- 
8819 7 



98 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 

sibly be a teacher schooled in this instructive aud suggestive realm 
where the young colored citizens of the South are trained for the 
American manhood aud womanhood that' make for good American 
citizenship. 

LXII. 

The influence of the ante-bellum plantation training already described 
still lingered among these students in a constitutional habit of submis- 
sion to the authority of their white teachers, especially when reenforced 
by kindness and confidence. No pupils are so easily governed by a 
skilled disciplinarian, working on the lines of moral development, as 
these. They are still the childlike children of the Eepublic, not yet 
demoralized by our wretched American heresy of child-spoiling which 
initiates into a precocious manhood and womanhood in their tenderest 
years. This docile dependence on their beloved teacher, this openness 
to reasonable suggestions for their own improvement, this spirit of 
heroic self-sacritice and endurance of hardship in their school life, were 
an irresistible fascination, especially to the devoted women who were 
most intimately connected even with the deeper moral and spiritual 
training of the boys. 

But it was the uniform experience of these instructors that under- 
neath this docile exterior, often near the surface, lingered the elements 
of the original character still untrained in the severe school of respon- 
sible life. The Negro slave did learn and learned remarkably well the 
passive virtues possible in his lot. He also learned to work, and he 
learned the language aud the religion of a civilized people. This was 
the "saving clause" in his emancipation, which prevented his sudden 
elevation from swamping the South in anarchy. But, unlike the Euro- 
pean races, he had not endured the awful schooling of "sword, pesti- 
lence, and famine" through centuries of upward struggle out of the hell 
which the lower side of European civilization remained for a thousand 
years. Thus he still greatly lacks the peculiar qualifications of effective 
American citizenship ; self-control and the habit of dealing with justice, 
firmness, and kindly tact with men. 

Here was seen the most formidable obstacle to his rapid advance- 
ment. Every great school seemed to me like a floating tropical island, 
liable at any hour to be swept by an irresistible tempest of destruct- 
ive excitement, " the wind blowing as it listed," often lashed to a cyclone 
at the slightest apparent provocation. 

The most experienced teachers confessed themselves often powerless 
before such demonstrations, standing appalled by the opening of these 
yawning deeps of primitive nature, as by the abyss of an earthquake. 
Herein is displayed the superior tact and disciplinary skill of the better 
class of the Southern people, who know these liabilities and guard at 
once against the martinet system of restraint and the powerful excite- 
ments which so often react into dangerous excesses. But it is a strong 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 99 

proof of the radical stamiua of the Negro chai acter that he has survived 
the terrific strain imposed upon him by the ignorance of the North at 
the close of the war, too often intensified by the reckless hostility of 
the people in contact with his new citizenship. That out of such a 
test of a full generation he has emerged, on the whole, a better, more 
intelligent, industrious, and hopeful citizen, is " greatly to his credit" 
and full of hope to the patriot and Christain. 

LXIII. 

I was now led to examine the very positive convictiou.of an influen- 
tial class of his teachers, that there is little difference iu the capacity 
of white and colored youth for schooling of the ordinary sort. I also 
noted the equally positive opinion of many Southern people, not un- 
friendly to the elementary training of the Negro, that, while the young 
children, possibly to the age of twelve, were remarkably bright and 
teachable, there was little to be expected beyond that age ; a fatal 
race limitation of intellectual power coming in to baffle the effort for 
the secondary or higher education. It seemed ta me, after long and 
careful examination of these schools, that both these theories left out 
the very important consideration of heredity iu estimating the capacity 
of this class of children and youth. It is not necessary to regard hered- 
ity as the implacable fate of the materialist, or to ascribe to it any inor- 
dinate influence, to hold that the ability to gather knowledge through 
books and the ordinary processes of school training is prodigiously 
increased thereby. A people who never enjoyed the opportunity of 
this sort of training may be all the time gaining in many important 
phases of mental capability. The senses may be stimulated to the last 
degree, and the mental habits essential to success in common life, war, 
or the form of society amid which it abides, will acquire a remarkable 
vigor. If, as in the case of .the American Negro, this race has lived 
iu the most intimate contact with a powerful and educated people that 
is its master and director, it will, in addition, appropriate a great deal 
of information, and even form, by unconscious imitation, habits of men- 
tal activity similar to the superior class. 

But meanwhile that special training of the will in connection with 
mental eftbrt which enables the j^outh not only to observe, but to classify, 
arrange and adjust information, proceed from facts to their fit disposi- 
tion, learning to convey to its own fjlace whatever is acquired and 
forming the habit of rapidly assigning any mental acquisition to its 
proper department; that power which, in the depths of the mind, appears 
like a pair of mental pincers, seizing upon and disposing of whatever 
comes iu range, is wanting. This condition of prolonged childishness, 
of dependence on a commanding will, had hindered the formation of 
the mysterious faculty which distinguishes the descendants of a long 
line of well-schooled people, like the native population of Scotland and 
New England, from all other " sorts and conditions" of pupils. 



100 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 

1 found the vast majority of these students, however bright and eager 
for knowledge, greatly deficient in this staying power. It was easy to 
excite interest aud lift up these classes on a high wave of enthusiasm, 
and in studies which require chiefly an exercise of the memory in deal- 
ing with disconnected facts there was often brilliant progress. Here 
came in that wonderful capacity for civilization so often misjudged as 
a sort of animal aptitude for " imitation," whereby the Negro in two hun- 
dred and fifty years of slave life has made greater progress out of barbar- 
ism than any previous race in history. But the best teachers were least 
misled by this facility, aud realized more and more the difficulty of 
establishing in these shifting mental sands a solid basis for steady 
growth and accurate j udgment. It seemed as if the task of the thought- 
ful teacher in this work was twofold ; on the one hand to judge discreetly 
how much to offer and how great a pressure to impose on the power of 
acquisition, and on the other to carefully build up in the deep places of 
the intellect the beginnings of the power which insures scholarship as 
distinguished from the random appropriation of facts; a power that 
would tell on another generation and go on increasing as the oi3por- 
tuuities and experiences of a genuine educational training were estab- 
lished. Such a task indeed demands the wisdom of a Pestalozzi or a 
Froebel, aud was far beyond the ability of the majority of the workers 
in these schools, though even there appreciated by the more skillful. 

Lxiy, 

This consideration would have greatly modified the courses of study 
I found existing in many of these schools, I was surprised to note how 
much was often attempted with children and youth just out of the 
simplest life of the country; coming up to this high place to acquife 
even the common habits of decent living ; with a range of ideas and a 
vocabulary so limited; confused and overwhelmed by a life as strange 
and exacting as if the children of an ordinary American common school 
were suddenly shot into the society of Windsor Castle, or stranded in 
the academic groves of Oxford or Cambridge. I wondered why the 
preoccupation of mind inevitable to such a change; the absorbing, as 
through the pores of the skin, of a strange new environment; the op- 
pressive change from the wildest freedom to the strictest discipline; 
did not suggest the absolute necessity of a very elementary, simple in- 
troduction to real school life; an adaption of the kindergarten, natural 
methods, and industrial training to a condition so peculiar. 

But I found, in the majority of these schools, a fixed course of study, 
in no essential way different from the ordinary graded school of our 
most cultivated communities. It seemed to me a sheer impossibility 
that the average student could successfully grapple with this style of 
persistent mental labor, in addition to all he was compelled to see and 
think and feel and do by the necessities of his new position. And I 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 101 

marveled at tbe delusion that these pupils were acquiring a correct and 
fruitful impression of these branches of study, so rapidly gone over, 
where a review or examination only added new confusion to the mind. 

I could understand the reasons, or rather the excuses, for this course 
of proceeding, so evidently nniirofitable and sure to bring this whole 
system of instruction into disrepute. These pupils were in great pov- 
erty ; could often take only snatches of school life ; were frequently 
supported by the gifts of churches and benevolent people, who required 
constant encouragement by favorable accounts of jirogress. They were 
wild to study great things and a great many of them, and often frac- 
tious and unmanageable if restrained within their proper capacity. 
Beside, the sharp rivalry between the different sects by which these 
colleges and universities are supported is a grievous temptation to at- 
tract students by cheapening education, admitting incompetents, and 
grading by lower tests. All the evils of this sort of competition, so 
destructive in every department of our American school life, I found 
aggravated here. 

So I early came to the conclusion, not that there is a fatal race limi- 
tation to the capacity for acquisition at the age of twelve to fifteen, or 
that the higher education is an impossibility to an increasing number 
of these students; but that there has been, and still is, in many quar- 
ters, a great lack of pedagogic skill in laying the foundations of the 
Negro school life, in helping these children not only to fix the habit of 
acquiring and retaining knowledge, but especially in developing the 
power of assimilation and of imparting it in turn to others. It is no 
special reflection on the managers of these excellent institutions that 
this mistake was made. They were working in an untried field, where 
tte experts might well pause. Their failures were no greater, all things 
considered, than the blunders in the schooling of the children of the white 
race that everywhere confronted me ; and I respected the earnest desire 
of the higher class of these workers to learn from their failures. Indeed, 
soon after these early visits in 1880 all these missionary associations es- 
tablished a more careful supervision of their school work, which in some 
form now exists in them all. The splendid gifts of the Slater and Hand 
funds, and the marvelous persistence in generous giving by the North- 
ern people, have enabled these bodies to add a proper industrial and, 
sometimes, a genuine normal department to the purely academic sys- 
tem that at first so largely prevailed. 

LXV. 

But here comes in an important consideration in estimating the re- 
sults of the education of the Negro during the past twenty-five years. 
It Is true that a great many of these pupils have been asad disappoint- 
ment to their teachers and friends, as far as the development of mental 
power and even moderate scholarship goes. It is also true that a con- 
siderable number of the attendants in these high places have returned 



102 SOUTHLKN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 

home ill a lamentable state of " big head," which has made their "little 
learning " a mischievous and sometimes a " dangerous thing." And if 
this was the result in the upper regions of culture, among the superior 
class, what could have been expected in the common schools, where the 
vast majority were gathered, under such conditions, in charge of such 
teachers ; in all ways so weighted with burdens that there is no won- 
der that the meager three months a year, in a country school house, 
with all its interrnptions and disabilities, was often a demoralization 
rather than an education ? Nobody whose opinion is worthy of respect' 
will maintain that such schooling as half the colored children of the 
sixteen Southern States even now obtain is much more than a name. 
It is simply the best these people can obtain under the circumstances. 
In several of the Southern cities, in 1880, 1 found the colored public 
schools in charge of Southern white teachers; in some cases of superior 
character, good attainments, and respectable social standing. Their 
success was no better than that of the Northern teachers already de- 
scribed ; although their acquaintance with the peculiarities of the race 
was an advantage. But the vast majority of the teachers iu the South- 
ern colored common schools are of their own race ; largely graduates 
of the schools in which they are now employed. But, even with all 
these drawbacks, I saw enough to confirm me iu my faith of the capacity 
of the average colored boy and girl for the acquirement of the school- 
ing essential to good American citizenship and of the abler youth for a 
respectable, sometimes a remarkable degree of scholarship. The meth- 
ods of instruction are slowly improving ; the demand for better teach- 
ers increases. In short, with half a century of the work inaugurated 
during the past twenty-five years, the Republic will not be ashamed of 
its ten millions of new-made citizens or disappointed in the heavy out- 
lay of money, time, and toil in the building up of the colored people's 
university; the common school, supported by the South, in connection 
with the secondary and higher seminary, so far largely the contribu- 
tion of the ISorth, to this truly national work. 

LXVI. 

But, meanwhile, it does become these great institutions that must 
retain the leadership of the school life of the race for another genera- 
tion, educating the higher grade of teachers and the upper class for 
the guidance of their people, to ponder well the responsibility for the fit 
mental training of their 50,000 students. No pressure of sectarian 
propagandism or " boom " of heedless benevolence or any other un- 
worthy motive should come in to swerve their policy from the strict 
line of truth. "Christian education "is education according to the 
divine law of human development implanted in the soul of man, inter- 
preted by the growing educational experience of the ages, and no 
violation of these immutable laws and methods can be atoned for by the 
utmost zeal in the realm of special religious or moral cultivation. In 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 103 

several directions there was a speedy aodeucouragiag response to good 
teaching in all these schools. The Negro has a genius for language. 
In the two hundred years of his American bondage he made a greater 
stride towards the speaking of intelligible English than entire districts 
of English-born people have achieved in the two thousand years since 
the Roman occupation of the British Islands. Ee has even been able 
to impress his own dialect upon his master class to the extent that a 
full generation of correct language-teaching will hardly bring several 
millions of white Southern people up to the condition of the more intelli- 
gent pupils in these mission schools. Nowhere do the beautiful methods 
of language instruction, now a part of our progressive school work, 
bear more abundant fruit than among the children of this susceptible 
and talkative people; and nowhere are the stupefying and unscientific 
old-time ways of teaching " the three R's " so convicted of absurdity 
and inefficiency as in the Negro schools. The progress in writing and 
drawing, when properly taught, has been remarkable. The hand- 
writing of large numbers of these students showed great natural apti- 
tude and, in free-hand drawing and design they are often superior to 
the white pupils of similar grade and class. The aptitude for orna- 
mentation appeared in the good taste displayed in dress, the arrange- 
ment of flowers and adornment of rooms, wherever the fit opportunity 
was offered. I have overlooked a score of colored girls who, two years 
before, had never slept in a bed and were strangers to many of the com- 
mon habits of decent living, waiting at table, arrayed in gowns of their 
own making, in manners and appearance challenging admiration. The 
work of classes in jihysics, in the construction of apparatus and excel- 
lent manipulation in electrical experimenting and ingenious devices in 
general, proves the mechanical faculty stored up in what is to become 
one of the most valuable operative classes in the country. 

If the present senseless no-method of teaching history could be 
changed to the free oral story -tellmg method for little children and the 
introduction to the notable characters and stirring incidents of our 
national life, no body of young people in the United States would more 
eagerly and intelligently deal with it, especially when connected with 
a teaching of geography which makes it in truth a "description of the 
earth." In tbe higher mathematics and philosophy, all studies de- 
manding maturity of mental habit, poise of mind, accurate analysis, 
and good judgment, I find these pupils generally deficient. But it is 
quite too early to pronounce on their incapacity, much less to jump to 
the reckless conclusion that the Negro mind stops growing at fifteen 
years of age. When a reasonable method of teaching arithmetic, ele- 
mentary algebra, and geometry is domesticated in the common schools 
of the South; when the charming natural methods of imparting nature- 
knowledge are tried upon these children of nature; when philosophy 
changes from the drumming a cast-iron theory of things human and 
divine into the heads of children and youth who are yet only half con- 



104 SOUTHEEN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 

scious of a soul; iu short, wheu the exploded methods of instruction 
that still hold in the majority of Southern schoolrooms give place to the 
New Education and a vigorous system of moral instruction wakes up 
the fine material in both races for an excellent teaching force, we shall 
behold results in all these seminaries that will be a new revelation to 
the educational public. It is a great misfortune that these institutions, 
built up with such consecration of money, time, and precious life, could 
not at once reflect the best methods of instruction in vogue in the 
centers of I^orthern public-school life. For lack of this there has been 
a fearful waste of energy and often a failure of satisfactory results, and 
the prejudice of the enemies of Negro education has been confirmed by 
the people supporting many of the students therein. 

LXVII. 

It has been a prodigious advantage that in the industrial training 
that has gradually been introduced into these schools the methods 
have been good and the success almost uniformly gratifying. The bad 
habit of associating scholarship with idleness and contempt for manual 
labor was certainly not brought to the South by the managers of these 
institutions, although it has, in some cases, been intensified and pro- 
longed by their reluctance to adopt natural methods of instruction and 
industrial training. Nowhere has there been a more remarkable dis- 
play of native ability for mechanical, operative, and even decorative 
work than among the trained students at Hampton, Claflin, Clark, 
Spelman, Tuskegee, and others of these great seats of the new in- 
struction for the children of the freedmen. The stolid prejudice against 
the employment of the Negro in any capacity save as a field hand is 
giving way in the face of the excellent work done by many of these 
young people. If the wicked Negro-hatred of the great labor organi- 
zations and the ignorant immigrant workmen that now degrades labor 
and misrepresents the better sentiment of the North, can be arrested 
on the border, the South iu due time will possess in its colored people 
one of the most satisfactory industrial classes in the world ; not best 
because it now works cheaply, perhaps receiving all its style of un- 
skilled work is worth, but because there is iu this people a capability 
for both intelligent and skilled workmanship that will yet surprise the 
country. 

The root of much of the misunderstanding and injustice from which 
the Negro everywhere is the sufferer is the constitutional sense of gen- 
eral white superiority coupled with the pagan notion that superiority of 
class, race, or culture implies a perfect and divine right to a control of 
all inferior classes that amounts to a virtual slavery. It is yet to be 
decided in the future development of man what is the limit of this 
vaunted Anglo-Saxon superiority. In an era when martial skill and 
superiority in general executive power is at the front, he remains the 
topmost man of the modern world. But, in more than one department 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH 105 

of life, especially in the realm of the spiritual and artistic culture of tbe 
race, be is notably second-best; tbe Oriental and tbe Soutbern European 
leaving biui far in tbe rear. Tbere will never be a lack of sufficient 
Anglo-Saxon manbood and womanbood in our country to assure tbe 
preservation of constitutional Republican institutions and tbe vigor and 
enterprise that are the propelling forces of our civilization. But just 
what the fierce, overbearing, and often brutal Anglo-Saxon man needs 
most of all, especially in these States, is the modifying and mollifying 
influence of a people possessing the very qualities which at first made 
it a serving class, but in tbe '' good time coming," will lubricate, soften, 
humanize, and broaden tbe whole structure of American society. If 
tbere is no Grod in the world, no Providence in history, and no place for 
tbe humbler peoples of the earth, then a war of races will be the close 
of tbe intolerant semi barbarism that can not live alongside a depend- 
ent class without subjecting it to perpetual servitude. But if there 
is anything in what we all prophesy, that the kingdom of God is on its 
way, and, as it comes, superiority everywhere will be another name 
for an overwhelming obligation to follow the Master in "seeking and 
saving that which was lost," then tbe " ways of God to man" will be 
"vindicated" most of all in the relation of the Anglo Saxon -Amer- 
ican to tbe peoi)les intrusted to bis charge in this, tbe world's normal 
school of Republican society, " coming from tbe East and the West, 
the North and tbe South," to sit down, each " under his own vine and 
fig tree, with none to molest or make afraid." 

Lxviri. 

But I soon freed myself in my observation- of these seminaries from 
the narrow pedagogic crotchet of testing their general success by their 
immediate achievement in scholarship. About 80 per cent of tbe people 
of southern Italy, 48 of Central Europe and a smaller per cent of Great 
Britain, are still unable to read. Each Soutbern American State has a 
body of native white illiteracy, great enough in some possible division of 
political parties, to rule tbe commonwealth. So I could not, like some 
eminent critics, dismiss this great work of Negro education as a failure, on 
a simple estimate of its mental results. The basis of education is char- 
acter training, without which all sharpening of the mind, discipline of 
the executive, or development of the artistic faculty only intensify and 
confirm the most intense barbarism. Here must we look for tbe ful- 
crum over which tbe lever of the Northern schools for the Negro in tbe 
South should pry. So my attention, though never distracted from the 
mental instruction and discipline going on in these schools, was more 
and more directed to the observation of the methods by which the 
children of these millions of newly emancipated adult slaves should be 
led out from the religion and morality of the plantation to the type of 
morality and religion which is the solid foundation of American citizen- 
ship. 



106 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 

I soon found that the imperious demands of the situation had wrought 
their inevitable results on this entire body of teachers. For two hun- 
dred years the American church has fitly glorified the hemisphere of 
the Christian religion turned towards God ; while the corresponding 
obligation to " love thy neighbor as thyself," has largely been deter- 
mined by a secular gospel of "the life that now is." But if, in this 
work, there came down to the Southland a minister or layman, man or 
woman, who had felt moved at home to depreciate" mere morality "in the 
interest of " spiritual religion," his conversion to the whole gospel of 
Ohrist was speedy and complete. For this worker, if sincere and prac- 
tical, was at once confronted with a people who had been chiefly trained 
to one side of the vast globe of Christianity, often without a suspicion 
that there was another slope that looked off on the wide domain of a 
personal character based on the common Christian morality. It was 
impossible to give to the Negro slave much more than the side of 
Christianity which touched on his peculiar lot. All consideration of 
the nature of man as a free citizen of this Eepublic; his natural right 
to himself; the use of his own mind; the development of his special 
order of manhood and womanhood ; all that questioned the absolute 
divine right of the system of society of which he was the underpin- 
ning, was necessarily left out. The most evident result was the devel- 
opment of a type of religious character which came up, as, indeed, 
three-fourths of the Christian people in the world now remain, with no 
practical faith in the Christian doctrine of the native divine childhood 
of man as man, or, that the Christian religion demands an essential 
modification of the old pagan heresy that, in this world, things rightly 
go by the might of the strongest. But the side of religion that con- 
soles and comforts amid the trials of a hard mortal lot, making this life 
tolerable to the most and bearable to the least favored of the earth, 
offering the glories of heaven to the converted as a compensation for 
the diabolism even of Christian civilization, was so faithfully instilled 
into the slave population that, with its natural affectionateness and 
emotional susceptibility, it wrought most powerfully. Doubtless, as 
Bishop Haygood declares, this was a vital factor in the submission of 
this people to the conditions of the old life, and largely explains the 
wonderful devotion of the Negro to the Southern women and children 
during the war. 

LXIX. 

But, unfortunately, the outcome of this partial training here, as in 
all Christian lands, was the failure to connect the moralities of common 
life with the upper realm of the so-called " Christian experience." So 
these new teachers came to a work which sometimes first opened their 
eyes to this defect of the popular religion, and enforced the practical 
mandates of the Gospel as never before. They found in this student a 
child-man. or woman, not a "fallen" creature, only half conscious of 



EDUCATITNAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 107 

the claims of the two most essential moralities, chastity and truthful- 
ness, aud all the minor morals that cluster about these central pillars 
of Christian manhood and womanhood. They found a perilous habit 
in their pupils of confounding the demand for common morality with 
the arbitrary law of a master enforcing his own whim. Tlie ready defi- 
nition of freedom I heard in a class : "A free country is a country where 
a man can do what he pleases," was the practical notion of too many 
of these youth, ^o wonder that for years in all these soliools the one 
imperious necessity was not so much " school discipline," — for the Negro 
youth inherits a habit of unquestioning obedience which can be easily 
developed into a remarkable order by a moderate effort — as the ground- 
ing the child and youth in the fundamental moralities, without which 
his entire educational structure would be " a house built on the sand." 

It was soon discovered that a good deal beside the ordinary " word 
of command," or the commonplace of reward and penalty, is essential 
to this. First, it appeared that the whole notion of religion as a wild 
half-pagan orgy of the passions and senses should be gradually elimi- 
nated. The revival, in some form a necessity' of the Christian school, 
was utilized ; but shorn of its excessively emotional characteristics and 
made a season for the imparting of solid instruction on the duties of a 
Christian life. The lazy boy who, converted in one of these seasons, 
got out of bed at 5 o'clock on a winter morning, split a big pile of wood, 
built a fire and welcomed his astonished mother to a breakfast well on 
the way, saying, " Mother, they have got a new kind of religion up at 
the mission school that tells me to get up in the morning aud help you 
get breakfast," was one of the first fruits of this new dispensation. 

I have visited all the great and many of the smaller schools of this 
sort in the South, aud am confident that in no church in America, with 
the most intelligent membership, are the implacable demands of the 
Christian moralities more persistently, clearly, and eifectively presented, 
through organization, discipline, home life and outdoor relations, with 
greater profit to the hearers than in them all. The labors of this de- 
voted baud of Christian teachers and workers for the moral aud social 
uplifting of their disciples has added a new chapter to the record of 
Christianity in America, and, in due time, will be acknowledged in South 
and North. As Julius Ctesar went off into Gaul and Germany and 
Britain to learu how to return as Emperor of Eome, so the church of 
Chrfst, North and South, is indebted to this body of missionaries to the 
freedmeu, largely to the woman side of this working corps, for such a 
refreshment of power in the union of practical morality and the popular 
religion as will give it a new and coramandingforce in dealing with the 
awful problems of our new American life. 

LXX. 

Here has been displayed as never before the "power and potency" 
of a wise Christian womanhood in lifting her own sex out of the slough 
of unchastity, the bottomless pit of ancient and modern life. The 



108 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 

most discouragiug feature in " the race question" in the South is the 
widespread belief among the superior class that this and the corre- 
sponding vice of untruthfulness are especial race characteristics, perma- 
nent and ineradicable, in the Negro. This profound skepticism concern- 
ing the i)ossible virtue of the Negro woman is an important element in 
the violent resistance, especially of Southern women, to social contact. 
It is honestly believed by multitudes ot good Southern people that no 
cultivation of the mind, no training of the industrial faculty, no relig- 
ious experience, will essentially change this characteristic. While this 
conviction prevails, the popular Christianity of the South will stand 
behind the absolute denial of all social opportunity to the Negro, irre- 
spective of his apparent advancement in the more superficial traits of 
civilization. ^ 

This opinion is, of course, the heritage of the " old estate," and is still 
too well confirmed by the actual condition of great numbers of the Negro 
population. But, outside one State, the Southern i)eople have not been 
brought in close contact with any prominent lower class save the col- 
ored man or woman. Their own white " low-down folk," often as im- 
moral and far more dangerous than their former slaves, are already " in 
the swim" of reformation, often ready to seize on the new opportuni- 
ties of American life. So it is not recognized that what is regarded 
as normal race characteristics of the Negro are simply the infirmities 
of our common human nature, always and everywhere under similar 
conditions. The sexual weakness of the Southern Negro is no greater 
than of vast populations of the Old World — the people of southern Italy, 
of southeastern Europe, of South America, of myriads in the Orient. 
Wherever the lower orders of mankind have been held under the iron 
discipline of despotic power, coujiled with the only dispensation of re- 
ligion possible in such a state of society, the masses have been left in 
childish unconsciousness of the sanctity of home life and the obligation 
of the common moralities. The ordinary unchaste Negro woman is not 
the "fallen woman" of the old civilization, but a half-animal creature, 
on her way up from the lower realm of human existence to a family life 
in accord with the fundamental virtues of a Christian civilization. 
Truth is uniformly the latest comer of the virtues even in a highly civ- 
ilized state. Even yet in the great practical affairs of this world it is 
a virtue " more honored in the breach than in the observance." The 
hopeful feature in the moral instruction of the Negro is that he is a 
moral child, first learning the character-side of the Christian religion, 
not the " degenerate son of noble sires." 

I appreciated the skill with which the admirable women I everywhere 
met in these schools adjusted their machinery of reformation to the 
conditions; illustrating the old saying of Col. Davy Crockett, in the 
comic almanac — " to shoot the Mexicans in their crooked intrench- 
ments, I used crooked artillery." A great use was made of industrial 
training, and it was inevitable that the mental instruction of the aver- 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 109 

age pupil must often be made to give way to the more radical moral 
discipline. The one thing essential to success was found to be constant 
occupation of the mind and hands. The great majority of these schools 
were coeducational, for the good reason that the training of the sexes 
together in the radical virtuesof chastity and ti nth fulness was the only 
assurance that the graduate would not be dragged down by marriage 
with an unfit companion on going out into life. " How do you keep 
your boys virtuous in this great school? " I asked a celebrated leader in 
this work. " I get them out of bed at 5 o'clock in the morning, give 
them a si.iiart military drill, put them through their paces in study and 
work till 9 o'clock at night: and I will answer for all the damage they 
will do after that hour." 

LXXI. 

Nobody save one who has the inside look at these large assemblies of 
youth can realize the intense and ceaseless drain upon the mind and 
heart of the devoted women who are educating these leaders of the new 
race into the common virtues which must be the corner stone of all their 
success. " Beset behind and before," as every attractive colored girl in 
our America is, by temptation, she has found her providential protec- 
tress, the defense that no American church has hitherto been able to 
give, in this body of devoted apostles of womanhood. I am convinced 
from the most careful observation that the per cent of sexual failure 
among these young women graduates, after fair trial in these schools, 
is not greater than in modern " polite society" and far less than among 
the women of several of our immigrant peoples from abroad. There 
is a steadily growing respect for the moralities of life ailiong the 
better sort of colored people in the South. The regulation scapegrace 
Negro preacher, generally a liar, often a boor, a thief, and a caucus 
politician, the champion blatherskite, is being supplanted by a class 
of respectable, often educated, and effective young clergymen, trained 
in these schools. And when Southern housekeepers tell me that edu- 
cation has spoiled the servant class of the home, I marvel why they for- 
get that the descendants of their old faithful " mammies" and " aunties" 
are generally now '^ set in families," often successful housekeepers on 
their own account, as thousands of comfortable homes of coloied people 
in town and country demonstrate. The present class of young women 
servants is now largely drawn from the old set that were occupied in 
field or menial drudgery. With no home opportunity for training, com- 
ing from the undesirable life in which they are reared, even if treated 
with as much consideration as the ordinary servant girl elsewhere, they 
can not reasonably be expected to have what the American woman ex- 
pects, as Dr. Johnson said : "All the Christian virtues for three and six- 
pence a week." The time is at hand, under the lead of these great 
schools and the people trained therein, when the still divided churches 
of the North and South will unite in the greatest mission work now 



110 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE EECENT 

open to the religious people of America; the moral aud social uplifting 
of the illiterate classes of the sixteen Southern States ; a work now of 
more importance to a Christian civilization than the effort to bring the 
masses of the pagan world into the acceptance of Christian truth. 

LXXII. 

It is everywhere asserted that the fundamenta. educational necessity 
of the Southern Negro is industrial training. In the large sense this 
subject now assumes to the thoughtful educational public, the assertion 
is correct. In the narrow, reactionary sense in which it is pushed by 
people who only see the little environment amid which they are living, 
it means what never can or will happen. 

If the Negro has only stepped out from his old estate of chattel slavery 
into the permanent condition of a European i)easautry, with a wall of 
iron aud granite about him and his occupation, with no civil, industrial, 
or social outlook beyond the present condition of the majority of his 
kind, then the entire system of education now pursued at the South 
is a fatal blunder. The free common school, however poor, is a ladder 
up which every child is invited to climb to every place that beckons the 
American boy or girl for the service of American citizenship. The 
secondary and higher education, supported from abroad or, as now, by 
every Southern State, is only the upper section of that ladder. No man 
or party, however positive, intolerant, or effective at present, can resist 
the logic of the training now given by the Southern people to the col- 
ored folk. The only limitation to the upward climb is in the capacity 
of the climber. The superior will prevail when he has demonstrated 
his superiority, and no man can change this law. Similar states of 
character, intelligence, and usefulness to the community will, in the out- 
come, assure to every man's children all the rights guaranteed by law 
to every citizen, leaving social and personal relations in charge of the 
unwritten law that nobody enacted and nobody can repeal, being the 
measure of the average civilization and Christianity of the community 
in which it prevails. 

Thus the loud call for industrial education for the Negro will be an- 
swered in the same way as a similar demand in any j)ortion of the 
country. The Negro, outside the vagrant and criminal class of the 
Southern cities and villages, for which the local authorities are largely 
responsible, is not the champion lazybones he is published. He does 
his full share of the work in the country, although his reward is 
not always in proportion to his services. His defects as a laborer are 
the same as of all classes of ignorant workers, toiling by the old-time 
methods of muscular effort, unchanged by mental, moral, or social im- 
provement. The curse of the South today is just this sort of labor 
in every department of her industrial life. In figures the cheapest, in 
reality it is the dearest labor in any civilized land, and out of it can 
never come the development of this great country, so prophesied, 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. Ill 

lauded, and longed for by its progressive people. It is not capital or 
intelligent white immigration that is half so much needed by States like 
Georgia, Mississippi, Alabama, by all the essentially Southern Com- 
monwealths, as that thorough training of the head, heart, and hand 
that will lift up the eutire working class of both races in range of the 
corresponding class elsewhere in the Republic. That done, each State 
will move forward by the aid of its own citizenship and be in a condi- 
tion to invite, welcome, and utilize all that may come to it. There will 
be no large response by any considerable class of desirable people to 
come to the South to aid the politicians and the reactionary set they 
so largely represent in their effort to reduce the Negro to a perpetual 
peasant and essentially reestablish the old order of aflairs. There 
should be investment, immigration, and aid that reenforce no party or 
class save that portion of the Southern people, the true educational 
public, who are bravely struggling against prodigious odds to place their 
communities on the highway of a genuine American civilization, by 
lifting their own people out of the bonds of provincial and narrow civil 
and industrial habits. 

The valuable industrial training for the Negro is what he is getting 
in these great schools now under consideration. First. It will enforce 
the dignity of labor upon a class who will be called to lead a less-favored 
constituency in the near future. Second. It will put the thinking brain 
into the working hand ; making the masses intelligent and their leaders 
skilled workmen, capable of meeting the growing demand of the South 
for all varieties of industrial effort. Third. It will put the conscience 
into the hand and lift the mass of common workmen above their 
wretched habits of shirking, cheating, and generally unsatisfactory 
work that now make life hardly Avorth living for all dependent on this 
class. Fourth. It will put the soul into the hand and teach the youth 
of both races and all classes the fit use of money, by lading up " treas- 
ure in heaven ;" learning to save on the lower side in order to spend on 
the upper side of life. The Negro has enough now, if he has this art, 
to place himself far above his present estate and give him opportunities 
enjoyed by no laboring class in this country a century ago. 

This type of Industrial Education, of course, must be a vital depart- 
ment of all schools. Manual training, sewing, cooking, all are a useful 
part of it. But whatever ignores the mental, moral, and spiritual ele- 
ment in the training of American youth will only confirm the awful 
greed for money-getting, with no regard to man or concern for the law 
of God, which is becoming today one of the most serious perils of the 
South. No man from abroad has the moral right to go to these States 
with the sole idea of " business." His supreme obligation is to cast in 
his lot with the really superior class who are working, as no other set 
of American people are, to bring in the kingdom of God in the South- 
laud. 

Here, once more, we bear testimony to the spirit in which the major- 



112 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE EFCENT 

ity of these Northern teachers have wrought in the Southern educa- 
tional field. While a portion of them, very naturally, have had "an 
eye to the main chance " and have not left the South poor or wrought 
without pay, these good women have "borne the burden and heat of 
the day," amid such disadvantages of schooling, often with such over- 
pressure of work and deprivation of all that makes the outward life of 
an educated American woman a blessing, that nothing but an unself- 
ish service of the Master can account for the persistence in their mis- 
sion. And it should not be forgotten that, whatever may have been 
the attitude of Southern society, these women who have really sought 
it with the same diligence and tact essential anywhere, have often 
found among the Christian women of the South the reliable support of 
personal friendship, generous sympathy, and appreciation which has 
been to them a great comfort and the prophecy of the coming day when 
we shall all " see eye to eye " in the glorious union of churches and 
peoples for the common good. 

LXXIII. 

And, now, if the question is again forced, What has all this work 
of the Northern Christian people really accomplished for the Negro 
and, through him, for the South and the Nation ? — I answer : Just 
what education, in its just estimate, is now doing for all children and 
youth in American schools. A mischievous heresy of the time is the 
pedantic notion of making the American common school an arrange- 
ment to secure " scholarship " for the masses. Honest instruction in 
anything on the lines of truth, that scorns the shallow and shabby 
habit of calling common things by uncommon names, filling the child 
with a conceit of what he is not, is essential to all successful schooling. 
But " scholarship " in any genuine sense is a virtual impossibility to 
the mass of mankind. The common school of the American people is 
an institution for the training and development to manhood and woman, 
hood of American youth through a scheme of instruction and disci- 
pline which blends the moral, mental and executive elements in due 
proportion. If it sends out its graduate at the end of five or ten years 
well started on that line of life, with an eager desire for mental im. 
provement added to a solid standing on good character and the ability 
to use his mental and moral acquirements in his everyday work in life, 
this is all we have the right to ask. 

Tried by this test no body of youth in this country can give a better 
"account of their stewardship" than the majority of those who have 
been under the influence of these mission schools long enough to be 
really affected thereby. Even the rough plantation boy or simple 
girl who drifts through Atlanta or Fisk, or lodges for a time in one of 
the minor seminaries, generally goes home more inclined to do some- 
thing better. But it requires a genuine course of some years— perhaps 
better if varied with occasional teaching or home life — to bring out the 



EDUCATION.IL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 113 

best result. Whatever may be said of the superficial scholarship of the 
majority of their pupils, or of the occasional overelatiou of some of the 
weaker heads, the general effect of their training is good and helpful, 
not only to themselves but to their people. I know of what I afiSrm. 
I have lived for twelve years past in constant contact with and care- 
ful observation of these young people. There are now thousands 
of them scattered through the South. Many of them have married 
their school companions; indeed, the coeducational feature of the sys- 
tem is one of its most valuable elements, tending to bring together, on 
a higher plane of Christian friendship and marriage, where such object 
lessons are most important. I find these people at work in all the 
superior avenues open to their race; in the church, as pastors and 
workers of an improved style, physicians, mechanics; the women good 
mothers and housekeepers, bringing up their children " in the fear of 
the Lord;" the life of the common school as teachers; blessiflg the 
churches and communities in which they live; in short, acting well 
their part of leadership in every realm of life among their people. 

When it is said that their education unfits them for work, the asser- 
tion simply means that intelligent, ambitious, self-respecting American 
youth, of every race, class or <' previous condition" will not and ought 
not to become workers of the old-time sort; servants under the despotic 
control of a selfish and exacting mistress; laborers in a life little above 
the old conditions of slavery ; humble, cringing, or reckless and "strik- 
ing" operatives, enlisted and maneuvered by demagogues in the bitter 
war of labor against capital. These educated young people are doing 
what the children of every respectable family in any part of our coun- 
try are doing; working according to the improved industrial methods, 
in modern style, moved by the new ambitions of the day and time. 
Already have the communities of the South had reason to be grateful 
for what has been done in this way. The system of common schools 
for the colored folk would be impossible without their work in the school- 
room. The Negro church would be sloughed in a half-pagan supersti- 
tion without their ministry in the pulpit, and the Sunday school. They 
are leading the way as honestly, effectively, and successfully as any 
people, all things considered, to a better time coming for the States 
which must remain the permanent home of the race. 

In another place, in my observations on the common school and wo- 
man's work therein, I shall write of the great service of the colored 
young women therein. Suffice it here to repeat what has all along been 
repeated, that in this blessed ministry of education the women of the 
North, by what they have contributed and what they have done, have 
not only laid the sixteen Southern States and the American people 
under a weight of obligation that only time will reveal ; but which, also, 
time, the all-reconciling force in human affairs will be certain to bring 
to the remembrance, appreciation, and grateful acknowledgment of the 
Eepublic. 

8819 8 



114 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 

Lxxiy. 

Of course the question must be met and answered, What is to be 
the final status of this class of schools ? It will be decided by each 
religious body on grounds satisfactory to itself. But certain tendencies 
are already api^arent, all pointing in the same direction. 

First. It has been for some time apparent that the elementary school- 
ing of colored children should be left to the local public schools as fast 
as they are competent to do the work. Probably, in a large majority 
of cases, this would be feasible, especially as in these communities the 
common-school teachers are largely drawn from these institutions. It 
will be impossible to gather the funds in the ll^orth for the support of 
a great system of elementary education in the South, No State in the 
Union, not even Massachusetts or California, now pays so much per 
capita *for the most complete system of public schooling as it costs these 
institutions for the training of their graduates, over and above what is 
received for tuition fees and student work. There has been too much 
of the tendency in all these Northern churches to push their Southern 
educational work on the lines of the parochial and " Christian educa- 
tion " scheme, against which the Northern Protestant people are almost 
a unit in opposing the Catholic programme in their own States. 

The Southern colored people can not educate their children in their 
own parochial schools without such incessant demands upon Northern 
benevolence as will not much longer be met. If the colored people can 
be aroused to their own responsibility and lifted above a present dan- 
gerous dependence on Northern charity, they can, iu different ways, 
supplement the public school and make it in time adequate to their 
needs. Whether they do it will depend largely on the cheerful cooper- 
ation of these great institutions with local boards of instruction. 
There is no doubt that all these seminaries, called colleges and univer- 
sities, would be far more effective if their number of students were 
decreased by a third, carefully sifted, and the work of the institution 
concentrated on a class of pupils who, by age, capacity, and character 
will repay the labor and money expended upon them. At i^resent 
every incompetent, half-trained, unreliable scholar sent forth feeds a 
popular prejudice against negro education, perpetuates the reign of poor 
teachers and useless schools, and works unfavorably in the reaction at 
the base of supplies. For a generation yet this class of academies will 
virtually have iu its hands the fixing of the standard of teaching abil- 
ity and general professional character among the colored people of the 
South. Every institution established by State or local home effort will 
be compelled to follow these models. It Avould be far better could 
25,000 students, sifted from the mass that is rushing upon these insti- 
tutions, be selected, assisted, if need be, to remain until well trained 
and then graduated, than to expend thousand^ on children who can 
as well be schooled in the ordinary way. 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 115 

LXXV. 

Second. This will involve the necessity of a general effort to endow 
the best of these schools until they are raised above their present neces 
sity of "living from hand to mouth." 

The result of this would be a superior class of teachers, better paid- 
and more permanent, three most desirable elements of success. The 
schools themselves would then be lifted above their precarious depend- 
ence on annual contributions by churches, Sunday schools, and per- 
sonal gifts. They would also be fortified against the two home perils : 
a raid by ambitious colored churches and interested leaders to capture 
and manage them in their own way, and the occasional upheaval from 
the lower regions of Southern life, which is still to be guarded against 
in every State. 

LXXVI. 

Third. Thus defended and concentrated it will be perfectly safe to 
call to these boards of management and instruction friendly and com- 
petent Southern men and women of both races, anticipating the time 
when all these schools can be handed over to the Southern people, the 
grandest educational gift ever yet conferred upon any people, by the 
combined philanthropy and Christian patriotism of the North and the 
Nation. 

These suggestions are in no way original with the writer. They are 
all strongly confirmed by the growing conviction of the most experienced 
managers and workers in this field. Indeed more than one of these 
colleges is now virtually planted on this platform and others are look- 
ing that way. It is high time that the indiscriminate and often thought- 
less giving of our Northern people for the education of the Negro should 
give place to a concentrated effort to secure and thoroughly establish 
the positions already gained. Through the entire summer the streets 
of our Northern cities are swarming and our churches besieged by a 
host of solicitors, of both races, often wholly unknown or commended in 
the reckless way in which people can be sent from any community any- 
where to beg for " a good cause." As an old railroad president growled 
out to one of these petitioners, '^ You can't educate 20,000,000 people by 
passing round a hat." Our Southern friends mistake in their good- 
natured indorsement of many of these solicitors, and provoke reaction 
by favoring this incessant application. 

While there has probably been no more questionable or incompetent 
management of such funds than could be expected, there has been the 
usual result of spreading great sums of money in a miscellaneous way 
over vast spaces, often to be handled by workers incompetent or vision- 
ary. Many a church pays an annual tax for the support of a good 
brother or sister " missionary down south," when the same money ap- 
plied to build a colored schoolhouse, place in it a better teacher, and 



116 EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 

extend its terra would help ten times the number of children, besides 
forging one more link in the chain of union and good feeling between 
the people of both sections. But we are aware that all this depends 
largely on the final union of the still disrupted churches of the three 
great religious denominations that contain nine-teuths of the Southern 
people. This final triumph of American patrioti&m and the Christian 
religion once achieved, all good things would seem possible. 



EDUCATIOJfAL MOVEMENT IN TWE SOUTH. 199 

Xheir educational nietboUs and plau of organization. A request to 
Chancellor Kev. T. J. Donahue, L. T. D., i^altimore, Md!, that, under 
the central oversight of hm eminence, Cardinal (libbous, a chapter of 
this circular should be prepared, giving reliable iutormation on these 
points, was declined, on the 'ground /of preoccupation, with the sug- 
gestion from his eminence that application should be made to the dif- 
ferent bishops of the Catholic Church in the Southern States. As this 
would involve the request thal/these officials should each prepare a 
similar document, with the stroo^- probability of a similar response, the 
author of the circular regrets that it seemed impracticable to take this 
advice. The pages of this circular, however, in any subsequent edi- 
tion, will be held open for a full \ statement of the Catholic system of 
education in the South, as far as relates to the education of girls, the 
cooperation of womjefn, and the educational and mission work among the 
colored people. / 

Education of the Colored Race in the South. 

Under this division, by permission of Dr. W. T. Harris, United States 
Commissioner of Education, we republish the following set of tables 
containing the most complete account of the condition of education 
among the colored people of the sixteen former slave States and Dis- 
trict of Columbia yet given to the public. As this record is still two 
years behind the present date, the situation in 1891-'92 is everywhere 
somewhat better than shown by these figures. 

The same unfavorable criticism must attach to this as to every great 
mass of Southern educational statistics. And the remarks already 
made concerning the nomenclature of schools apply with even greater 
force to the entire scheme of private and denominational instruction 
for the colored than the white race and with far more significance to 
the former. But the responsibility for the latter defect rests largely 
with the denominational mission boards that established the more im- 
portant schools at the close of the war; giving the name "college" 
and '' university " to these great collections of several hundred colored 
children, while their proper college students could be counted some- 
times on the fingers of one hand. 

But it must be allowed that these mission schools, in several impor- 
tant respects, have led in the entire Southern educational movement of 
the past twenty years. 

First. Preeminently in what has now become so largely the American 
practice; the coeducation of the sexes in every department of instruc- 
tion. With few exceptions the largest and best of these seminaries are 
coeducational, and this feature is one of immense value in the training 
in letters and proper school discipline of the first generation following 
the emancipation of the race. 



200 SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 

Second. Until recently there has been more valuable instruction in 
pedagogics iff the superior schools for the colored than for the white 
face in the South. Every "college" and "university" has contained 
superior teachers, trained in the best normal schools of the IJJ'prth and 
Canada, and at present, through the aid of the Slater fund, this is be- 
coming a marked feature in all of them. As a consequence, the natural 
methods of instruction have been introduced more largely every year 
to the colored public schools of the South by their graduates. The 
same remark applies to the normal schools for colored students estab- 
lished by the Southern States, all of which are giving fair instruction 
in the art of teaching. 

Third. These schools have anticipated the feature of Industrial Train- 
ing, now so highly valued, in its introduction to Southern education. 
Indeed, Gen. S. C. Armstrong may be called the father of industrial 
training in the South, for his great normal and industrial institute for 
colored youth and Indians at Hampton, Va., had become famous before 
any movement of similar importance had been inaugurated below the 
line of the border States in the South. And still, in the dozen South- 
ern States where industrial education is most needed for both races, 
the colored people are receiving the larger proportion and are making 
excellent use of this great advantage. 

Fourth. Another important practice in our American education, men- 
tioned with great praise by Eichard Cobden thirty years ago, on a visit 
to this country, the employment of women teachers for boys from the 
age of 12 to mppbGod has been notably illustrated in these great mission 
schools for colored youth. As before stated, the great burden of actual 
teaching and the moral, religious, and social training of the many thou- 
sand boys and young men of this race in these institutions has been, 
sustained by the superior women of the North, enrolled as teachers, 
and to their beneficent influence must be ascribed the remarkable ad- 
vance in personal purity, " good morals, and gentle manners " among 
this class of students, with the general commendable behavior of these 
young men and their growing influence in the uplift of their people. 
In this respect the common school of the South is falling into the Ameri- 
can custom; and many of the secondary schools for boys would be 
greatly improved in manners and morals by ajudicious mingling of able 
and influential women in their corps of teachers. 

Fifth. Although we strongly deprecate the giving of unsuitable 
names to schools of the secondary and elementary instruction, yet in 
the organization of the more important of these mission schools for the 
colored folks, the broad idea of the university and college as outlined 
by Milton and Jefferson, a great seminary for the complete development 
of the student into an intelligent, moral, industrious, effective, and 
patriotic citizenship, has been more fully borne in mind than in the simi- 
lar institutions for the white race in any part of the country. There are 
not half a dozen coHeges or universities in the Union so safe as a resi- 



EUrC'ATTONAL MOVEMENT IN THE BOUTH. 



201 



dence for a giowiug boy or girl, where, so niauy good things are pro- 
posed, so much careful personal attention bestowed upon the students, 
with so large a proportion of the instructors at once practical and con- 
secrated guides of youth as in this class of establishments. If admin- 
istered on this line, another generation will see them among the most 
unique and important educational communities in Christendom, realiz- 
ing more fully than has been deemed i)ossible before the noblest ideals 
of the foremost educators of the past and present age. 



PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 



The three tables following (Tables 8, 9, and 10) exhibit the statistics 
of the colored schools of the former slave States placed in juxtaposition 
with those of the white. 



Table 



-Colored school population avd colored population 6 to 14 years of age in the 
former slave States compared with the white, mainly for 1889. 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Colnmbia , 

Florida 

Geoi'sia t 

Kentucky , 

Louisiana t 

Maryland , 

Miasis»<ippi 

Missouri , 

North Carolina! 

South Carolina , 

Tennessee t 

Texas 

Virginia , 

West Virginia 



Total. 



* In 1886. 
f In 1888. 



Age of 
children 
enumer- 
ated. 



7-21 
6-21 
6-21 
6-17 
6-21 
6-18 
6-20 
6-18 
5-20 
5-21 
.6-20 
6-16 
6-^21 
6-21 
8-16 
5-21 
6-21 



Number enumer- 
ated. 



Colored. White 



226, 925 
106, 300 
*7, 070 
1 18, 200 
f 52. 865 
267, 657 

1 109, 1.58 

+176,097 
§68, 400 

II27.S, 528 
48, 478 
216, 837 

§180, 475 
162, 836 
139, 939 

^265, 347 
10, 497 



295, 766 

297, 665 

~36, 468 

1 33, 300 

1 60, 782 

292, 624 

1 555, 809 

+160, 040 

5i226. 806 

11190,436 

816, 886 

363, 982 

§101, 189 

489, 674 

405, 677 

11345, 024 

248, 437 



Estimated popula- 
tion 6 to 1^. 



Colored. 



164, 410 

78, 220 
to, 485 
13, 720 
41, 860 

186. 031 
70, 150 

132, 134 
47, 540 

179, 233 
30, 600 

142, 600 

165, 933 
102, 600 
157, 400 
167, 367 

6,840 



White. 



1, 692, 123 



214, 330 
219, 080 
t28, 293 
2.5, 100 
48, 130 
203, 381 
357, 220 
120, 085 
157, 560 
124, 753 
515, 600 
239, 150 
93, 029 
308, 400 
456, 300 
217, 703 
161, 790 



3, 489, 904 



Per cent of total. 



Colored. 



32.7 



I Estimated. 

§ U.S. Census of 1880. 



II Tn 1887. 
i; In 1885. 



White. 



43.4 


56.6 


26.3 


73.7 


-16.2 


*83.8 


35.3 


64.7 


46.5 


63.5 


47.8 


52.2 


19.4 


83.6 


52.4 


47.6 


23.2 


76.8 


1159.0 


1141.0 


5.6 


94.4 


37.4 


62.6 


§64.1 


§35.9 


25.0 


75.0 


25.6 


74.4 


1143.5 


115(3. 5 


4.1 


95.9 



67.3 



202 



SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 



Table 9. — Enrollment and average attendance in colored public schools, compared tvith 

loMte, mainly for 1888-'89. 



State. 


Number of pupils 
enrolled. 


Per cent of 

total 
enrollment. 


Number of 
pupils on- 
rolled to every 
100 children 
6 to 14. 


Average daily 
attendance. 


Ratio of 
average at- 
tendance to 
enrollment. 




Colored. 


White. 


Col- 
ored . 


White. 


Col- 
ored. 


White. 


Col- 
ored. 


White. 


Col- 
ored. 


White. 


1 


3 


3 


4 


3 


G 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 




105, 106 
56, 382 
4,587 
13, 004 
34, 008 

120, 390 
42, 526 
51, 539 
34, 072 

172, 338 
32, 168 

125, 844 

104, 503 
94, 435 
96, 809 

119,'»72 
6,209 


16.''>. 098 

■i.'i9, 770 

27, 905 

22, 760 

52, 000 

200, 786 

288, 460 

74, 034 

145, 388 

147, 373 

579, 373 

211, 498 

89, 761 

342, 089 

281, 958 

217, 776 

181,319 


38.9 
26.1 
14.1 
36.3 
39.5 
37.5 
12.8 
41.0 
19.0 
53.9 

5.3 
37.3 
53.8 
21.6 
25.6 
35.4 

3.3 


61.1 
73.9 
85.9 
63.7 
60.5 
62.5 
87.2 
59.0 
81.0 
46.1 
94.7 
62.7 
46.2 
78.4 
74.4 
64.6 
96.7 


64 
72 
84 
95 
81 
65 
61 
39 
72 
96 
105 
88 
63 
92 
63 
71 
91 


77 

73 

99 

91 

108 

99 

81 

82 

92 

118 

112 

88 

96 

111 

62 

100 

112 


69, 273 


102, 828 


Perct. 
05.9 


Per ct. 
62.3 


Arkansas 


Delaware * 

District of Columbia 
I'lorida 


2,017 
8,597 


19, 254 
19, 022 


44.0 
77.0 


08.9 
77.3 


Georgia t 










Kentucky 


28, 833 

37, 656 

15, 227 

102, 708 


193, 721 
52, 895 
83, 993 
90, 411 


67.8 

73.1 
44.7 
59.0 


67.2 
71 5 


Maryland 


57.8 
61 3 






North Carolina* .. 
South Carolina 


75, 230 
|69, 892 
64, 711 


133, 427 
t59, 357 
244, 258 


59.8 
66.9 
68.5 


Gi.l 
66.1 
71 4 








6.5, 618 
3,580 


129, 907 
116, 401 


55.0 
57.8 


59.6 


West Virginia 


64.2 


Total 


1, 213, 092 


3, 187, 408 


27.6 


72,4 


72 


91 






1162. 3 


1165. 









*In 1887-88. 
t In 1888. 

I There were also 7,109 not classified according to race. 
§ A few counties not reporting are estimated. 

II Includes only the States tabulated in the same column above. 

Table 10. — Length of school term, and number of teachers, with their monthly salaries, in 
coUtred and ivhite schools, mainly for 1888 -'89. 



State. 


Average number 

of days the 

public schools 

were kept. 


Number 

of 
teachers 
in colored 
schools. 


Average monthly 

salaries 

of teachers. 




Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


1 


3 


3 


4 


5 


6 




75a 


751 


1,968 

*1, 500 

84 

202 

700 

51,987 

1,200 

730 

590 

3,097 

686 

2,617 

1,622 

1,564 

2,278 

1,951 

180 


$22. 33 
38.00 


$23. 15 
46.25 


Arkansas 




117 
179 
150 


168 
182 
150 




District of Columbia 






Florida 






Georgial 






Kentucky 


93 

91 

172 

1191 


94 
95 
190 

1191 


38.78 
33.00 


34.58 


LouisianaJ 


27.50 


Marvland 






• 24. 28 


34.93 


Missouri 




North Carolina! 


61.5 


64 


2L84 


24.62 
























































Total 


1189.2 


1I28-6 


22, 956 


1127. 35 


1132.74 







* Approxim ately. 
tInl887-'88. 

I In 1888. 

§ Number of colored schools, excluding those in cities under local laws. 

II County schools only. 

ITIncludes only the States tabulated in the same column above. 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 203 

BemarJcs upon the tables. 

Numher of colored children in the schools. — It will be seen that, taking 
all the above States together, the colored children form 32.7 per cent, 
or a trifle less than one-third of the total school population 6 to 14 
years of age, while the colored pupils form only 27.G per cent, or little 
more than one-fourth of the total enrollment ; i. e., the colored popula- 
tion supplies considerably l«ss than its due proportion of pupils to the 
public schools. This is the case in each of the fStates iudividually, with 
the exception of North Carolina and Texas, where the proportion of chil- 
dren and of school enrollment is about the same, and the District of 
Columbia, where the proportion of colored children is 35.3 per cent and 
of colored pupils 36.3 per cent. 

Looking at the actual number of pupils enrolled for each 100 chil- 
dren of 6 to 14 years of age (columns 6 and 7, Table 9) it is found to 
be 72 for the colored population and 91 for the white, a decided diflfer- 
ence; and if the number of white children receiving an education out- 
side of the public schools could be taken into consideration a still 
greater discrepancy would appear. 

Regularity of attendance. — Not only are there fewer colored pupils 
than white enrolled in proportion to the number of children, but the 
regularity of attendance of colored pupils is less than the white. Tbe 
summaries of columns 10 and 11, Table 9, show that out of every 100 
colored pupils enrolled 02.3 on an average attend each day ; and out of 
a like number of white pupils 05 attend each day on an average. This 
is not a very great difference, however, and under all the circumstances 
may be considered a satisfactory relative showing. In Alabama, Ken- 
tucky, Louisiana, and South Carolina the regularity of the colored 
pupils exceeds that of the white. 

Length of school term. — The colored schools are kejit an average of 
89.2 days in the nine States which furnish the necessary data for deter- 
mining this item, and the white schools an average of 98,0 days (columns 
2 and 3, Table 10). Delaware furnishes a large part of this difference, 
due to the colored people being left mainly to their own resources in 
that State. In Maryland, also, there is a considerable difference in the 
length of the school terms. Outside of these two States the difference 
is trifling. 

Teachers^ icages. — The average of the monthly wages of colored 
teachers in six States reporting this item is $27.35 ; of white teachers, 
$32.74 (columns 5 and 6, Table 10). This difference may be considered 
to proceed in part from the circumstance that among the white teachers 
there are a greater proportional number of the higher and better-paid 
grades than among the colored, thus raising their average. 

In Kentucky the average wages of the colored teachers exceed those 
of the white. This results from the colored districts being larger than 
the white districts, containing more children, and therefore drawing 
more of the State money, which is applied exclusively to the payment 
of the district teacher. 



'204 



SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 



Table II.— Amount and disposition of the s^iins disbursed from the Slater fund from 1883 

to 1889, itichisive. 





1883. 


1884. 


1885. 


1886. 


1887. 


1888. 


1889. 


Total. 




$2, 100 


$2, 450 


$5, 000 


$3, 800 


$4, 400 
600 


$4, 600 

800 

1,000 

6,850 

700 

3,500 

4, 8C0 

5,300 

4,300 

6,500 

1,360 

4,190 

600 

500 


$3. 600 

800 

800 

9,700 

'"4,'io6" 

4,400 
5,100 
4,000 
6,800 
1,360 
3,150 

""560" 


$25, 950 




2,200 












1,800 




6,200 


500 
1,000 

592 
2,000 

740 

750 
4,325 

600 
2,000 
1,000 

550 


6,814 
1,000 
1, 4U0 
2; 000 
4,400 
3,500 
7,600 

000 
3,000 
1,000 

450 


5,100 

700 

1,000 

2,000 

3,600 

2,700 

5,800 

600 

3, 650 

600 

450 


6,200 

700 

3,100 

4,450 

4,200 

3,660 

6,500 

900 

4,190 

600 

500 


41,364 




4,100 






13, 692 




1,000 

2.000 

2,000 

950 


21, 250 




25, 340 




20,910 




38, 475 




5,420 




2,000 


22, 180 


District of Columbia 


3,800 
2,950 










16, 250 


17, 107 


36, 764 


30, 000 


40, 000 


45, 000 


44, 310 


*229, 431 







' The sum of $45,000 lias been appropriated for the year 1889-'90. 



Tablr 12. — Expenditure of moneys derived from Peahody Fund, classified by race. 

ALABAMA, 1888-'89. 

White : 

Thirteen scholarships at Nashville $2, 600 

Normal schools 2, 250 

Birmingham Training School 500 

^ $5,350 

Colored: 

Normal schools 800 

Unclassified : 

Teachers' institutes (13 white, 9 colored) 1,250 

Public schools : 1> 000 

2,250 

8,400 

ARKANSAS, 1888. 
White: 

Ten scholarships 2,000 

Unclassified: 

Public schools • 2, 200 

Teacher's institutes • 1,608 

3, 808 

5,808 

GEORGIA, 1888. ^ 
White: 

Fourteen scholarships 2, 800 

Unclassified : 

Newiian public schools 500 

Teachers' institute 1, 042 

1, 542 

4, 342 

LOUISIANA, 1887-'88. 
White: 

Eight scholarships 1, 600 

StateNormal School 2,000 

3, 600 

Unclassified : 

Public schools I1OOO 

Teachers' institutes • 1 , 000 

2, 000 

5,600 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 205 

Table 12. — Expenditure of moneys derived from Peabody Fund, etc. — Coutinuad. 

NORTH CAKOLINA, 1887-'88. 
White : 

Fourteen scholarahipa $2,800 

Normal schools 2 013 

„ , , " '— H815 

Colored : 

Public schools 200 

Normal schools 180 

QQA 

Unclassified : 

Public schools 2 105 

7,300 

SOUTH CAROLINA, 1888-'89. 
"White : 

Ten scholarships 2 000 

Normal school 2, 000 

„ , , ' 4,000 

Colored : 

Normal school 1 oqC 

Unclassified: 

Teachers' institutes 167 

Public schools 4, 450 

'■ 4, 617 

9, 617 

TENNESSEE, ]886-'87. == 

White: 

Fourteen scholarships 2, 800 

Peabody Normal College 10 000 

TT 1 ■« 1 ' 12,800 

Unclassified : 

Teachers' institutes (6 white, 3 colored, in 1888-'89) 1,200 

14,000 

TEXAS, 1887-'88. 
White : 

Nine scholarships 1^ gOo 

Normal school 2, 000 

'■ 3, 800 

VIRGINIA, 1887-88. == 

White: 

Fourteen scholarships 2 800 

Normal school 2, 000 

Teachers' institutes 1 , 691 

n ^ 1 '■ 6,491 

Colored : 

Normal school 5O0 

Teachers' institutes ". 380 

880 

7,371 

WEST VIRGINIA, 188fr-'87. 
White : 

Eight scholarships 1 gOO 

Unclassified : 

Normal schools 1 OOO 

Institutes _«.....__. 1, 500 

'■ 2, 500 

4,100 



206 SOUTHEEN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 

Table 1;-5. — Statistics of institutions for the instruction of the colored race, for 1888-'! 



Location. 



Name. 



Eeligioiis de- 
nomination. 



NOKMAL SCHOOLS. 



Huntsvillc, Ala 

Do 

Mobile, Ala 

Montgomery, Ala... 

Talladega, Ala 

Tuskegee, Ala — . . 

Helena, Ark 

Pine Bluff, Ark 



Washington, D. C 

Do 

Tallahassee, Fla 

Atlanta, Ga 

Augusta, Ga 

Cuthbert, Ga..... 

Thomasville, Ga 

New Orleans, La 

Do .. 

Holly Springs, Miss . . . 

Jackson, Miss 

Touaaloo, Miss 

Jeflferson City, Mo ... 

Ashborough, N. C 

Favetteville, N. C 

Goldsboro, N. C 

Plvmoutb, N. C 

Ealeigh, N.C 



Salisbury, N. C 

Aiken, S. C 

Charleston, S. C 

Greenwood, S. C 

Kiioxville, Tenn 

Memphis, Tenn 

Morristown, Tenn 

Nashville, Tenn. 

Do 

Do 

Austin, Tex 

Hempstead, Tex 

Hampton, Va 

Petersburg, Va 

Harper's I'erry, W. Va. 



Central Alabama Academy 

State Colored Normal and Industrial School 

Emerson Institute 

State Normal School for Colored Students 

Normal Department of Talladega College 

Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute 

So!ithland College and Normal Institute * 

Branch Normal College of Arkansas Industrial 
University. 

Miner Normal School 

Normal Department of Howard University 

State Normal College for Colored Teachers 

Normal Department of Atlanta University 

The Paine Institute " 

Howard Normal School * 

Normal and Industrial School * 

Normal Department of New Orleans University 

Normal Department of Straight University 

Mississippi State Colored Normal School 

Jackson College... 

Normal Department of Tougaloo University 

Lincoln Institute* 

Ashborough Normal School 

State Colored Normal School 

do 

do 

St, Augustine Normal School and Collegiate In- 
stitute.* 

State Colored Normal School * 

Schofleld Normal and Industrial School 

Avery Normal Institute , 

Brewer Normal School* 

Slater Training School 

LeMoyne Normal Irstitute 

Morristown Normal Academy 

Normal Department of Central Tennessee College 

Normal Department of Fisk University 

Normal Department of Roger AVilliams University 

Tillotson Collegiate and Normal Institute 

Prairie View State Normal School 

Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute.. 

Virginia Normal and CoUegiate Institute 

Storer College 



M.E 

Non-sect 

Cong 

Non-sect 

Cong 

Non-sect 



Non-sect . . . 



.. do .... 
...do .... 
...do .... 
...do .... 
M. E.,So. 
Non-sect- 



M.E .... 
Non-sect. 
... do .... 
Baptist . . 
Cong . ... 
Non-sect. 
Friends.. 
Non-sect. 
..do .... 
...do .... 
P.E 



Non-sect. 



Cong 
do 



Cong .... 

M.£ 

... do .... 
Cong .... 

Bapt 

Cong 

Non-sect. 

Cong 

Non-sect. 
....do .... 



Total 



INSTITUTIONS FOR SECONDARY INSTKUCTION.t 



Athens, Ala 

Marion, Ala 

Prattsville, A la 

Talladega Ala 

Sacramento, Cal ... 
Jacksonville, Fla .. 

Key Wesf, Fla 

Live Oak, Fla 

Athens, Ga , 

Do 

Do 

Atlanta, Ga 

Do. 

Do 

(/ave Spring, Ga . .. 

Mcintosh, Ga 

Macon, Ga 

Do 

Mt.Zion,Ga 

Savannat, Ga 

Tullehassee, Ind. T 
Lexington, Ky 



Trinity School 

Colored Academy 

Prattville Male and Female AcademyJ 

Talladega College 

St. Joseph's Academy 

Cookman Institute 

Convent of Mary Immaculats*| 

Florida Institute 

Jewel Normal School 

Knox Institute 

Pierce Chapel 

Atlanta Baptist Seminary 

Spelman Seminary 

Storr's School* 

Mercer Female Seminary 

Dorchester Academy* 

Ballard Normal School 

Lewis Normal Institute* 

Mount Zion Seminary * 

Beach Institute * 

Creek Freedman School 

Lexington Colored Normal School 



Cong .... 
...do. ... 
Non-sect. 
Cong .... 

Cath 

M.E 

Cath 

Bapt 



Bapt.. 
...do. 
Cong. 
Bapt.. 
Cong . 



Cong 
M.E- 
Cong 
Bapt. 

Cong 



140 
257 
280 
325 

35 
399 

61 
200 

40 
163 

54 
110 
129 
124 
367 

17 

40 
168 
220 

25 
168 

75 
153 

89 
106 
155 

129 
302 
250 
186 
239 
176 
269 
188 
48 
221 
234 
140 
651 
326 
194 



7,462 



186 



293 
427 
300 
241 
120 

92 
125 

95 

77 
148 
551 
589 

25 
248 
430 
372 
124 
321 



* Statistics of 1887-'S8. 

tl69 students not included here were attending schools designed for whites. 

|This institution is opeu to botb races, and the figures given include some whites. 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 



207 



Table 13. — Statistics of institutions for the instructionof the colored race, for 1888-89- 

Continued. 



Location. 



Name. 



Religious de- 
nomination. 



Louisville, Ky 

Williamsburg, Ky 

"Winsted, La 

Clinton, Miss 

Meridian, Miss 

Ashborousb.N. (J 

Concord, N. C 

Leicester, N. C 

Greeimboro, N. C 

WilininjrtOD, N. C 

Soutb New Lyme, Obio 

Pbiladelpbia, Pa , 

Oxford, Pa 

Chailestou, S. C 

Columbia, S. C 

Frogmore, S. C 

Grand View, Tenu 

Jonesboro, Tenn 

Knoxville, Tenu 

Mason, Tenn 

Morristown, Tenn .... 
Pleasant Hiil, Tenn . . 

Hearne, Tex 

Mar.<)ball, Tex 

Do 

"Waco, Tex 

"Walnut, Tex 

Abbyville, "7a 

Norfolk, Va 

Kichraond, Va 

Do 



State University 

Williamsburg Colored Academy 

Gilbert Academy 

Mouut Hermon Female Seminary 

Meridian Academy 

Friends' Academy* 

Scotia Seminary 

Brown Seminary* 

Bennett Seminary * 

Gregory Institute* 

New Lyme Institute 

Institute for Colored Toutb* 

Oxford Academy 

Wallingford Academy 

Benedict Institute 

Penn Industrial and Normal School 

Colored Academy* 

Warner Institute* 

Knoxville College 

West Tennessee Preparatory School 

Morristown Seminary and Normal Institute. 

Colored Academy* . ." 

Hearne Academy 

Bishop College. 

Wiley University 

Paul Quin College 

Central College* 

School of the Bluestone Mission* 

Norfolk Mission Scliool 

Moore Street Industrial School 

Hartshorne Memorial College 



Total . 



UNIVERSITIES AND COLI-EGES. t 



Selma, Ala 

Little Rock, Ark ... 
Atlanta, Ga 

Do 

"Washington, D. C... 

Berea, Ky 

New Orleans, La 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Holly Springs, Miss . 

Jackson, Miss 

Rodney, Miss 

Charlotte, N. C 

Raleigh, N. C 

Salisbury, N. C 

Wilberforce, Ohio . . . 

Columbia, S. C 

Orangeburg, S. C 

Nashville, Tenn 

Do 

Do 



Selma University , 

Philander Smith College 

Atlanta University 

Clark University 

Howard University^ , 

Berea College 

Leland University 

New Orleans University 

Southern University 

Straight University 

Rust University , 

Jackson College - . . . 

Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College . 

Biddle University 

Shaw University 

Livingston College 

Wilberforce University 

Allen University 

Clafliu University ,. 

Central Tennessee College 

Fisk University , 

Roger Williams University 



Total 



SCHOOLS OF THEOLOGY. 



Talladega, Ala ... 
Tuscaloosa, Ala. . . 
Washington, D. C. 

Do 

Atlanta, Ga 

Do 

New Orleans. La. . 



Bapt.... 

Cong . . . 
M.E.... 
Nonsect 
M. E ... 
Friends. 
Presb . . . 
M.E.... 
...do ... 



Friends . - 
Nonaect . 

Presb 

Bapt 

Nonsect . 
Cong . . . . 
....do .... 
U. Presb. 
M E .... 
....do.... 

Cong 

Bapt 

...do .... 
M. E .... 
Af. Meth 
Nonsect . 
U. Presb . 
...do.... 



Bapt. 



Talladega College 

Institute for Training Colored Ministers 

Theolosical Department of Howard University... 

Wayliind Seminary 

Atlanta Baptist Seminary 

Gammon Theological Seminary 

Gilbert Haven School of Tlieoilogy (New Orleans 
University). 

Theological Department of Leland University 

Theological Depaitraeut of Straight University... 
Centenary Biblical Institute 



Cong 

Presb 

Nonsect .. 

Bapt 

...do 

M. E 

..do .... 



Bapt . . . 

Nonsect 
M. E ... 



307 
299 
229 
185 

82 
224 
100 
127 
300 
282 
427 

74 
651 
236 
240 

92 
112 
257 
149 
282 

76 

48 
209 
230 
107 
223 
220 
453 

95 
100 



11, 480 



Bapt 

M.E 

Nonsect 

M.E 

Nonsect 

...do 

B.ipt 

M. E 

Nensect 

...do 

M.E 

Bapt 

Nonsect 

Piesb 

Bapt 

Af. M. E . . . . 

.. do 

- do 

Nonsect . . . 

M. E 

Cong 

Bapt 



13 
13 
9 

20 

17 

8 

238 



187 
356 
68 
59 
334 
170 
240 
360 
432 
201 



216 
138 



180 
124 
241 
946 
244 
451 
63 

5,010 



Do 

Do 

Baltimore, Md 

* Statistics of 18S7-'88. 

t Not including profe.s.sional departments. 

1 Number of instructors in all the departments. 

6 55 white students are enrolled in the different departments of Howard University. 

II 40 colored students of theology not included here were attending schools designed for whites. 



16 
26 
38 
43 
147 
70 
9 

30 
20 
195 



208 



SOUTHERN WOMEN IN THE RECENT 



Table 13. — Statistics of institutions for the instruction of the colored race, for 1888-89- 

Continued. 



Location. 



Charlotte, N.C.... 
Raleigh, N.C .... 

Do 

"Wilberforce, Ohio 

Columbia, S. C 

Do 

Orangeburg, S. 
Nashville, Tenn . 

Do 

Do 

Marshall, Tex 

Richmond, Va . . . 

"Washington, D. C 
New Orleans, La. 

Columbia, S. C 

Nashville, Tenn . 



■Washington, D. C 



Raleigh, N.C 

Nashville, Tenn . . 



St. Augustine, Fla . 
Danville, Ky 

Louisville, Ky 

Baltimore, Md 

Jackson, Miss 

Raleigh, N.C 

Cedar Springs, S. C 

Nashville, Tenn . .. 
Austin, Tex 



Name. 



Bapt 

Af. M. E 



Bapt 

Af.M.E..., 



Theological Department of Biddle University Presb . 

Theohigical Department of St. Augustine's Nor- P. E-. 
mal School. 

Theological Department of Shaw University 

Theological Department of "Wilberforce Univer- 
sity. 

Benedict In stitute 

Theological Department of Allen University 

Baker Theological Institute (Claflin University). 

Theological Department of Central Tennessee 
College. 

Theological Department of Fisk University 

Theological Department of Roger Williams Uni- 
versity. 

Bishop College 

Richmond Theological Seminary do 



Religious de- 
nomination. 



M. E. 

Cong 
Bapt. 



Total 



6CHO0LS OF LAW. 



Law Department of Howard University 

Law Department of Straight University 

Law Department of Allen University 

Law Department of Central Tennessee College. 

Total 



SCHOOLS OF MEDICINE, DENTISTRY, AND PHABMACY.* 



Howard University : 

Medical Department 

Pharmaceutical Department 

Dental Department , 

Leonard Medical Collpge (Shaw University) t 
Central Tennessee College: 

Meharry Medical Department , 

Dental Department ■- 



Total 



SCHOOLS FOK THE DEAF AND DUMB AND THE BLIND. J 



Florida Institute for the Deaf and the Blind § 

Kentucky Institution for the Education of Deaf 
Mutes (colored department). 

Kentucky Institution for the Education of the 
Blind (colored department). 

Maryland School for Colored Blind and Deaf 
Miites. t 

Institution for the Education of the Deaf (colored 
department). 

North Carolina Institution for the Deaf and 
Dumb and the Blind (colored department). 

South Carolina Institution for the Education of 
the Deaf and Dumb and the Blind (colored de- 
partment). 

Tennessee School for the Blind (colored depart- 
ment). 

Institution for the Deaf and Dumb and Blind 
Colored Youth. 



Total . 



15 



236 
9 



1,008 



22 



42 



109 
16 
11 
39 

55 
11 



241 



10 
36 

19 

18 
44 
87 
17 

12 
44 



* 30 colored students not included here were enrolled in schools designed for whites, 
t Statistics of 1887-'88. 

I There were 106 colored pupils not included here in institutions designed for whites. 
§ Has 3 white pupils. 

II For the white and colored departtaents. 



EDUC.\TIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 



209 



Table 14. — Siimman/ of statistics of institutions for the instruction of the colored race for 

1888-'89. 



States and Territories. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

"California 

Delaware 

Florida 

'Georgia 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

MissiMSippi 

Missouri 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

"Went Virginia 

District of Colnmbia 
Indian Territoiy 



Public schools. 



Colored 
school pop- 
ulation. 



226, 925 
106,300 



Total 1,213,002 



*7, 070 
+52, 865 
1 267, 657 



; 109, 158 
§176,097 

68, 409 
11273, 528 

48, 478 
[216,837 



180, 475 
162, 834 
139, 939 
265, 347 
10, 497 
118,200 



Enroll- 
ment. 



105, 106 
56, 382 



t4, 587 

34, 008 

►120,390 



42, 526 
{51,539 

34, 072 
172, 338 

32, 168 
1 125, 844 



104, 503 

1 94, 435 

**96, 809 

1 19, 172 

6, 209 

13, 004 



Normal schools. 



Schools. 



Teach- 
ers. 



Pupils. 



1,445 
261 



54 

730 



57 



413 
168 

707 



738 
1,141 
374 
977 
194 
203 



316 7,462 



Institutions for second- 
aiy instruction. 



Schools. 



Teach- 
ers. 



Pupils. 



906 
'366 



453 
3,105 



607 
299 



414 



833 
282 
501 
1,127 
968 
817 



354 11,480 





Universities 
colleges 


and 


Schools of theology. 


Schools of law. 


States and Territories. 


m 
'0 


rn 


it 


'5. 

a 



.a 





■ft 

3 


Schools. 

1 


i 

H 







1 
1 






2 


3 


42 








7 


187 






















2 
1 

4 


33 
18 
45 


424 

334 

1,202 


2 


9 


2/- 


















3 

1 


6 
15 


1 


4 


g 








3 

3 
1 


15 
20 
13 


417 
318 
124 


68 








Norlji Carolina 


3 


11 








Ohio 


1 j 2 


















2 
3 


29 
49 


1,187 
758 


3 i io 

3 ' <*■ 
1 8 

1 4 

2 14 


?4> 
].'. 
17 
63 

HI 


^ 


1 
5 


5 




Texas 












District of Columbia 


1 


9 


59 


1 


5 


22 


Total 


22 


238 


5,010 


22 : 8!i 


J, 0(18 


4 


15 


42 



* In 1886. 
t In 1887-'8S. 

8819- 



l In 18i^8. 
^ Estimated. 



II In 18S7. 

1[ U. S. Census of 1880. 



■u 



** Aiijiroximately. 
it In 1885, 



210 



souther:n- women in the recent 



Table 14. — Summary of statistics of institutions for the instruction of the colored race for 

18e8-'89— Continued. 



' 


Schools of medicine. 


Schools for the deaf and 
dumb and the blind. 


states and Territories. 


o 

o 
m 


S 
H 


'p. 
3 
P4 


to 
o 

o 
m 


IS 

H 












1 


2 


10 




















2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 


25 
5 
8 
7 
2 
8 
3 


55 










44 










18 




1 




39 


87 




17 




1 


15 


66 


12 


Texas 


44 




1 


15 


136 












Total 


3 


30 


241 


9 


60 


287 







Table 15. 



-Number of schools for the colored race and enrollment in them iy institutions, 
without reference to States. 



Class of institutions. 



Schools. 



Enrollment. 



Public schools 

^Normal schools 

Institutions for secondary instruction 

Universities and colleges 

Schools of theology 

Schools of law 

Schools of medicine 

Schools for the deaf and dumb and the blind 

Total 



1, 213, 092 

7,462 

11, 480 

5,010 

1,008 

42 

241 

287 

1, 23S, 622 



EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENT IN THE SOUTH. 
TABLE No. 16. 



211 



We close this essay by a table copied from the New York ludepend- 
ent, compiled from several reports by Prof. James H. Blodgett, of the 
Census Bureau. 

/Statistics of puhlic, ])rivaie, and ^Mrocliial schools in the United Stales. 



states. 



Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizoua 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida , 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa , 

Kansas 

Kentucky — 

lionisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska , 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

New York 

North Carolina 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Khode Island 

South Carolina 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas '. 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



Total 361,273 | 11,236,072 



Teachers 



,291 
18 
233 
,016 
,434 
,376 
,226 
701 
745 
,577 
,503 
389 
,296 
,285 
,507 
,260 
,722 
,673 
,080 
,826 
,324 
,990 
,947 
,386 
,795 
549 
,355 
251 
,104 
,465 
472 
703 
865 
894 
156 
14 
566 
493 
378 
321 
356 
376 
097 
680 
400 
523 
610 
491 
037 
259 



White 
pupils. 



186, 794 

903 

7,828 

163,603 

221, 756 

65, 490 
125, 073 

26, 778 

23, 574 

54, 811 
209, 330 

14, 311 
773, 265 
507, 264 
492, 620 
389, 703 
352, 955 

74, 988 
139, 592 
148, 224 
370, 893 
425, 691 
281. 678 
157, 188 
587, 510 

16, 718 

239, 556 

7,387 

59, 813 
221, 634 

18, 215 

1, 035, 542 

208, 844 

30. 821 

797, 439 

537 

63, 354 
965, 444 

54, 170 
90, 051 
66, 150 

354, 130 

312, 802 

36, 372 

65, 500 

220, 210 

55, 432 
186, 735 
350, 342 

7.052 



Colored 
pupils. 



116, 155 
741 



59, 468 



1,432 

4,656 

13, 332 

36, 377 

133, 232 



5,054 



647 

9,616 

54, 612 

49, 282 

87 

36, 027 

599 

1,341 

181 

193,431 

32, 804 

89 

744 



12, 438 



6,618 
117, 017 



113, 410 



101, 602 
98, 107 



108 
122, 059 



1. 327, 822 



Private 
pupils. 



22, 953 



462 

11, 070 

17, 720 

4,631 

8,355 

1, 126 

5, 509 

5,059 

48, 187 

1,104 

28,164 

17, 968 

15, 633 

l,3Hi 

26, 969 
17, 627 

7, 330 
11, 153 
28, 629 
10, 216 

7,575 
20, 072 

27, 237 
1,038 
5,278 

78 

2, 603 

15, 250 

4,093 

56, 787 

25, 651 

578 

35, 804 



4,143 
47,761 

3,814 
13, 623 

2,042 
41,827 
22, 310 
10, 258 

4,284 
12, 831 

3, 328 

3,498 

5,176 
140 



686, 106 



Parochial 
pupils. 



1,150 



418 

1,118 

7,123 

2,421 

13, 459 

1,712 

2,402 

756 

287 



75, 958 

25, 537 

20, 335 

9,018 

12, 328 

7,148 

4,015 

8,943 

38, 143 

34, 779 

29, 332 

1,311 

31, 400 

384 

9,426 

325 

4,940 

27, 827 

571 

103, 093 

1,320 

1,608 

57, 905 



616 

60, 923 

5,940 

634 
1,537 
2,391 
4,573 

536 
2,401 
2,005 

954 

1,189 

52, 200 

190 



673, 601 






V. 

THE NEGRO AMERICAN CITIZEN IN THE NEW AMERICAN 

LIFE. 

An address delivered at the conference on the Negro, Lake Mohonk, N. Y., July, IbOO. 

During the past ten years of a ministry of education among the Southern people in 
all the Southern States, I have been often challenged to formulate my opinion con- 
cerning the present condition and future outcome of the Negro. My invariable 
answer is : I have come to this portion of the country as an out-and-out advocate of 
the universal education of the heart, the head, and the hand possible for all orders 
and conditions of the American people. I believe the Christian religion, as it lay in 
the mind and shone forth in the speecli and life of the great Teacher and Savior of 
man, includes this idea of education. All the progress this world has seen out of 
old pagan conditions of race, caste, society, and government, has been the work of 
this mighty regenerating influence. I hold it the deadliest treason and revolt against 
the Christian civilization, a backing down into paganism, or a worse lapse into the 
slough of despond of absolute atheism and secularism, to impeach the power of this 
divine agency to cure all our American ills. 

I began my present ministry of education teu years ago, in the Southern States, in 
full faith in this gospel of the reconstruction of the whole Kepublic from "the re- 
mainder of wrath" that still vexes its progress and looms like a black despair over 
ita least advanced portion. And, although I can not pretend to have converted or 
convinced anybody, I have seen with what an uplifting of the soul the better sort of 
the Southern people welcome any man who, in honesty of purpose, love of country 
and of all his countrymen, eudeavors to get down to the bottom facts of the situation, 
with a just appreciation of the position of all true men, and with an invincible hope 
and a holy obstinacy in standing by the bright side of God's providence in American 
affairs. The fact that one man can go through all these States, among all classes, 
everywhere testifying to the grandeur of the full American idea and urging the people 
to live up to the vision of the fathers, with all but universal acceptation, so that the 
discords in this ministry have hardly been enough to emphasize the harmonies, is to 
me an assurance that the same line of work, assumed by a greater man and finally 
adopted by the influential classes of our people, will shape the highway out of the 
present complications. 

My only recipe for the solution of all these problems that still divide the country is 
the putting on of that judicial and resolute Christian attitude of mind that insists on 
looking at all the facts of the case, setting them in their proper relations, all the time 
searching for the elements of progress which are the vital centers. It seems to me 
that a great portion of the misunderstanding and conflict at present is the result of a 
practical inability in the masses of the people to rise to this position and the mis- 
chievous pertinacity of too many leaders of public opinion everywhere in keeping 
the national mind engrossed with the temporary and unessential facts of the case. 
With no disposition to misrepresent or misunderstand anybody, I respond to your 
call to tell my experience as an observer of the Southern situation, especially as it 
concerns the Negro citizen in the sixteen Southern States of the Union, as I have 
seen him during a virtual residence in these States for ten years past. 

259 



2t»U THE NEGEO-AMERICAN CITIZEN 

It would seem that thoughtful Christian people might at least endeavor to realize 
the simple gospel rule of " doing as they would be done by " in the judgment of each 
other in an afifair so momentous, where mistakes are fraught with such mournful 
possibilities as in this great discussion. It is easy to see how much of the difficulty 
comes from this inability to " put one's self in the place " of his opponent. 

Would it not be possible for a larger nuniber of our foremost Southern leaders, in 
church, state, and society, to try to appreciate the motives and temper of the loyal 
people of the North in the great act of conferring full American citizenship on the 
Negro, after his emancipation, 25 years ago? I do not defend any injustice, tyr- 
anny, reckless experimenting with government itself, that followed that act; no 
thoughtful man defends such things to-day ; but I do hold that no true conception 
of this matter can be had by any man who honestly believes that this exaltation of 
the Negro to full American citizenship was either an act of sectional revenge, a nar- 
row and ferocious partisan policy, or the reckless experiment of an excited senti- 
mentalism. If ever a people, in a great and national emergency, acted under a 
solemn sense of responsibility to God, humanity, patriotism, and republican institu- 
tions, I believe the conviction of the loyal Northern people, that shaped the acts of 
reconstruction, is entitled to this judgment, and will so abide in history. It was the 
most memorable testimony of a national government, just rescued from desperate 
peril, solemnized by the death of its venerated leader, to its faith in popular institu- 
tions recorded in the annals of mankind. 

But it must be acknowledged that the very nobility of the act that conferred the 
highest earthly distinction of full American citizenship on a nation of newly emanci- 
pated slaves, of an alien race, involved the penalty of great injustice to its object. 
It was inevitable that the Nation, having committed itself to this daring experiment, 
would watch its success from an ideal point of observation. So, for the past twenty 
years, one misfortune of the negro citizen has been that the portion of the country 
that won his freedom and lifted him to this proud eminence could do no otherwise 
than judge him out of its own lofty expectation, piecing out its almost complete ig- 
norance of any similar people or situation by repeated drafts on a boundless hope, 
an almost childlike trust, and a deep religious faith, proven by the cheerful giving 
of $50,000,000 and the sacrifice of the service of noble men and women of priceless 
value in the effort to realize the great expectation of the Nation. 

Again, is it more than plain justice that the leading mind of the loyal North, that 
saved the Union to nationality and freedom in 1865, should endeavor to represent to 
itself the actual point of view of the Southern people concerning this act of recon- 
struction then and, to a great extent, in the present time ? I know that the most 
painful lesson of history is the difficulty of such comprehension of an aristocratic 
form of society by a people for a century trained in the school of a proud and suc- 
cessful democracy. Not one educated man in a thousand in the United States can 
put himself in the place of one of the great Tory leaders or scholars of Great Britain 
or listen with anything but impatience to the account that any European govern- 
ment or the Catholic Church can give of itself. How much more difficult for the 
average New England or Western citizen to understand the attitude of mind with 
which an old Southern planter or a modern Southern politician must contemplate 
this sudden and portentous upheaving of 5,000,000 freedmen to the complete endow- 
ment of American citizenship at the close of the great war. 

For surely, at first sight, no body of 5, 000, 000 people could be imagined less quali- 
fied by its past to justify such expectations than the negro freedmen. Three hun- 
dred years ago the Negro was a pagan savage, inhabiting a continent still dark with 
the shadow of an unrecorded past. ATiundred years ago the ancestors perhaps of a 
majority of the 7,000,000 Negroes now in the United States were in the same condi- 
tion. Of no people on the face of the earth is so little known to-day as of the African 
ancestors of the American Negro. Of various tribes, nationalities, and characteristics, 
perhaps with au ancestry as varied as the present inhabitants of the European na- 



^?n"^THE new AMERICAN LIFE. 261 

tionalities, these people were cast into a state of slavery which confoiindcd all pre- 
vious conditions and only recognized the native ability of each man or woman in 
"the survival of the fittest" in the struggle for existence on the plantation and in 
the household. 

Once more : It has never been realized by the loyal North, what is evident to every 
intelligent Southern man, what a prodigious change had been wrought in this people 
during its years of bondage, and how without the schooling of this era the subse. 
quent elevation of the emancipated slave to full American citizenship would have 
been an impossibility. During this brief period of tutelage, briefest of all compared 
with any European race, the Negro was sheltered from the three furies of the prayer 
book — sword, pestilence, and famine — and was brought into contact with the upper 
strata of the most powerful of civilized peoples, in a republic, amid the trials, sacri- 
fices, and educating influences of a new country, in the opening years of "the grand 
and awful time" in which our lot is cast. In that condition he learned the three 
great elements of civilization more speedily than they were ever learned before. He 
learned to work. He acquired the language and adopted the religion of the most 
progressive of peoples. Gifted with a marvelous aptitude for such schooling, -he was 
found, in 1365, farther "out of the woods "of barbarism than any other people at 
the end of a thousand years. The American Indian, in his proud isolation, repelled 
all these beneficent changes; and to-day the entire philanthropy, religion, and 
statesmanship of the Republic are wrestling with the problem of saving him from the 
fate of the buifalo. 

I find only in the broad-minded and most charitable leaders of our Northern affairs 
any real understanding of the inevitable habit of mind which the average Southern 
citizen brings to the contemplation of the actual condition or possibilities of the 
negro American citizen. With a personal attachment to the Negro greater than is 
possible for the people of the North ; with habits of forbearance and patient wait- 
ing on the infirmities, vices, and shortcomings of this people, which to the North 
are unaccountable and well nigh impossible of imitation ; with the general willing- 
ness to cooperate, as far as the comfort and the personal prosperity of its old slaves 
are concerned, is it strange that this act of statesmanship should appear to him as 
the wildest and most reckless experiment in the annals of national life ? Even the 
most intelligent, and conservative parent finds it difficult to believe his beloved child 
is competent to the duties of manhood or womanhood, and only with a pang does 
he see the dear boy or girl launch out on the stormy ocean of life. What, then, 
would be the inevitable feeling of the dominant Southern class, to whom the Negro 
had only been known as a savage slowly evolving into the humbler strata of civiliza- 
tion as a dependent chattel, when, at the end of a frightful war, it found itself in a 
state of civil subjugation to its old bondmen ? No subject race ever reveals its highest 
aspirations and aptitudes to its master race, and it is not remarkable that only the 
most observing and broad-minded of the Southern people, even yet, heartily believe 
in the capacity of the Negro for civil, social, or industrial cooperation with any of 
the European peoples. 

Now, say what we will, this obstinate inability and sometimes unwillingness to 
put one's self in the place of the opposition have been the most hopeless feature of 
the case, the real " chasm " between the leading minds of the North and South. 
So today, while even partisan politics seems to pause in uncertainty on the steep 
edge of a dark abyss, when noble and humane people all over the country seem to 
be falling into despondency, when an ominous twilight, threatening a storm, is 
peopled by all the birds of ill omen, and " the hearts of men are shaken with fear," 
I am glad that we have been summoned here to look things squarely in the face, to 
bring a varied experience to bear on a new and more careful consideration of the 
whole matter, and by the guidance of a Christian insight endeavor to see the hope- 
ful elements of the situation. We do not need to rehearse our separate knowlege of 
the shadowy side of the new South. The shadows we have always with us, every- 



262 THE NEGRO-AMERICAN CITIZTTEN 

where. But, if we can locate the center of the new " Sunny South," we may go 
home with the conviction that, while the shadows in human aiFairs are always on 
the move, the sun shines on forever and is bound to bring in God's final day of light. 

The pivotal question on T^hich this vast problem turns is, has the Negro, in his 
American experience, demonstrated a capacity for self-developing American citizen- 
ship ? I leave out of the estimate, at present, the exceptional people of the 
race, and look for the answer to the average Negro, as I see him in the Southern 
States ; for I suppose nobody believes that full American citizenship is possible as 
the permanent condition of any people destitute of this capacity for self-dependent 
manhood and womanhood. The child race must be cared for by a paternal organiza- 
tion of society, and that element of paternalism is just what every good American 
citizen declares he will not have in his Government. In lieu of that, an extemporized 
or permanent social public opinion or an unwritten law will take its place and do 
its work. 

If the Negro, as so many Southern people believe, is only a perpetual child, capa- 
ble of a great deal that is useful and interesting, but destitute of the capacity for 
" the one thing needful" that lifts the subject of paternal up to the citizen of a Re- 
publican Government, then the thing to do is to leave him to the care of his supe- 
riors in the South, who certainly know this side of him far better than the people of 
the North, and, whatever mistakes on the side of occasional severity may be made, 
will in the end do the best for his permanent estate. In fact, nothing seems more 
evident to me thau the practical inability of theNational Government to essentially 
change the status of its seven millions of negro citizens, except through national aid 
to education. There is no power at Washington that can hold up for a series of gen- 
erations any people in the permanent state of illiteracy in which the majority of the 
Southern Negroes are at present found. This illiteracy is simply a mixture of igno- 
rance, superstition, shiftlessness, vulgarity, and vice. The General and State Gov- 
ernments, aided all the while by private benevolence and missionary zeal, cau sur- 
round these people with an environment of valuable opportunities. Indeed, in many 
respects, they are now environed with such helps and encouragements as no race of 
European lineage has enjoyed at a similar stage of its history. But the test ques- 
tion is, has the Negro, on the whole, during his entire life of three hundred years on 
American soil, indicated his power to appreciate and use such opportunities for full 
American citizenship as are now vouchsafed to him by a gracious Providence ? 

To my mind he had vindicated his capacity for indefinite improvement in this direc- 
tion even before he received the precious boon of citizenship of the American Repub- 
lic. Remarkable as his progress in some ways has been during the past twenty-five 
years of freedom, I would be content to refer to his two centuries of slavery for proof 
of a remarkable aptitude for civilization. The best evidence for such capacity is a 
certain unconscious tact, a habit of getting on in a tolerable way under unfavorable 
circumstances, the turning his sunny and adaptive side to a hard bondage, the eager 
adaptation to and taking on of all helps to a better state of living. Contemplate, 
for a moment, this people, landing from an African slave ship on our shores, and con- 
trast with that the status of the American Negro, with all his imperfections, in 1865, 
when he api^eared, the last comer that has stepped over the threshold of the higher 
civilization and begun the ui)ward career. How can that amazing progress in prac- 
tical ability, in adaptation to the habits and mannersof civilized life, reception of a 
Christian faith, be accounted for on the theory of perpetual childishness, as a race 
characteristic ? Did any people, under a similar strain, realizing, as the negro did, 
the awful issues of the mighty Civil war, amid which bis closing yeai's of servitude 
were involved, ever bear itself with such personal fidelity to present duty, with such 
remarkable wisdom and tact, with such complete reliance on Providence for the re- 
sult ? 

Bishop Haygood says the religion of the Negro accounts for his bearing during 
those tremendous years, when the home life of the South was virtually in his hands. 



IN THE NEW AMEKICAN LIFE. 263 

That a race, less tban two centuries out of the jungle of African paganism, was found 
80 imbued with the central element of Christianity, is evidence that it is not the per- 
petual child of humanity. Grant the failure of the Negro, during the fearful years 
that followed the war, to govern States rocking in the throes of a defeated rebellion, 
exasperated to the death by all the passions that wreck the souls of men and com- 
munities. Still, what a display of ability of many sorts, the practical faculty of get- 
ting a living, often the higher faculty that has thrown up thousands of shrewd, 
successful people, there was ! Radical that he is, the Negro has shown himself the 
most politic of peoples in his endurance of what could notbe overcome, and his tact- 
ful, even crafty, appropriation of all opportunities. He has pushed in at every open 
door, listened at the white man's table, hung about church and the stump, taken in 
the great public day, looked on when he did not vote at the election. He has been 
all eyes and ears, and every pore of his skin has been open to the incoming of his 
only possible education. Deprived of books and the ordinary apparatus of instruc- 
tion, he has used all the more eagerly the agencies of God's supreme University, hu- 
man life — used them so much better than several millions of " the superior race" 
that, in proportion to his opportunity, he has made more out of the Southern Ameri- 
can life than any other Southern people. 

On the eve of the day when the great assembly of Confederate veterans at Rich- 
mond solemnly buried their old cause in the unveiling of the statue of their great 
military commander, I sat on a platform, before a crowded congregation of Negro 
cilizens, in the city of Washington, gathered at the commencement exercises of Way- 
land Seminary. Eighteen young men and women, all from Virginia, received the 
diploma, and ten of them appeared in the usual way. As I looked over that audi- 
ence of well-dressed, well mannered, appreciative people, and listened to the speeches 
of those young folk, so marked by sobriety of style, soundness of thought, practical 
views of life, lofty consecration of purpose, and comprehensive patriotism ; as I read 
their class motto, " Not to be ministered unto, but to minister," and remembered that 
only two hundred and seventy years ago the first cargo of African pagan savages was 
landed on the shore of the Old Dominion, and all this was the outcome of that — I won- 
dei'ed where were the eyes of men that they did not behold the revelation of Divine 
Providence in this little less than the miraculous evolution of the new citizenship of a 
State destined yet to praise and magnify the ways of God in American affairs. Say 
that this only demonstrates his "power of imitation." But what is this mysterious 
faculty of " imitation," that everybody says the Negro has to the last degree, but an- 
other name for a capacity for civilization? Nine-tenths of our human education is 
imitating what a superior jierson does, from the child repeating its mother's words, 
to the saint " putting on the Lord Jesus Christ." 

It may be granted that, in one respect, slavery was a help to this progress. It pro- 
tected the Negro from his lower self, on the side of vagrancy ; and that is " the terri- 
ble temptation " of every people in its rudimentary years. He was protected agaitist 
vagrancy, laziness, drunkenness, and several temptations of a semitropical clime 
which are too much for thousands of his betters. But here has been a sore obstacle 
to his success in his new estate of freedom. A great wrobg that has been done him 
during these years has been the neglect to enforce order, decency, and industry, 
along with the observance of the common moralities of every-day life, by the people 
among whom he has lived. What would be the condition of New England to-day 
had her people tolerated, in the multitudes of foreign-born peasants who have landed 
on her shores, the vagrancy, laziness, shiftlessness, dependence ou common charity, 
with the perpetual violation of the minor morals which confront the observer, from 
every part of the civilized world, in his travels throughout the Southern States? 
Here was the place for the Anglo-Saxon to assert his superiority, by insisting on the 
common observance of the common order, decencies, and moralities of life, in and out 
of the household, by the freedraan. For lack of this, the vagrant class has been left 
"virtually at large, like a plague of frogs and lice over all the land, choking up the 



264 THE NEGRO-AMERICAN CITIZEN 

towns aud villages, makiug good housekeeping for the Southern woman the most 
trying human lot, and surrounding childhood of every condition and class with such 
temptations as no people can permanently resist. 

If the well-disposed class, the majority, could have been aided by the law of the 
laud and public opinion to move on unhindered by this intolerable impediment, the 
last twenty-five years would have told a far different tale. Of course, the white 
people of the South do not realize this. Slavery was a police that made vagrancy 
impossible, and the lower slave element was securely locked up under the Argus eyes 
of the old-time system of labor. I am not here to defend any denial of the suifrage, 
or social or industrial disability, inflicted on the negro citizen ; but I give it as my 
deliberate conviction that all these things have not been so harmful to the Negro as 
this strange neglect of the Anglo-Saxon South to enforce the recognized policy of 
all civilized lands on its vagrant colored and white class, at the very time when this 
race specially needed the primary lessons of sobriety, obedience to law, everyday 
morality, and of that hard work without which "no mau shall eat." Yet, spite of 
this drawback (and only an observer from a differently regulated community can 
appreciate what a drawback), the better-disposed class of the Negroes has signally 
vindicated its capacity for civilization within the limitations of personal and race 
impediments, and in the use it has made of its opportunities. 

I observe, also, in the average Negro, an amiability, a patience and forbearance, a 
capacity for affectionate devotion, sacrifice, and unselfishness, that separate him 
decisively from the savage and the savage side of civilized life. What an element of 
civil, social, and industrial lubrication this may become, has already become, in our 
grating, pitiless, ferocious Anglo-Saxon greed of power, gain, and all kinds of 
superiority, any man can realize who sees the working of it in a thousand ways. I 
I can understand why the ASoutherner feels a certain loneliness amid the splendors 
and well-ordered regulations of our higher Northern life. He misses the atmosphere 
of kindliness, broad good humor, real belief in human nature that the Negro always 
diffuses around himself. I feel it the moment I touch a Northern city on my return 
from every annual visit to the South ; and I thank God that the Negro " man and 
brother," especially the woman and sister, were sent by heaven to teach our proud, 
restless, too often inhuman civilization some of the amenities that outlive the in- 
humanities and finally bring in the kingdom of God. 

Another quality the Negro displays, of great promise in the future, though so often 
turned to his disadvantage in the present — a love of approbation, self-possession, 
and an ability to "put his best foot foremost" and show for all he is worth, the per- 
petual assertion that he is going to be somebody some time. " Why did you sell that 
corn you promised to me ? " said a white parson to his negro " brother in the minis- 
try." " Well, boss, I got a bigger price for it." " But was that honest ? " "No, it 
warn't that." "Why did you do it?" "Because, boss, I warn't the man I took 
myself to be." 

It is well to " take yourself to be " a man of parts and character, even at the peril 
of disappointment. And that persistent pushing to the front, crowding in at every 
open door, " claiming the earth," which now makes the life of the most sensible and 
considerate white citizen of the South often a weariness, sometimes a despair, in his 
dealing with the Negro, is the prophecy of an aspiration for better things and a 
loftiness of manhood and womanhood of vital importance. 

Along with this is the eagerness for knowledge that is still a characteristic even of 
the ignorant classes, though less apparent now than in the years following the war. 
Spite of the neglect of the proper conditions and the means of gaining this precious 
boon for the children the average Negro, in humble estate, believes in the school 
with a vigor that in the lower European classes is not developed, more than in the 
corresponding class among the Southern whites. Discontent with alow estate is the 
movement power of American civilization, and no class in America is less content 
with its own infirmities than the better sort, the majority of the freedmen. 



IN THE NEW AMERICAN LIFE. 265 

Another valuable characteristic is the good taste, love of beauty, native capacity 
for ornamental art, which always appear in the Negro when suitably encouraged. 
The handwriting in the colored schools is often remarkable, the drawing uniformily 
respectable, the taste in dress, the arrangements of flowers and ornaments, above the 
average of any corresponding class in the country. In the negro the new South has 
its most valuable deposits of " raw material" for the best operative and mechanical 
class for that clime and country. Already he is domesticated in all these mechanical 
and operative industries, with the exception of the cotton mills, where the labor ia 
still monopolized by the poorer white class, greatly to its own advantage. Here is a 
great work being done by the numerous mission schools of the higher sort, supported 
by the Christian people of the North, in the organization of industrial education. In 
this important branch of schooling the superior class of negro youth has, so far, en- 
joyed greater opportunities than the corresponding class of white youth. And, 
although the graduates of these schools will not be day laborers or servants, yet, as 
teachers, housekeepers, and general leaders of their people they will exert a prodig- 
ous influence in the years to come. The introduction of a simple and practical annex 
for industrial education, for both sexes, in the school system of the South, especially 
for the negro children, would be si movement of incalculable value to the whole peo- 
ple of that region, so much in need of intelligent and skilled labor in the uprising of 
its new industrial life. 

All these qualities tell in the steady progress of large numbers of these people to- 
ward a more comfortable, wholesome, and respectable way of living. This is evident 
especially to a regular visitor not involved in the wear and tear of 7,000,000 freed- 
men getting on their citizen legs, as are our Southern white brothers and sisters. I 
see everywhere, every year, a larger number of well-looking, well-dressed, well- 
churched, housed, well-mannered colored people. One reason why our Southern 
friends are not so impressed with this ui)ward movement is that as soon as a colored 
family gets above the humble or vagrant class it somehow disappears from ordinary 
view. One inevitable result of the social boycott that shuts down on every negro 
family that attains respectability is that its white neighbors are put out of connec- 
tion with this class and left to the tender mercies of the class beneath, where their 
patience is worn out and, too often, the impression taken for the whole race. The 
estimate of the increasing wealth of the Negroes is often disputed, but at the most 
reasonable figure it is a significant testimony to the growth of practical enterprise and 
steady improvement in the upper strata of the whole body. 

While the acknowledged vices of the race are still a terrible weight on the lower 
and a constant temptation and humiliation to the better class, it is not certain that 
any of them, save those "failings that lean to virtue's side," are especially "race de- 
fects." A distinguished physician of Alabama has shown that the illegitimate births 
among the negro population of the black belt of tbat State are in the exact per cent 
of the Kingdom of Bavaria. Certainly the vioes of the lower class of the south of 
Europe people that are now swarming the shores of the Gulf States are not less com- 
mon and far more dangerous than those of the Negro. Human nature in its lower 
estate, especially when shot out from its barbarism into the devil-side of civilization, 
is fearfully deficient in its appreciation of the ten commandments. But I believe no 
people of the humbler sort are making more progress in overcoming the weakness of 
the appetites and getting in sight of the Christian moralities than the better sort of 
the Negroes. In the church, the home, and the school I see the growth of a self-respect- 
ing manhood and womanhood that in due time will tell. 

Though difl"ering from many whose opinions and experience I respect, I do not re- 
gard the temporary isolation of the Negro in the Southern church, school, and soci- 
ety so much an evil as a providential aid in gaining the self-respect and habit of 
self-help absolutely essential to good citizenship. Spite of the hard side of slavery 
the Negro has not had his fair share of the roiigli training that brings out the final 
results and the determination that tell in history. A habit of dependence, even to 



266 THE NEGRO-AMERICAN CITIZEN 

the extent of servility, in the lower orders is still one of his most (hiaoerons tempta- 
tions. He has also heen greatly tried hy being for a generation the romantic figure 
of American life, the especial object of philanthropic interest in church, state, and 
society, everywhere outside the sixteen Southern States. It is well that he should be 
relieved for a while from these temptations. In company with the white boy, the 
negro boy on the same school bench would all the time be tempted to fall into hie old 
position of an annex to the white man, and in the church would be under a strain 
that would sorely tax his manhood. Where he is he grows up with a wholesome con- 
fidence in himself. His own best people are teaching him with no hindrance the law 
of responsible manhood and womanhood. The result is that when he emerges into 
active life, if he has well appropriated his training, he is in a position to treat with 
a similar class of white people on terms that insure mutual respect. 

I am struck with this feature of Southern society — the constant " working together 
for good" of the better class, especially of the men of both races in all communities. 
The outrage of a drunken rabble upon a negro settlement is published to all the 
world, while the constant intercourse of the respectable classes of men of the two 
races, that prevents a thousand such outbreaks and makes Southern life, on the 
whole, orderly, like the progress of the seasons and the hours, goes on in silence. It 
is not necessary to project the social question Into the heart of communities in this 
state of transition. The very zealous brethren of the press and the political fold, 
who are digging this "last ditch" of social caste, away out in the wilderness, half a 
century ahead of any present emergency, may be assured that nobody in the United 
States will ever be obliged to associate with people disagreeable to him, and that, as 
Thomas Jefferson suggested, "if we educate the children of to-day, our descendants 
will be wiser than we, and many things that seem impossible to us may be easily ac- 
complished by them." At present, the office of colored teacher and preacher is the 
noblest opportunity for general usefulness granted to an educated, righteous, and 
able young man or woman in any land. That teacher or preacher becomes the man 
or woman of all spiritual work to a constituency singularly appreciative ; if instructed 
in industrial craft, all the more valuable. I am amazed at the assertion of some 
eminent people that the superior education of the negro youth has been a failure. If 
the destiny of the Negro is only that of a child-x>easant forever, this is true ; but, if 
his range of possibility is what we believe, no such result of even a modified form of 
the secondary and higher education, with industrial accompaniments, has ever been 
seen in Christendom, as is evident to any man who regards this side of the life of 
this people with open eyes. 

All that I have said bears on a fundamental truth concerning the uplifting of the 
American Negro citizen. The Northern white man, especially if a philanthropist, 
regards the Negro as an annex to the Northern, the Southern white man regards him 
as an annex to the Southern, white citizen ; but the Negro is anything but an annex 
to anybodj^. He is an original eleme^nt, providentially injected into American civili- 
zation; the only man who did not come to us of his own will. It may turn out, for 
that reason, that he is to be the " little child that shall lead them," and finally com- 
pel a reconciliation of all the distracting elements of our national life. Every race 
that has any outcome finally demonstrates its capacity by throwing up a superior 
class by which it is led, stimulated, and gradually lifted to its own highest achieve- 
ment of civilization. Tried by this test, the Negro is not behind, 

I have spoken so far of the average man and woman of the race, but that observer 
must be strangely blinded who does not see the evidence of the formation of a genuine 
aristocracy of intelligence, character, industry, and superior living among these mil- 
lions. I do not refer to that unfortunate class who assert a superficial superiority by 
separation from their people and an uneasy longing to be recognized by their white 
superiors. I mean the growing class that is trying, under a solemn sense of gratitude 
to God, love to the brother, and consecrated patriotism, to lift up its own race. 
Among the 7,000,000 of this people in the United States there must be several hundred 



IN THE NEW AMERICAN LIFE. 267 

thousand of this sort. They are fouud everywhere, all the way from Massachusetts 
to Texas. They already form a distinct society, and the most American of all our great 
newspapers, the Cincinnati Commercial Gazette, has already recognized the fact by 
the prominent " Colored Society Column" in its Sunday morning issue. This class 
is becoming a distinct power, and its influence on the classes below is one of the most 
important elements of the race problem. It is already on good terms with the cor- 
responding class of white people, though differing in politics and often grieved by 
what it regards public, social, and industrial injustice. 

One significant fact in this connection is that now the Negro is the most determined 
Southerner. The young Southern white mau, relieved from the attractions of the old 
aristocratic position of slaveholder, like all American young men of parts, is on the 
lookout for the main chance. The South is less and less to him a name to charm 
with. His own State no longer seems to him a " nation " which claims his uttermost 
devotion. A million of these young men, it is said, have left the South for the North 
and Northwest since the war. Whole regions of these older States are as steadily 
drained of this important population as the older portions of the Northeast. The 
Southern young woman will follow as soon as her call is heard. At present she is 
the "mainstay" of the rural South, the good angel of its coming civilization, getting 
more education and having more to do with the upper story of Southern life than her 
average male companion who stays at home. But the Negro loves the sacred soil, the 
old home, the climate, and its surroundings. In due time he will become the domi- 
nant occupant of large portions of the lowland South, He has no more idea of going 
to Africa than the Southern Jew of going into business in Jerusalem. He will move 
about as he becomes more intelligent and understands his own interests, but he is the 
Southerner of to-day, and all persuasions or threats that would dislodge him are 
vain. As the political issues of the past fade into the distance, he will more and 
more act in all public affairs with the leading race, with whom his companionship 
and interest belong. He must be educated where he is, and, as the years go on, he 
will rise to the call of his own superior class and find his own place — a great and benefi- 
cent place in our wonderful American family. 

Education is the lever that will raise this great masa of humanity to the high plane 
of full American citizenship. I believe it would be a great blessing to the whole 
South, could the suffrage, educational, labor, and vagrant laws of Massachusetts be 
incorporated into the legislation of every Southern State. Protection to the child, 
suppression of vagrancy, enforcement of industry, and educational test of suffrage, 
better churching, improvement in the home, reading of good books, all the influences 
that are so potent in any respectable Northern community, will in good time achieve 
the success of every class and race of the American people. For the Negro, two- 
thirds ot this education must be, for a generation, outside the schoolroom, in the 
broad university of the new Southern American life. If we only knew it, this is one 
of the richest educational opportunities God has ever vouchsafed to any people. 

What a call is this opportunity for missionary service, in its broadest and loftiest 
aspect, to the whole American people. Every theory of despair on the race problem 
proceeds from a pagan or atheistic estimate of human nature and destiny, and leads 
dijwu to despotism or anarchy. Without the blessed gospel of Christ our American 
race problem would be too awful to contemplate. Thank God, it did not come to us 
in an age of pagan darkness, of mediieval violence, in a land crowded with people, 
iu a civilization cursed by the bitter results of a long and stormy past. It came to 
us in an opening age of light, when all the celestial forces are at an upw.ard slant, 
when the Church is getting itself together to work for man while God takes care of 
the creeds, in a country so large and bountiful that hundreds of millions would not 
crowd it, and " every man may sit under his own vine and fig tree, with no one to 
molest and make afraid." 

As I am borne through the vast spaces of our marvellous Southern land, and stand 
in amazement before its revelations of resources, hitherto unknown, I ask myself — 



268 THE NEGRO-AMERICAN CITIZEN 

Is this only to become the theater of a greater greed of gain, " a hazard of new for- 
tunes," its only outcome a semitropical materialism, an inevitable temptation to a 
dismal era of " booms'' and " syndicates" and "trusts," with a new insanity for the 
almighty dollar, so powerless to satisfy the deeper need of the humblest human heart ? 
May it not, rather, be God's summons to such an awakening of our overworked and 
materialized American people as will compel them, in sheer self-defense, to give mind 
and heart and hand to that lifting up of the lowly, and that preaching the gospel of 
self-help to the poor, which is the end of Christian charity ? I look for the day 
when the divided churches of our three great Protestant denominations will be 
brought together by the growing sense of this " home mission" claim, and the whole 
church and the adjacent realm of the world be polarized in one supreme effort to solve 
this old caste puzzle of the nations and ages, by showing that the simple gospel of 
Christ means peace on earth and good will to all men. 

But now comes the final question, on which not so much the destiny of the Negro 
citizen as the very existence of Southern American civilization depends. Will the 
Anglo-Saxon Southern people, at present nine tenths of the entire ^vhite population, 
in due time appreciate this opportunity and join hands with all good men and women 
at home and abroad in this the grandest crusade of all the ages ? 

I have no doubt that the race problem will finally be solved in the South largely 
through the agency of the Southern Anglo-Saxon i)eople; not over their heads, but 
with their thorough cooperation. I see already, amid superficial indications to the 
contrary, the converging lines of this tendency, and below hostile theories the in- 
evitable drift of the common life of all these great Commonwealths towards the Ameri- 
can type of society. 

I see the positive indication of this great convergence of opinion especially in what 
may be called the educational public of the South. By this I mean that portion of 
the Southern people of all classes and both races which within the past twenty-five 
years, amid difficulties and complications almost unconquerable elsewhere, has quietly 
and persistently laid the foundations of the American system of universal education 
in every State, county, city, and neighborhood in these sixteen Commonwealths. 

The common school is so much the habit and unquestioned postulate of republican 
government everywhere in the North that we have never done half justice to the 
people of the sixteen Southern States for this, by all odds, the most significant move- 
ment of the past generation this side the water. That a people, in 1860 the most 
aristocratic in the organization of its society upon earth, who fought through a 
bloody war and only fell in "the last ditch" of the absolute ruin of their old social 
order, should have risen up from this awful overthrow, cleared the ground of rubbish, 
and with scarcely any aid that they could use, of their own will have planted on the 
soil the one institution that is the eternal foe of everything save republican gov- 
ernment and democratic society, is the wonder of the age and the complete vindica- 
tion of the essential Americanism of the Southern people. It would be well for our 
cynical scholars and self-confident politicians who dilate on the imperfections of this 
system of education, to remember what Massachusetts was fifty years ago, when 
Horace Mann drew his sword ; what Pennsylvania was thirty years ago, when Wick- 
ersham took command; what even to-day some portions of the older Atlantic States 
are declared by the testimony of their own educational authorities to be. Doubtless 
there has been exaggeration of the achievement of the South in popular education, 
partly through ignorance, more in the way of home advertisement, most in the in- 
ierest of the defeat of the Blair bill. But with all this drawback, the Southern people 
have taken " the first step that costs," and established the free school for all classes 
and both races, unsectarian, but practically one of the most potent moral and relig- 
ious forces of this sectiou, growing all the time, already beyond the peril of destruc- 
tion or serious damage from its numerous enemies, and it " has come to stay." True, 
the educational public has not half convei'ted the average Southern politician, for 
whom, as Gen. Grant said, "there is too much reading and writing now." It has not 



IN THE NEW AMERICAN LIFE. 269 

yet entirely swung the Southern clergy and the church over to its hearty support 
as against the old-time Prptestant parochial and private system of instrnctiou. It is 
still a social outsider in some regions, and through vast spaces of the rural South it 
is so poor that it seems to have hiudored more than helped the better-off classes who 
shoulder its expenses. But it has for the iirst time gone doi^n into the basement 
story of the Southern household, bearing that common schooling to the lower orders 
and the "plain people," which meaus modern civilization and progressive Chris- 
tianity, involving the full committal to the new American order of aiFairs. It is a 
wonder that the leading classes of the North — the press, the political organizations, 
the industrial leaders, even the philanthropists — are still so imperfectly informed con- 
cerning this, by all odds, the most vital and significant end of Southern life. The 
splendid mission work of our Northern churches, which indirectly has so greatly 
aided the growth of the schools for the Negroes by training their teachers, has some- 
times obscured the magnitude of the home work. But this, with the remarkable rally 
of the whole secondary and higher education, is a demonstration that the South has 
no intention of remaining permanently in any second place in the great educational 
movement of the time. Imperfect as the common school is, the Negro has been the 
greatest gainer therefrom, for through it and all that goes along therewith he is lay- 
ing up a steady increase of self-respect, intelligence, and practical power, which will 
astonish many good people who still go ou repeating the parrot cry that education 
has only demoralized the younger negro generation for the industrial side of life. But 
it is not what the common schools have done, but what the Southern people have 
failed to do to reenforce them, that still holds thousands of negro youth in the bonds 
of a vagrancy, shiftlessness, and debasement that deserve all things that can be said 
against them. The cure for this is more and better education, reenforced by the 
policy of every civilized land in the suppression of the devil side of society that will 
ruin the greatest country under the sun. 

But. below and beyond this open and evident work of education, I see more clearly, 
every year, that the logic of the new Southern life is all on the side of the final eleva- 
tion of the Negro to the essential rights and opportunities of American citizenship; 
and, beyond, to the generous cooperation with the nation in aiding him to make his 
own best use of that supreme opportunity. We, at the North, are constantly misled 
by the press, which is a very poor representative of this most important element of 
Southern life. We hear the superficial talk and read of the disorder that is the in- 
evitable accompaniment of States in the transition from a great civil war to their 
final adjustment to the national life. An eminent educator of the South writes me : 
"Ask 100 men at the street corner what they think about the education of the Negro, 
and 75 of them will demur, and some of them will swear. The next day every man 
of them will vote for the higher school tax that gives the Negro a better echoolhouse 
and the permanent establishment of his education." Our Southern friends are no 
more logical than other portions of the country, and the superficial life of all coun- 
tries is constantly adjusting itself to the logic of its undertow. I can see in more 
ways than I could explain, even to a Northern community, that these people are " in 
the swim" whose tide can only drift them off into regions of life which seem almost 
impossible to them to-day. 

The test of this drift is that, spite of all obstacles and embarrassments, there is, in 
every respectable Southern community, no real hinderance to an intelligent, moral, 
industrious, and prudent negro family getting all out of American life that anybody 
expects, save that social and, in some localities, political recognition, that are the last 
achievements of long periods of social evolution in national affairs. In all essential 
respects the negro citizen is better off in the South than in any Northern State. The 
outward opportunities for full association with the white population in the North 
are, after all, of little value in comparison with the substantial opportunity for be- 
coming the great laboring agricultural class and of capturing the field of mechanical 
and operative labor. It will be his owo fault if he permits the iusoleat naturalized 



270 THE NEGKO-AMERICAN CITIZEN. 

foreign element that now dominates our Northern industrial centers to elbow him oflf 
into a peasantry or a menial and subordinate laboring population. 

As I look at the way in which these 7,000,000 people are gaining all the vital oppor- 
tunities of life among the 12,000,000 of their Anglo-Saxon neighbors, I am amazed at 
the way they seem to go on, only half-conscious of what the rest of the world is say- 
ing about them, " working out their own salvation" by the power that is in them, in 
the only way by which an American people can finally succeed. The only fit symbol 
of this mighty movement is the Mississippi Eiver, after it has become " the inland 
sea" of the Southland. States and their peoples, Congress and the Nation, scientists 
and cranks, debate and experiment on the way to put the "Father of Waters" in 
harness, to tie up this awful creature that holds the fate of 10,000,000 people in its 
every-day whim. But all discourse, legislation, and experiment at last run against 
the question, what will the Mississippi Eiver do with us next week? So, while the 
Southern people and the Nation are wrestling with what they choose to call the ' ' race 
problem," this inland. Southern human ocean, searching and spreading and pushing 
into every nook and corner of the lowland, is going on its way ; and every deliver- 
ance of the scientist, the socialist, and the statesman, brings up against some new and 
unexpected thing that the Negro has really done. "How are you getiing on with 
your neighbors down here ? " said I to a deputation of fine-looking colored men, who 
stepped out of a carriage and presented me with a well- written address of welcome to 
the city of Vicksburg. " Well, we used to have trouble ; but we have finally con- 
cluded the white man has come to stay, and we adjust ourselves to that fact." The 
white man has indeed come to stay all over the United States of America; but he 
will stay, not always as the white man proposes, byt as God Almighty disposes. And, 
wherever he abides, he will finally be compelled, by the logic of American events, to 
stay in peace and justice, in freedom and order, in Christian cooperation with all the 
great elements of a republican society, shaped from all the peoples that a beneficent 
Providence has called to abide together in this, God's morning land. 



CHAPTER lY. 

THE EDUCATIO]!^ OF THE NEGRO— ITS. CHAEACTER AND 

FACILITIES. 



Tliougli the possibility and tlie necessity of educating tlie negro population of tlie 
United States have been very thoroughly discussed by legislative and iihilauthropic 
bodies and the periodical jness, nevertheless there seems wanting a systematic and 
detailed statement of the facilities for the instruction of colored persons within 
the Union and of the more general features which characterize their school life. 
In supplying and in systematizing a body of facts of this description for those inter- 
ested in or wishing to generalize upon the matter, it will suffice merely to mention 
its far more interesting and important side. 

An attempt is being made to educate a people as a body whose great grandparents 
were African savages or plantation slaves. This people, if uneducated, is hopelessly 
at the mercy of a race far more enlightened and numerous than itself, and, if edu- 
cated, must struggle for existence beside this same more powerful race from which 
it is unmistakably differentiated on the moral side by the hundreds of years of dis- 
ciplining freedom it has yet to undergo, and the absence of self-effectuation and self- 
restraint, qualities freedom entails, while on the physical side it is still more uuniistak- 
ably differentiated by the color of its shin. To a people thus lightly ballasted with 
independent social experience and racial prestige it is apt to seem that everything is a 
'matter of language, and that the ability to talk effectively is an open sesame to every 
avenue of wealth, power, and consideration enjoyed by the dominant race, and that 
success in those avenues is obtained by the A-erbiage of sophistry rather than by 
patient foresight, and skillful energy. ^ But by those who wish to secure what 
sanguinary battles and constitutional amendments can not secure, that is to say, the 
abolition of the slavery of ignorance, far different ideas are held. While the State 
has endeavored to do its duty, a warmer effort was long ago inaugurated by the mis- 
sionary enthusiasm of the Christian, and the boundless optimism of the man of 
commerce, to educate teachers for the schools and ministers for the pulpits of the col- 
ored people of the South in order that through their efforts the problems of real life 
might be comprehended by the descendants of the physically emancipated masses 
now located in that portion of the Union.'- 

Other than the fact that it is provided for persons of African descent, the education 
of the negro in several of the United States is characterized by three features : (1) Its 
cost is borne almost wholly by the white portion of the community; (2) it is almost 
always elementary; and (3) it is becoming more and more industrial in the sense 
that it is training its pux^ils in the village industries of carpentrj-, wheel wrigh ting, 
blacksmithing, and in the jiossibly less rural vocations of shoemakiug and printing. 

'"These are the resources with -which individual human beings are able to procure the satisfaction 
of their wants and industry conies into being and grows." (Growth of English Indnstrj- and Com- 
merce, vol. 1, p. 10. "\V. Cunningham.) 

-"I desire to state," says Dr. Haygood iu one of his reports, " without qualification and as the 
result of long-continued and careful investigation, that the children of parents taught in these higher 
schools iu the earlier years of this great movement show at the beginning of their school course 
marked superiority to the children of untaught parents." 

1551 



1552 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. 

ITS COST IS BOKNK BY THE WHITE RACE. 

That this is so is natural whether we consider the fact in connection with the schools 
supported by State or municipal taxation or with those supported by the generosity 
of churches or wealthy persons. The Southern States are agricultural, and in au 
agricultural community the great source of revenue is tax upon land. As the land 
in these States is, from the very nature of things, in the possession of the former 
masters, it follows that they are taxed to educate the children of their former slaves. 
Still itAvould he injustice to the colored race not to go a step farther and inquire by 
whom the agricultural land in the late slave-holding States is put in value; by whom 
it is Avorked that it will support a tax. The answer may be given in a sentence, a 
universal exodus of the negro would probably not be tolerated in the cotton States. 
Thus it is apparent that there is only a verisimilitude of injustice in the dominant 
and land-holding race educating the youth of the laboring population. ^ It must be 
remembered, however, that the tax is peculiarly onerous, as there is the necessity of 
supporting two systems of schools. Yet it is only possible to educate colored children 
in this way and the tax is borne with patience. 

But while the Southern States are educating the negro, many persons, i:nder the 
form or direction of religious or special philanthropic bodies, have founded and 
supported institutions which in name are plainly intended for the higher educatioa 
of such colored persons as have the desire to obtain an education of that description. 
It may therefore be said that potentially the best work for the elevation of the colored 
race is done in the so-called colored normal schools, in institutions supported by the 
sale of national lands for the purpose of fostering agriculture and the mechanic arts, 
and in the upper classes of the numerous "academies," "colleges," and "univer- 
sities" supported by religious bodies or endowed hy private individuals. 

As far as known to this Bureau there are 107 of these institutions, ^ of which 105 
are situated in the Southern States. In them the charge for instruction is exceed- 
ingly low, usually about a dollar or two a month in the normal, academic, and col- 
legiate departments, though frequently it is given without cost. But as low as this 
charge is, when made, it is paralleled by the extremely low rate at which lodging 
and food are furnished and the very moderate incidental fees exacted. In generalit 
may be said that the entire expense to the colored student is in the neighborhood of 
$75 or $100 for a session of nine months. Sometimes it is as low as $50 or $60, some- 
times it is as high as $125 or $150. The lowest of course are the minimum figures at 
which the student can exist. But it must not be supposed that this charge for 
tuition, lodging, and food covers the cost of the presence of the student at any par- 
ticular institution. At Claflin University, for instance, where the entire charge to 
students in the higher grades is about $7.50 a month, it is found "that the small 
amount paid by the students is not sufficient to meet one-tenth of the expenses of 
the institution, and it thus appears that every student is aided to the extent of 
about nine-tenths of his expenses," that is to say, every student costs the institution 
to instruct, lodge, and feed about $68 a month. At Fisk University "the charges to 
students do not cover one-half the actual cost of the advantages furnished them." 

By whom, then, is the cost of these 107 institutions borne? In the case of Claflin 
University it is borne by the contributions of the friends of education, through the 
Freedmen's Aid and Southern Education Society; by the jjroceeds of the sale of 
national lands; by the State of South Carolina, and by the John F. Slater and the 

1"! must yet advert to another most interesting topic — the free schools. In this particular New 
England maybe allowed to claim, I think, a merit of a peculiar character. She early adopted and has 
constantly maintained the principle that it is the undoubted right and the bonnden duty of Govern- 
ment to provide for the instruction of all youth. That which is elsewhere left to chance or charity we 
assume by law. For the purpose of jrablic instruction wo hold every man subject to taxation in pro- 
portion to his property, and we look not to the question whether he himself have or have not children 
to be benefited by the education for which he pays. "We regard it as a wise and liberal system of 
police by which property and life and the jieace of society are secured." (Daniel Webster, in discourse 
on "First Settlement of New England," December 22, 1820.) 

2 Several not reporting however for 1892-93. 



' EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1553 

Peabody funds. In the case of Fisk TTniversitj^ the deficit is met by contributions of 
Christian and philanthropic people through the American Missionary Association or 
given directly to the university. Other bodies interested in the work of educating 
the negro are the American Baptist Home Mission Society, which supports many 
institutions; the Presbyterian Church; the Society of Friends; the Congregational 
churches of the Xorth; the Methodist Ej)iscopal Church South.' From these funds 
of religions corporations; from tho proceeds of the invested funds of the Peabody, 
and esjiecially of the Slater fund; from tho fund in some States arising from the sale 
of lands given by the act of Congress granting lands in 1862, and, in all the States 
insisting on the separation of the two races, a proportional share of the fund annually 
given by the act of August 30, 1890— have been supported the independent schools 
for the education of the negro, with the exception of certain normal schools con- 
ducted by the States and State scholarships created in quasi-independent institutions. 

Lightly, however, as tho entire cost of education is made to bear upon the colored 
student, he seems unable to meet it, and several expedients have been devised, two of 
which stand forth prominentlj^, at least are of such a nature as to admit of being 
stated in a general way. These are the creation of scholarships and of labor and 
student aid funds, = and it would seem that almost every institution has a fund 
at its disposal to help needy students of merit. Frequently the beneficiary is 
required to perform some kind of service for the amount given, Avhile in some 
cases, as at Berea College, a rebate of $3 a term is allowed to 73 students of good 
standing. At Roger "Williams aud at Fisk universities tho student is required 
to contract that he Avill labor one hour a day for the institution, or pay $2 in addi- 
tion to the charge for board and tuition. As an instance of tho necessity of the 
situation, the case of Storer College, at Harpers Ferry, W. Va., may be cited. Abovit 
fifteen years ago it was suggested that from the beauty of its situation it might be 
practicable to use it as a summer resort. One of the teachers made a beginning. 
Visitors came, were charmed by the surroundings, pleased with the bearing of the 
students who waited on them, and sent for their friends, until several hundred 
guests came annually. The earnings of the buildings are about $900, besides 
" bringing into the market certain portions of the school farm." In the same line is 
the suggestion of the principal of the Alabama State Normal and Industrial School, 
who, after remarking that meritorious young people who would be willing to 
exchange their labor for board are turned away daily, observes that "A cotton fac- 
tory or some other industry established near institutions of this [his] kind could 
utilize every extra hour of students, and by some humane arrangement could keep 
running every hour of the day, a source of income to the projectors and an aid to 
poor students." 

The scholarships are mostly in the form of State-supported students, and merely 
entitle to free tuition and lodging. Others are merely scholarship lunds. Such is 
the King scholarship frtnd of $5,000, the Cassedy scholarship fund of $10,000, and 
others of equal or less amount possessed by Atlanta University. Biddle University 
has a fund of $6,000, raised in Scotland, the interest of which is to be used to aid 
young men preparing for mission Avork in Africa. 

Tlie difficulty encountered by the colored student in regard to money has been par- 
tially overcome by the gift of Daniel Hand, esq., of $1,000,000 for the education of 
"such colored people as are needy and indigent." The fund is administered by the 
American Missionary Society, which, in view of the comparatively inadequate sum 
at its disposal, has felt the necessity of concentrating its resources, as the trustees 
of the two other great educational funds for the education of the people of the 
Southern States have felt the necessity of concentrating theirs. 

'Of 75 institations reporting their resources of support, there •were receiving aid from (some 
counted twice but some not appearing): American Missionary Association, 19; American Baptist 
Homo Mission Society, 10; Freedmen's Aid Society Methodist Episcopal Church, 9; Methodist Epis- 
copal Church, South 1; Presbyterian Churcli. 7; Protestant Episcopal Church, 2; Congregational 
Church, 2; Friends, 1; endowments, 4; State or municipality, 16. 

*As at "Wayland Seminary. 

ED 93 98 



1554 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1892-93. 

THE EDUCATION OF THE COLORED liACE IS ALMOST EXTIRELY ELEMENTARY. 

The lieiglit of the general intellectual development of the masses is conditioned 
by the afiluence or paucity of abstract ideas current among them, at least by the 
ability to quickly acquire such ideas. Unfortunately for the negro his former con- 
dition gave Jiim no opportunity to acquire a great variety of ideas. The relation 
of master and slave, speaking generally, in a sparcely inhabited country gave no 
opening to the negro to obtain a higher order of ideas than his condition required. 
Thus the negro was not trained to take on rapidly that form of enlightenment called 
culture when the oi:)portunity came. The school days of the negro child are not pre- 
ceded by centuries of inheritable stimulus derived from racial, and, as a special case, 
from ancestral exertion, nor is he as yet surrounded by the refining influences of 
even a commonplace home. Voodoo incantations are his only natural literature and 
the j)ermanent literature of the English language, still si^eakingfor the body of the 
race, is without his present sphere. It therefore happens that his education has 
been elementary. 

Many institutions for the education of the negro have high sounding names, but, 
with several exceptions, they are not aj)propriate. Prominent among these excep- 
tions is Howard University of Washington City. No school for the colored race has 
better facilities for higher education. It has a collegiate, and Avith the exception 
of the post-graduate, all the j)rofessional departments of an American university. 
But by far the most important advantage it has over other institutions of its kind is 
that Washington has had for many years a very efficient system of public schools 
for colored children, which now enroll about 14,000 pupils. It is, therefore, natural 
to suppose, did any general desire exist among the rising generations of colored 
persons to secure a higher culture of the mind than that offered by the elementary 
school, irresjiectivo of any pecuniary advantage to bo derived therefrom, that the 
collegiate department of Howard University would be filled, especially since the 
tuition is free and the university buildings practically within the city limits. Yet 
the attendance in the college department of this national university for the African 
is small, being only 7 per cent of the whole attendance of 517. If any effect has been 
produced by the city system of public schools upon the curriculum of Howard Uni- 
versity, it is shown by the absence of an elementary department in that institution. 
However it must be noted that, though the collegiate department is so neglected, the 
professional departments are comparatively well filled. lu the normal classes are 
36 per cent of the attendance, in the medical 26 per cent, while the departments of 
theology and law have each more students than the college department proper of 
this university so well supported by Congress, so well ofiicered, and especially, from 
the educational side, so well located.^ 

The same phenomenon is shown by other colleges for the higher education of the 
colored race, and it seems warrantable to say that even we\'e the race as a body at 
this moment capable of higher education, its 2>overty would notpermit it, or any con- 
siderable portion of it, to spend the time necessary to acquire such an education, and 
that to educate to a higher degree any considerable portion of the race that portion 
must be supported as the students in colored theological institutions are supj)orted. 
In 1885 an inquiry made of 23 of the leading institutions for the colored race devel- 
oped the fact that fewer than 5 'per cent of the students in those institutions were 
in what is called classical studies, including those preparing for college. An exami- 
nation of the character of the requisites for admission to many of the more or less 
grandly named institutions for the education of the colored race shows that 2>i"acti- 
cally there are none, except the prerequisite of ability to read in a low grade reader 
or familiarity with the fundamental operations of arithmetic. The elementary English 
course, says one university, is a necessity, as the large majority of the students com- 
ing to the university have not had the opportunity to ground themselves in the com- 
mon English branches. 

'As far as the la-w and medical departments are concerned, this remark may he vitiated to some 
extent, as those departments, it is understood, have white students upon their rosters. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1555 

lu 75 institutions for the education of the colored race, from ■^liich special reports 
have been received, there are nearly 20,000 students in nonprofessional courses, not 
quite 4 per cent of whom are reported as being of collegiate grade, 35 per cent as 
being of secondary grade, and 61 per cent as of elementary grade. It has been 
remarked above that the absence of an elementary department at Howard University 
may be attributed to tho very efficient work of the system of public colored schools 
of ^Yashingtou City; for the constant complaint of the universities and colleges for 
the colored is that they are obliged to instruct their jiupils in tho elementary 
branches, showing that if those pujiils have been taught in the public schools they 
have been poorly taught or have failed to profit l)y tho teaching. Tho probability 
is that tho child has been poorly taught, and the whole effort of the management of 
two of tho three great funds for tho education of the populations of the South is the 
ti'ainiug of homo teachers. If the efforts of the trustees of these great funds are sup- 
ported by a State sj^stem of examination adequate to prevent persons moro necessi- 
tous than able from being foisted upon the children, the colleges and universities 
for tho colored race maj- dispense with their elementary classes, though probably 
with a loss of tho moiety, or even more, of their jjresent attendance. However this 
may be, those who support tho higher named institutions for the education of the 
colored race are fnlly convinced not only of the negro's desire and of his capacitj^ for 
culture, but also of tho necessity. The only obstacles they can see are illiteracy 
and poverty, which they arc striving to overcome by supporting institutions in the 
South as shown above. 

Tho great majority of tho students at these institutions, though pursuing an ele- 
mentary course of instruction, have one of two objects in view. These are tho desire 
to become a teacher or a minister of the gosi)el. In every catalogue of an institution 
for the higher education of the colored race there is to be found either a normal or a 
minister's course, most frequently both. As for the so-called normal course, it has 
been very accurately stated by the Hartshorn College that it is but the beginning of 
an education, and the instruction in the minister's course is greatly hampered by tho 
lack of a sound elementary education. In the case of the institutions supported by the 
Laptist Homo Mission Society, it was decided in 1892 that the instruction in theology, 
except in the case cf the Richmond Theological Seminary, bo restricted to a minister's 
course especially designed for those lacking an education that would jiermit them to 
take up the studies of a theological seminary proper. Yet tho catalogue of tho Rich- 
mond Seminary shows but 27 per cent of its 59 students in the regular theological 
course. In tho Gammon Theological Seminary, with a single curriculum which is 
lower than the theological course proper of the Richmond Seminary though higher 
than the minister's course of that institution, about half the students are unclassi- 
fied or are in sjiocial courses. 

The best and highest education given the negro, as far as numbers go, is offered 
in the ubiquitous normal course or department. This course is merely concerned 
with the elements of a jilain English mathematical education. The effort there is to 
m.ake the student as fiir as possible catch the principle involved in tho subject under 
consideration rather than to memorize the printed page. Too frequently, perhajis, 
tho early training of the student has not made him sufficieutlj- familiar with the 
subject-matter of the elementary branches to enable him to grasp their essence, but, 
notwithstanding this draAvback, a thoroughness is given to tho instruction that is 
elsewhere lacking. 

The length of the normal course can not be given with any special accuracy. 
Wliat is called the normal course generally requires three years of study to com- 
plete. Very frequently four years are devoted to the course, and occasionally two. 
In fact, the arrangement given by the Avery Normal Institute, or Straight Univer- 
sity, seems to be practically that of the great majority of tho institutions with 
various names for the education of tho colored people. At tho Avery Institute the 
curriculum begins with the fourth grade and the normal course vrith the ninth grade 
and contimaes on through the twelfth and final grade; thus tho institution is assim- 
ilable to a graded system of public schools. At Straight University the normal 



1566 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. 



course also begins with the ninth grade, but the eleventh grade, or year, is called 
the middle year of the normal course, and the twelfth grade is called the senior year. 
Instead of grades preparatory, normal and subnormal courses are sometimes estab- 
lished. Still another form of the normal course is shown by the curriculum of this 
Southern university, where the "normal department contains the high school, the 
freshman year of the college course, and an addition of a course of pedigogics, with 
an emphasis on practice teaching." Very fret^uently the normal course is or may 
be used as a preparatory department, while at the branch normal college of the 
Arkansas Industrial University the normal course is stated to be fully equivalent to 
the first two years of a regular college course ; and further, that it is the course which 
most of the students content themselves with taking. 

It may be a matter of surprise that institutions necessarily conducted so econom- 
ically as those for the education of the colored race should not be more economical 
in the variety of the courses they offer; in short, that they have not consolidated 
their teaching. It is quite evident that the normal course at its best is merely a 
secondary or preparatory course of study which aims at general intellectual culture 
rather than professional expertness, for it has very frequently elementary Latin and 
Greek, which are distinctively preparatory studies. For the purposes of comparison 
the second and third years of a normal course may be so arranged as to bring out the 
points of similarity it has with the preparatory course of the same institution. 



Normal Course (Middle and Senior Years). 

Complete Arithmetic, White. 

Algebra, Wentworth. 

General history, Barnes. 

Latin Grammar, Allen and Greenough. 

Inductive Method, Harper and Burgess, 

Physics, Gage. 

Chemistry, Steele. 

English, Word Analysis and Rhetoric. 

Civil Government and Economics. 

Bookkeeping. 

Drawing. 

Music. 

Astronomy. 

Botany. 

Psychology and Moral Philosophy. 

Geometry. 

School Management. 

History of Education. 



Normal Course, etc. — Continued. 

Methods of Teaching. 
School Laws of State. 
Practice Teaching. 

Preparatory Course (One Year). 

Complete Arithmetic, White. 

Algebra, Wentworth. 

General History, Barnes. 

Latin Grammar, Allen and Greenough. 

Inductive Latin Method, Harper and 

Burgess. 
Physics, Gage. 
Chemistry, Williams. • 

[In other institutions having a prepar- 
atory and a normal course the former 
requires more than one year to complete.] 



The studies of the normal course are determined by the character of the examina- 
tions for State certificates to teach. But as Latin and probably other studies of the 
normal course given above are not pursued far enoiigh to give the pupil any service- 
able teaching knowledge of them, it would seem that they have been introduced for 
the special purpose of culture, and certainly there is no better way to teach ''tech- 
nical" grammar than through the grammar of a synthetic language, such as that of 
ancient Rome. 

Motives of culture, however, are not the ruling ones that induce so many to attend 
the normal schools or departments of the class of institutions imder review. Com- 
pletion of a course of study in such a school entitles the holder to a certificate and 
the course itself is especially .arranged to meet the requirements of the State exam- 
iners. Though these institutions inculcate the elements of an education, they may 
therefore be looked upon as professional schools. Indeed, to illustrate this con- 
clusion, it will suffice to quote from tlio catalogue of the school whose progranmie 
has just been given, where it is said that the normal course has special reference to 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. _ 1557 

preparing the student to become a successful teacher, and that it is ou that account 
that most of the students naturally turn to it. A university candidly states that a 
majority of its students attend its courses with the expectation of becoming teach- 
ers for a longer or shorter period. 

It is clear that the opportunity opened by State aid and northern philanthropists 
to mature colored jiersous to gain entry into a field of usefulness of quasi-gentility 
at a small cost in money and a considerable expenditure of time is one thatisijartic- 
ularly charming and has great effect in filling the normal schools and departmcutis.i 

"Parents, patrons, aud students," says the Hartshorn Memorial College, "must 
remember that the completion of the normal course is but the beginning of educa- 
tion. Well-educated women, prepared for the best service of life, are the product 
of more extended and broader training. It is the desire of this college to develop 
the higher courses as speedily as possible. But instruction in advanced courses can 
be given so far only and so fast as students are prepared to receive it. 

"For the successful prosecution of advanced studies, four conditions are — each 
and all — absolutely essential: 

"(1) There must be natural ability and the love of learning on the part of the 
student. Not a few do well and achieve a good standing iu the common-school 
studies, who, for lack of ability or aspiration, utterly fail iu the higher. 

"(2) There must bo careful instruction in the elements and a mastery of them suf- 
ficient to lay a good foundation for after progress. Many pupils pass over the lower 
courses with so much carelessness that they fail, and for lack of preparation must 
needs fail as soon as they touch the higher. 

" (3) Time is requisite. For the primary and grammar school studies, the normal, 
the college preparatory, and the collegiate many years are required. To complete 
long courses of study pupils must begin early and remain in school continuously. 
Those who begin at 16 or 18 years of age have not time to complete advanced 
courses. 

" (4) Means also for the payment of moderate expenses are required. If the par- 
ents or patrons of a student count their duty done when she becomes able to teach a 
country school of low grade, advancement beyond the elements becomes for her 
impossible. 

"The pressing needs of the people wait for women of broader education and com- 
pleter discipline. To meet this need Hartshorn Memorial College was founded. 
The time wheu ability, aspiration for learning, early training, and the requisite 
means shall meet together and render higliei education i^ossible ought not to linger. 
The colored jjooplo themselves should see that the time does not delay." 

The foregoing remarks show the lack of higher education among the African race 
in America. This is particularly unfortunate for this portion of the community 
since it, more than any other, requires a body of cultured jjcrsons within itself to 
oppose those adventurous persons who, l^y reason of their pleasing theories or ingen- 
ious arguments, are not apt to be the best of advisers, and in a stable government 
arc alwaj's bridled by the calm wisdom of a small but all-powerful class of thought- 
ful people. As before remarked, the colored race is located in the distinctively 
agricultural States of the Union. It therefore has neither press nor libraries, and 
the rank aud file of the race must depend upon their leaders for their opinions. 
Thus is explained the pertiuacious efforts of thoughtful people to provide a higher 
education for the negro — their efforts to remove the obstacles which his intellectual 
aud pecuniary disabilities put iu their way, and their appeals for aid. The educa- 
tion of the colored race, as far as it is acquired within the walls of an educaliniuil 

' Lest thia he miaconstrued iuto a jibe at the colored student it is well to remark tliatat the German 
universities it is stated that fully one-fourth of all the students are in needy circumstances and take 
advantage of the fact to demand aid and enjoy free dinner;-!. (See p. 3G6 of this Report for 1891-02. 
Compare also what is said l.y lTofe.ssor Paulsen ou p. 288 of the same A'oluine.) Monsieur Dreyfus- 
Brisac, in his Universite de Bonn ct rEnseignenient Supericur en Allemagne, says that the remis- 
sion of fees is frequently unwarranted, and, at the Tlniversity of Bonn, is modiiied by a system of 
deferred payments (stiindung) — over 13 per cent of which are lost. 



1558 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1892-93 



edifice, is xiractically elementary; but that fact is by no means conclusive evidence 
that its higher education is an hallucination. 

The systems of imhlic schools supported hy States insisting on the separation of 
the races, their work, necessities, and the results accomplished by them, are matters 
of Avhich the public is well informed. Since the report of 1885-86 a portion of this 
annual volume has been devoted to compiling what vras known of the subject, while 
the debates in Congress and the discussions in the jjublic in'iuts have illuminated 
every side of it. The usual figures of attendance, etc., follow. 

JVhHc and colored scliool staiisiks, 1S93-93. 



State. 



Total 

Alabaiuaa 

Arkansas 

Uelp-TTare 6 

District of Coliunbia 

ITlorida 

Georgia 

Kentucky c 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

North Carolina 

Soutli Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

."Virginia 

West Virginia 



Estimated number 
of ckildren 5 to 
18 years of age. 



White. 



5, 408, 775 



290, 935 
304, 260 
39, 850 
42.930 
81,150 
352, 400 
544, 100 
194, 300 
244,750 
201,900 
838, 500 
373, 100 
1G6, 700 
462, 100 
669, 300 
343, 900 
258, 600 



Colored. 



2, G30, 331 



249, 291 

117, 940 

8,980' 

23, 620 

64, 350 
330, 700 

93, 200 
206, 900 

70, 550 
294, 100 

51, 000 
223, 700 
279, 800 
156, OCO 
204, 900 
244, 600 

10, 700 



dumber enrolled 
in the common 
schools. 



White. 1 Colored. 



3,692,923 1,367, 



186,125 

197, 655 

28, 316 

25, 262 

58, 427 

253, 942 

393, 700 

92, 816 

162, 016 

154, 459 

581, 342 

232, 560 

102, 571 

368, 481 

425, 776 

227, 696 

201, 779 



115, 490 

66, 921 

4,858 

14, 502 

36, 770 

161, 705 

61. 300 

62, 654 
37,386 

180, 464 

31, 113 

124, 398 

120, 579 

94, 980 

127,495 

120, 775 

6,438 



Average daily 
attendance. 



White. Colored. 



110,311 



cl9, 740 
19, 085 



147, 907 

226, 500 

65, 352 

02, 014 

93, 099 



142, 362 
75, 166 
266, 851 
284, 118 
130, 398 
130, 312 



72, 156 



c2, 947 
10, 982 



97, 471 
35, 200 
42, 018 
16, 597 
101, 894 



72, 417 
87, 134 
64, 127 
80,717 
63, 745 
4,113 



ISTumber of 
teachers. 



White. Colored. 



83, 849 



4,182 
4,940 
734 
598 
1,984 
5,837 
7,167 
2,333 
3,534 
4,296 
13, 240 
4,490 
2,676 
6,949 
9, 287 
5,868 
5,736 



25,615 



2,136 

1,374 

106 

299 

694 

2,082 

1,395 

911 

675 

3,201 

696 

2,541 

1,859 

1,853 

2,619 

2,064 

200 



a In 1889-90. 



6 In 1891-92. 



c Approximately'. 



It will be remarked "by the patient reader who examines the table that the white 
l^upils show an increase of about 85,000 ; the colored, a decrease of about 12,000. The 
number of colored teachers has increased 800, while the number of white teachers 
has increased but 700. "Were it possible to ascertain what scholastic and personal 
qualifications these 800 new colored teachers bring to their duties the advantages of 
this large increment to the teaching force of colored persons might be discussed. 

In the academies, schools, colleges, etc., for colored youth there are, as far as 
known, 10,191 male and 11,920 female students. In the elementary grades 57 per cent 
of the attendance are girls; in the secondary grades, 53 per cent; while in the col- 
legiate dejsartment onlj^ 25 per cent are women. In all schools reporting for 1892-93 
there are 25,859 students. In the elementary departments of 75 institutions are 
13,176 pupils; in the secondary are 7,365; in the collegiate, 963, and in the profes- 
sional are 924. 

There are several questions connected with the institutional life of the colored 
pupil that deal more particularly with ethics than pedagogics. Under the caption 
of " Separate education " the authorities of Hartshorn Memorial College observe: 

The establishment of this institution for the education of young women affirms nothing, and 
expresses no ojiinion touching tlie abstract question of coeducation or the separate education of the 
sexes. Either system, doubtless, has its own special advantages and disadvantages. But this enter- 
prise embodies the conviction that for the students whom this institution will gather, under pres- 
ent conditions and with their present social environment, the balance of advantage is on tlio side of 
separation. 

It is something, and no small matter, that the necessity of unceasing surveillance, by day and by 
night, irritating to pupil and burdensome to teacher, is removed. 

It is something that courses of study and of instruction may be more closely adjusted to the special 
and practical needs of young women. 

To those who have seen the conscience broken down, the moral tone deteriorated, habits of duplicity 
engendered, and the best intellects become vapid through the unhealthy life engendered in a mixed 
institution, itwiU seem an important matter that one chief stimulus of this unhealthy life be removed. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1559 

To fathers and mothers, -who rcmemher the sad experiences of some mixed srhools, present safety 
for their inexperienced daughters, sent beyond parental watchcare, will, perhaps, outweigh all other 
considerations. 

The Utopian notion that young people can he brought i)romiscuously together and counted brothers 
and sisters, human nature laughs to scorn. 

In the presence of such institutions as Mount Holyoke Seminary, Yassar and Wellcslcy colleges, 
and others of like worth, few would venture to affirm that the highest womanly worth and strength 
is dependent upon walking and talking and reciting for a few years with young men. 

The strong women of this generation, whoso hand is upon the school work, and the mission work, 
and the reformatory work, and the social life of the time, received their training largelj' in separate 
schools. 

With tlic heading "Coeducation/"' the authorities of Bennett College sjieak with 
eqnal positiveness to the contrary, as follows: 

After years' observation and experience we are ver5- decidedly in favor of the education of our young 
peoi)lo of both sexes in the same school, provided their association is under proper discipline and suit- 
able care, which wo claim is had here. 

This is unquestionably, in our judgment, the normal, healthy, home-like method. Tlie improvement 
under these circumstances in n;anners, self-reliance, and social culture, the develojiment of manhood 
and womanhood, areofton very marked. Weknowthat someparentsarercluctanttosendtheir daugh- 
ters to schools for both sexes; but this apprehension, wo believe, arises chiefly from an insufficient famil- 
iarity with the facts. One authority says: "Corrupt intlaences are more liable to abound in schools 
exclusively for either sex, but particularly in separate schools for girls." "To insure modesty, " says 
Kichter, "I would advise tho education of the sexes together; but I will guarantee nothing in a 
school where girls are alone together, and still less where boys are." 

THE EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE IS BECOMING MORE AND MORE INDUSTRIAL. 

In the early efforts for the education of tho negro in America the object in view 
was his enlightenment. That j)oint once gained it was thought that his welfare 
■would he secure. But owing to his necessitous condition and tho comparatively 
small amount of funds at the disposal of the iirivato or corporate schools, an effort 
■was made iu a few cases to do what years before had been tried in different parts of 
the Union and found to be a fiiilure in the case of institutions for the Caucasian 
race. This scheme ■was to have the white student work out his expense while pur- 
suing the studies of the schoolroom, in order that "many of our most ■worthy young 
men, who ■were deprived of the advantages of an education through poverty," might 
overcome that obstacle to theip ambitions. In the case of the negro the effort has 
persisted longer and has been either more successful than the experiment of 1830-40 
in the North and West, or adventitious circumstances have aided it almost to the 
extent of floating it to an unwonted degree of prosperity. 

From various reasons a wave of industrial training overran the country in the 
later seventies and early eighties that, as a form of education, ■was adopted by many 
city school systems, but reached its most distinguished development in the manual 
training schools of St. Louis and Chicago. The scheme of mechanical instruction of 
these schools was not native to America. It had beeu elaborated in a Russian tech- 
nological university, in which there was a feature of practical work in tbe engineer- 
ing course, thus bringing it into very sharp contrast -with tho German type of 
technological university (Technische Hochschule or polytechnicum). But to give 
these advanced engineering students of scientific technology a x^ractical insight into 
the processes by ■u'hich the mechanics -whom they -were in the future to direct must 
"work out in "v\-ood or metal their ideas as engineers, a coarse of instruction was 
established Tvhich in America "was, in the early days of its adoption, called the Rus- 
sian system of manual training. The anarchy of shoiiwork for profit on the prin- 
ciples of the mcchanico-theological or classical schools for poor students of the 
thirties "was now superseded by a well-digested and systematic plan of mechanical 
instruction without profit. Now, the work of the negro has been much more closely 
connected with tho old mcchanico-theological idea than vrith tho Russian system, 
though the introduction of drawing and machinery gave it dignity as a plan of 
instruction. This, however, it acquired by the action of the Slater fund trustees. 



1560 EDUCATION REPOET, 1892-93. 

The systematic instrnction of the colored race in the village industries is insepa- 
rably connected with the administration of the John F. Slater fund. It was not 
particularly Mr. Slater who caused the fund to he used to foster trade teaching, hut 
his trustees; for the "general object" of his deed of gift, ''to be exclusively pur- 
sued," was the uijlifting of the lately emancipated population of the Southern States 
and their posterity by conferring upon them the blessings of a Christian education — 
education in which the instruction of the mind in the common branches of secular 
learning shall be associated with training in just notious of duty toward God and 
man in the light of the Holy Scripture. Though the methods of accomplishing this 
was left to the discretion of the trustees^ Mr. Slater strongly indicated that in his 
opinion the training of teachers was the method to be adopted. In a i^rivate con- 
versation with Dr. Ilaj'good, however, he put industrial training as the sixth (and 
last) object to be taken into consideration in the use of the interest of the fund 
known by his name. It should be remarked, however, that the trustees may have 
been influenced in the concentration of the fund upon industrial training by the fact 
that the Peabody fund had for some years been steadily concentrating its resources 
on the training of teachers, and the States were making provision to supi)ly their 
colored schools with properly qualified persons. Be this as it may, the trustees of 
the fund early determined to confine its aid to such schools as were best fitted to 
prepare young colored meu and women to become useful to their race, and that insti- 
tutions which gave instruction in trades and other manual occupations that would 
enable colored youths to make a living and to become useful citizens be carefully 
sought out and preferred. This policy was continued ten years. 

At the date of 1883 the highest example of industrial or trade teaching of the 
negro was Hampton Normal and Industrial School. Only a few of the higher grade 
schools for colored youth had attempted to teach trades. Many of the most experi- 
enced persons in the field Avere not convinced that it was wise to attempt it; 
others advocated it. The rudimentary character of this instruction may be inferred 
from the first repor4;s to the agent of the fund, Dr. Haygood. Clark University 
reports, " Without the aid of the Slater fund ($2,000) we could have done little in 
the industrial departmeut, as it reqtiired $1,100 to equip it, and our printing depart- 
ment would have failed entirely." Tuskegee Normal School reports, "For the 
impetus given to the industrial department the school is chiefly indebted to the 
John F. Slater fund." Claflin University remarks, "As soon as Ave receiA^ed notice 
of the appropriation of $2,000 from the Slater fund arrangements were made to erect 
a suitable carpenter shop." And so on, to a large extent, with a score of institutions 
aided by the fund. Yet these institutions had been carefully sought out as the best 
for being aided in this matter of trade instruction. It is beyond a doubt that the 
efficient cause of the impetus for industrial education of the negro was given by the 
management of the Slater fund and the enthusiasm of their late agent, now Bishop 
Haygood. 

On the retirement of Dr. Haygood the plan of the distribution of the Slater fund 
was somcAA^hat changed. The trustees created a board of education, of which Dr. 
Curry, the agent of the Peabody fund, was made chairman. The new plan of oper- 
ation adA'ocated neither the teaching of trades nor the support of institutions not 
on a "permanent basis." Instead of the teaching of this or that trade the teaching 
of the "underlying principles of all trades" and the employment of persons expert 
in imparting such instruction Avas to be kept in view; and the schools are already 
beginning to follow the hint thus given. The act of Congress of August 30, 1890, 
for the benefit of schools established for the advancement of education in agricul- 
ture and the mechanic arts, very likely has had, or will have, the effect to foster 
this idea of preventing the petrifaction of the negro into a village mechanic or 
farm laborer while directing his thoughts and impulses toward industrial rather 
than political spheres of activity. As the State and the Peabody fund may be looked 
to to promote the training of teachers, the Slater fund and the $10,000 or $12,000 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1561 

annually given to the States thickly populated with negroes, for their industrial 
education, may he looked to to supply men capahle of conducting an industrial bus- 
iness. It has been through the avenues of trade that an inferior people rise to a 
higher condition. Trade brings wealth, wealth leisure, and leisure the opportunity, 
if not the desire, for culture. 

As taught in the schools for the colored race about the year 1893, the industrial 
instruction had the following forms, to wit: The manual training or education by 
work idea; trade teaching of the mechanic trades; agriculture; printing; and, for 
girls, housework, including sewing and nurse training. 

At Tougaloo University, in accordance with the general plan of the Slater fund, a 
chauge was recently made in the form of the industrial work, especial attention 
being given to manual training with a view to the general culture of mind and 
hand. This change consisted in the establishment of a two-years course of wood- 
work of an hour to an hour and a half a day for the seventh and eighth grades, 
covering the processes and principles of working in wood and with woodworking 
tools. The exercises are graded, running from the simple to the more difficult, the 
aim beiug to adapt them to the mental capacity of the student as well as to his 
dexterity, and to make them a helpful part of his school work. Each student has a 
blue i)rint of his work before him. A course in woodwork adapted to the lifth and 
sixth grades, and a course in ironwork for the ninth grade, is to follow it, while for 
the tenth and eleventh grades a course of mechanical drawing is to be provided. 
Straight University also has felt the Slater impetus toward a more concentrated 
method of manual instruction, and has likewise established a two-years course in 
Avoodwork for the seventh and eighth grades, with the same features of the course at 
Tougaloo University. In fact, the course as explained by Tougaloo and worked out 
in the following j)rogramme may be cousideied as the Slater course of manual 
training : 

Seventh grade (limited to square work). — Planing to a true surface; laying out 
work (iucluding measuring with the rule and marking with knife and gauge) ; saw- 
ing to the line; boring; gluing; driving nails and screws; sandpapering; making 
box joint, dado, mortise, tenon, and groove. 

£i<77ii/i. </rade (especially bended or curved work). — Making miter joint (square, 
octagon, and hexagon) ; regular and irregular bevels (using steel square) ; scarf 
joint, dovetail; laying out curved work; planing and chiseling curved surfaces; 
sawing curved lines; bending by sawiug and steaming; making round forjus. 

At Fisk University, after the manual training course of two years has been com- 
pleted the "principles" inculcated are applied during a third j'ear in building and 
cabinetmaking, while during both the second and third years the nature and use of 
j)aints, varnishes, stains, and i>olishes are taught. In addition to the aid from the 
Slater fund aid was also received from the Daniel Hand fund in establishing this 
" new line " of work. It will be seen that the remunerative or practical feature lias 
not been disregarded at this university. At several institutions supported in part 
by the proceeds from the sale of public lands belonging to the United States and at 
the comparatively w^ell endowed Atlanta University quite ambitious efforts are being 
made to inaugurate a system of practical technological instruction much above the 
average for colored schools. Indeed, at Central Tennessee College there is a course 
of study in mechanical engineering of four years, though no one has availed himself 
of it. 

But the form of manual training that has been in vogue in the independent or 
isolated schools for the negro in the past has been of quite another form. The insti- 
tutions giving this instruction drew their aid from the revenues provided by gen- 
erous persons interested in the welfare of the negro, and as their attendance increased 
qviite frequently their classes in carpentry and in bricklaying, and in agriculture 
were utilized in building new and in enlarging or repairing old structures, or in 
working the fields for garden produce. Sometimes the blacksmithing and wheel- 



1562 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1892-93. 

■wrightiDg of the ncigliborliood Avas done; but in general it may Lo said tliat the 
work of the trade classes had a double object in view — instruction of the pupils, and 
the enlargement or repair of the institution or the cultivation of its grounds. Not 
that the object of the institution was at all mercenary, but because that was about 
the only way in which any remuneration could be gotten by the institution out of 
the labor of its students; if not in this way, then failure. 

This species of manual instruction is of varied nature : Carpentry, bricljlayiug and 
brickmaliing, blacksmithing, painting, andi^rinting for men; cooking, dressmaking, 
and in general housewifery for women. It is doubtful if a better illustration of 
this object, and methods of the institution giving this character of instruction, can 
be found than the following announcement: • 

INDUSTRIAL DEPARTMENTS. 

Tho indnstrial work is carried on in connection with a fonr years' conrse of academic woric designed 
to give a thorongh English education. With these objects are kept in view, viz : 
(i) To teach tlio dignity of labor. 

(2) To teach the students how to work, giving them a trade when thought best. 

(3) To enable students to pay a portion of their expenses in labor. 
At present the most developed of tbo industries are : 

Agriculture. — This department controls two farms of 680 and 800 acres, rcspectivelj-. Tho funds at 
command will not allow much outlay in new experimental farming. The special oflbrt, therefore, 
is to give tho students lessons in common, practical farming. The farms not only furnish an object 
lesson and valuable employment to students, but supply largely the demands of the school. 

JBriclanaHng . — On the farm have been found extensive beds of clay suitable for making bricks. 
Trom these beds the school has been able to make bricks enough to build five substantial buildings for 
school uses, and to sell many to neighbors. The bricks are made and laid by students, thus reducing 
the cash outlay for buildings to the minimum. 

Carpentry . — The students are taught to do all kinds of work, such as building cottages, fences, 
repairing buildings, making and rex)airing furniture, etc. Of the many buildings on the grounds, 
most of the work has been done by boj-s of this department. 

Fainting. — Painting of buggies and graining are emphasized. House painting is regularly done. 
Many buggies and carts for the town and country are brought in and painted. 

Printing. — In this ofiBce are printed the catalogues, " Southern Letter," " Student," and much job 
work for the school and the surrounding country. 

JBlaclismitJiing and whceliorighting . — These departments do all the work for the school and farm, 
and much for the town and country. 

Tinsmithing, shoeniaking, and harness inaMng. — Harness work for the neighborhood, as well as for 
the school farm, is done. The students' shoes are repaired and all the roofing of the institution is 
done. 

Saivmill. — One of the most useful of the industrial occupations is that in connection with the saw- 
mill. A large part of the farm is covered with pine forest. 

Wages. — The rate of wages is according to the age of the student and the real value of his work. 
Tho arrangements are such that students lose nothing in their classes by working out a part of their 
expenses. At the end of each month a bill is given to every student showing what ho may owe the 
school or what the school may owe him. 

A very favorable statement of tho condition of trade teaching is given by Howard 
University, There the industrial department occupies an entire building, 40 by 
75 feet, of two stories and basement, and the students in the preparatory and 
normal departments practice in the methods of certain trades at specified hours. 
The work in each department is done under the personal direction of a skilled work- 
man, and with the advantage of first-class tools. 

Before leaving tho subject of trade teaching in the isolated schools for the colored 
race it is necessary that certain remarks of Dr. Haygood, in his last report (1891) 
to the trustees of the Slater fund, should be reproduced. They are as follows : 

"If there had been no Slater fund, mnch by this time would have been done in 
industrial education in these schools; but every informed person knows that tho 
help and encouragement of this great benevolence has furnished the inspiration and 
driving force of this vital movement. But for the friendship won to some of- these 
schools through the industries fostered by the Slater money they would, by this 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1563 



timo, liavo ceased to be. * * * Por every doUar given by the Slater fund not 
only auotlier dollar has come to help it but more than a dollar." ' 

The largo farms usually attached to the institutions for the colored race, the indus- 
trial habitudes of that race, and tho terms of the act of August 30, 1890, have invited 
or compelled attention to agricultural operations. The difficulties attending the 
introduction of this study in schools for the whites were greater than in the caso of 
the schools for the colored ; Indeed the training given by the agricultural courses of 
the schools for colored persons has been much more adapted to mahiug laborers 
than scientific agriculturists. 

For colored girls the usual manual training given to Avhite girls is quite apjiropri- 
ate. Cooking and dressmaking are particularly well adapted as studies to those who 
very frequently make their living as servants or seamstresses. Quite an effort is 
being made to introduce nurse training and in several institutions courses have been 
established, as at Central Tennessee College wh^ro arrangements have been made 
for a course consisting of two parts, one, uoniirofessional, of two years, and one, 
professional, running through a third year. 

THE TEACHING FORCE. 

The biographies of the teachers in the institutions for the education of the colored 
race would be a detailed history of the struggle for the instruction of that race. It 
has never happened in the history of education that so many difficulties had to be 
overcome as in the case of carrying the war for education into Africa, and it was 
natural, perhajis necessary, that enthusiasm should ripen into devotion, and even 
fortify itself in fanaticism. But the personal trials and victories of the past and 
present can not be recounted here; they must bo looked for in Dr. Barnard's report 
on education in the District of Columbia, in General Armstrong's Twenty Years of 
Work at Hampton, and in other Avorks of a similar nature. 

After the lapse of a quarter of a century, it is natural to suppose that much of the 
teaching done in schools for the colored race should bo by persons from among them- 
selves. The figures from 70 institutions justify such an expectation, for they show 
that of the 1,010 teachers in them one-third (373) are colored men and women. Still 
confining attention to the institutions for the education of the colored race, it apj)oara 
that, though the white men teachei's (225) are equal in number to the colored men 
teachers (221), the white women teachers (412) are very nearly as many as both 
white and colored men teachers, while for every colored woman teacher there are 
3 white women teachers. Comi^arison with the relative i)roj)ortion of each sex in 
the public schools can not be made, as the statistics are not obtainable, but it may 
be stated as a fact that in cities the colored schools are almost always taught by 
women, and in the open country by men. 



^ Amount and iHstnbvtion of the sums disbursed from, the Slater fund from 18So to ISO:?, inclusive. 





1883. 


1884. 


1883. 


1886. 


1887. 


1888. 


1889. 


1890. 


1891. 


1892. 


Alalsama 

Arkansas 


$2, 100 


$2, 450 


$5, 000 


$3, 800 


$4, 400 
600 


$4, 600 

800 

1,000 

6,850 

700 

3, 500 

4, 800 

5, 300 
4, 300 
6,500 
1,360 
4,190 

600 
500 


$3, 600 

800 

800 

9,700 


.$3, 600 

800 

800 

9,700 


.$4, 900 
1,000 
1,000 

10, 500 


$4, 700 
600 


Florida 










1,000 
8,400 




6,200 


500 
1,000 

592 
2,000 

740 

750 
4,325 

600 
2,000 
1,000 

550 


6,814 
1,000 
1,400 
2,000 
4,400 
3,500 
7,600 

GOO 
3,000 
1,000 

450 


5, ]i;o 

700 

1,000 

2, COO 

3, GOO 
2,700 
5, 800 

600 

3, 650 

600 

450 


6,200 

700 

3,100 

4,450 

4,200 

3, 660 

6,500 

900 

4,190 

600 

500 


Kentiif ivv 


Lioui.siana 




4,100 
4,400 
5,100 
4, 000 
6,800 
1,360 
3,150 


3,100 
4,400 
4,700 
4,000 
6,800 
1,360 
3,150 


3,700 
5,300 

5, 700 
5,000 
7,400 
1,500 
3,150 


3,500 

4, 967 

5, 300 
5,000 
7,100 
1,500 
3,150 


Misyissippi 


1,000 

2, 000 

2,000 

950 




Soutti Carolina 


Tennessee 




"Virginia 


2,000 


District of Columbia 


Special 




500 


500 


500 










Total 


IG, 250 


17, 107 


36, 764 


30, 000 


40, 000 


45, 000 


44,310 


42, 910 


49, 650 


45, 217 





1564 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. 

Tho educatiou of tliese teachers bus been i,iccomj)lislietl iu the various normal 
schools, academics, colleges, and uniA'orsities spoken of some pages back. The coim- 
trv schools are incapable of giving an education that will at all qualify the pupil for 
the position of a teacher of even a colored school, and unless there be a high school 
in the city having a quasi system of schools for their colored population the urban 
public school is also incapable of accomplishing the same fact. The strenuous efforts 
now beiug made to improve the character of the white teaching corps by uniform 
examinations will probably result in securing a higher grade of teachers for the 
schools for the rural districts, in which the negro population is mostly situated, and 
better supervision will result in more thorough teaching and more businesslike man- 
agement. 

There are three great funds, aggregating $4,000,000, the interest of which may be 
used in promoting the education of persons to fill jjositions as ptiblic-school teachers 
in the Southern States. Two of these funds are specifically for the colored race and 
the other is for the people of the whole South. In addition to these, there is the 
fund arising from the sale of lands given by Congress in 1862, which generally reaches 
the normal schools for colored pupils in the form of a State appropriation, and 
finally there is the quota, fixed by Federal law, drawn from the $25,000 annually 
appropriated to each State by the act of Congress of August 30, 1890, which has so 
far gone to help the resources of the State normal schools for colored children which 
are thus compelled to add an industrial feature to their establishment. But most 
important of all, since it is exteiisible and therefore may be made commensurate with 
the necessities of tho situation, is an appropriation from the State treasury, a 
resource which has been very effectively used in the North and West, and is by no 
means unknown in the South. 

PROFESSIONAI TRAINING. 

The dignity and the presumptive emoluments of the professions of law and medi- 
cine and the sacredness and the social influence of the minister's calling have natu- 
rally excited a desire in many colored persons to engage in a course of study leading 
to one of the so-called learned professions. The difficulty experienced in America 
by the schools for instruction in the learned professions is intensified in the case of 
those for the colored citizen, for very few of their students are scholastically prepared 
to follow the study they have chosen. This subject, however^ is so well worn in the 
case of the schools for the whites that it would be intolerable to have its intricacies 
unfolded in connection with a few schools for training the men who are to deal with 
the life, the property, and the morals of an inferior race that has been forced rather 
than self-evolved to a plane of theoretic highest civil standing. 

In the late slaveholding States there are five schools for the medical education of 
persons of color. At one of these — that at Washington — some white persons attend, 
while at the Northern schools for the Caucasian race a number of colored persons 
are enrolled. 

Three institutions are very prominent in the training of physicians for the colored 
people. These are the Meharry medical department of Central Tennessee College, 
Howard University medical department, and the Leonard medical department of 
Shaw University. The Meharry medical department was organized in 1876-1879, 
through the generosity of the Messrs. Meharry, of Indiana. At that time there was 
no institution south of the Ohio and the Potomac accessible to the colored race. The 
Leonard Medical School was established in 1881-82 upon a site given by the State of 
North Carolina. Both of these Southern institutions have received very substantial 
aid from the John F. Slater fund. The medical department of Howard University 
was the first medical school for colored students. It is supported partly by the funds 
of the university and partly by tuition fees, which are increased by the attendance of 
white persons who are attracted by tho low annual charge for tuition and the excel- 
lent instruction and facilities for instruction provided. At Fisk University ''it is 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1565 

hoped that the time la very uear at haud -wlieu departments of law and medicine 
can be added to the present lines of educational work of the university." 

The course of the schools attached to Howard and New Orleans universities and 
Central Tennessee College are graded, and are of four years. At Shaw University an 
annual course of lectures is given. The first three institutions named require pro- 
ficiency in au English education, all having examinations for admission Central 
Tennessee College and New Orleans University require the student to study Latin 
during the junior year. The curriculum of the graded courses comprises anatomy, 
physiology, microscopy, histology, chemistry, toxicology, materia medicay therapeu- 
tics, obstetrics, gynecology, piediatrics, practice, hygiene, medical jurisprudence, 
ophthalmology, otology, and bacteriology, the difference in the distribution of the 
studies through the four years being that at the New Orleans University and Central 
Tennessee College the student's attention is confined to anatomy, chemistry, and 
physiology, while at Howard University physiology, materia medica, therapeutics, 
microscopy, and histology are introduced. A further difference is also apparent in 
the placing of the practice of medicine and surgery, which are third -year studies at 
Howard and fourlh-year at the other two institutions. Howard University has upon 
its own grounds a well-filled hospital. The students of the Central Tennessee College 
dejiartment may attend the Nashville City Hosijital. All the schools have clinics. 

The requirements for graduation are completion of the twenty-first year, of the 
course of the school, and the jiayment of fees in full. The fees are $30 or $60 a year. 
At New Orleans University and Central Tennessee College the entire course of four 
years costs tlie student $173; at Howard University $223, including all incidental 
expenses connected with instruction. 

Connected with several of these schools are departments of dentistry or phar- 
macy. The course of the dental departments of Howard University and Central 
Tennessee College is of three years. The curriculum comprises anatomy, physiology, 
microscopy, histology, chemistry, materia medica, therapeutics, surgery, operative 
and prosthetic dentistry, hygiene, and medical jurisprudence, to which Central 
Tennessee adds metallurgy, dissecting, and materia medica. The expenses are $30 
or $60 a year and incidentals. 

Three institutions have courses in pharmacj'. That of Howard University comprises 
botany, chemistry, toxicology, materia medica, and i)harmacy, with a recommenda- 
tion to study microscoiiy, which Central Tennessee includes as necessary. To gradu- 
ate, the student must have attended two years, but to obtain the degree of graduate 
iu pharmacy he must have had two other years of practical experience in compound- 
ing and dispensing drugs and medicines in a regular established pharmacy. The 
charge at Central Tennessee College and Shaw University is $30 annually, not 
including incidentals ; at Howard University, $60. 

Among the colored people the study of law has not such a numerous following as 
the study of medicine. The same phenomenon is present among the Caucasian race 
of European and American countries, for the impetus given to the public mind by 
successful biological research and the ills attending a high-pressure system of life 
Lave rendered medical assistance advisable as an experiment and even necessary for 
continued existence. 

There are five schools of law especially for colored people. These schools are all 
connected with a college or university. By far the largest enrollment is in the law 
department of Howard University, which, holding its sessions at night, gives oppor- 
tunity to colored clerks and messengers of the public bureaus and to commercial 
clerks to undertake a course in law. The three schools of the national capital for 
the whites offer the same advantages to persons of that color whose necessities and 
ambition oblige them to work and study by day and recite or listen to lectures at 
night. 

The law department of Howard University has been fortunate. It has recently 
been supplied with a remodeled building opposite the city court-house, through the 



1566 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1892-93. 

geuerosity of certain members of the New York bar and of C. P. Hnutiugton and 
J. W. Ambrose, botli of New York, and lias been named Evarts Hall in recognition 
of the exertions of the Hon. William M. Evarts in procuring funds for the recon- 
struction of the old building. It is also fortunate in having Congress, whicli legis- 
lates for the District of Columbia, provide in part for the salaries of four professors — 
in all, $3,200. 

The course of study of this school is not of an advanced character. It is taken for 
granted that the ajjplicant for admission "has had a good Englisb education and 
some mental training." But tbougb no preliminary examination is held, that fact 
"is not to be construed as in any manner lowering the standard of attainments 
required for graduation," as preliminary examinations are frequently found to work 
injustice and are unsatisfactory. The course is of two years plus the jiost-graduate 
course tacked on to all the law-scbool courses established in Washington. The first 
year is spent on Blackstone, real and personal property, contracts, commercial j)aper, 
criminal law, and domestic relations; the second on pleading, practice, equity, 
evidence, and torts. During the third year constitutional limitations on the States, 
mercantile law, and corporations are taken uj). Moot courts are held. The instruc- 
tion is by the usual assigned reading and quiz method, interspersed with lectures. 
The faculty is -composed of six lecturers. 

The law department of Central Tennessee College has a course of two years. To 
gain admission to its course the caudidate must pass a satisfactory examination on 
all tbe common English studies, and is advised to take a more extensive course of 
general study before beginning that of law. The course diifers from that of How- 
ard University in that the study of the fundamental divisions of the substantive 
law share during the first year the time with the law of procedure, and international 
law (Vattel) is introduced, while during the second year Federal procedure, consti- 
tutional limitations, and corporations are taken up and procedure law continued. 
The faculty is composed of three persons and a dean. 

The law department of Allen University has a course of two years, whose sessions, 
like the schools at Washington, D. C, are held in the afternoon and evening, in order 
to suit the convenience of students otherwise employed during the earlier portion of 
the day. The first year is, with the exception of evidence, devoted to substantive 
law (Blackstone, Kent, contracts, and bills), and to constitutional law. The second 
year is, with the exception of criminal law and the statutory law of South Carolina, 
devoted to procedure, considering equity as falling in that category. The faculty 
appears to bo the president of the university. Moot courts are held. During the six 
years of its existence five classes have been sent out, "a majority of the members 
meeting with a great degree of success in life." 

The law school of ShaAV University was established iu 1888. Its course is not 
known. A scholarshij) of $50 a year will be granted to worthy students who need 
assistance. 

Wilberforce University has a law course of two years, but no students. 

"If you were in a Southern Adllage watching the passers-by, yon would perhaps 
see among them a colored man, strong iu body, marked in countenance, an umbrella 
in one hand and a gripsack iu the other. He is always well, always possessed of 
marvelous powers of endurance, always ready to speak. He is the negro preacher. 
Examine him and you will find he has never been taught. * * * Is he doing 
much preaching? He is preaching a good deal. He has been at it twenty-five 
years. Multitudes are swayed by his eloquence. Men's, women's, and children's 
lives and careers are subject to him. He is often the only colored man among them 
who can read. He is the one man who is looked up to as a leader. His influence 
extends to the utmost limit of the coloi'ed people's life. Here, then, is the colored 
minister, with many admirable qualities, but with certain deficiencies. Here he is. 
What ought he to dof He ought to be educated. He ought to undergo a grand 
work in the three R's, he ought to understand English, the English Bible, English 



EDUCATION OF THE COLOKED RACE. 1567 

literature, English history, English doctrine, to speak and to writo English, and to 
explain the Bihlo in English.'' ^ 

In August, 1S92, the presidents of the schools supported hy the Baptist Home Mis- 
sion Society adopted the following scheme: All students studying for a degree to 
studj- at Richmond Theological Seminary, and each school of the society to have a 
"minister's course " : 

Tliis course is designed only for those ■wLo, from lack of literary training, are tinable to take a 
more extended course, and who, at the same time, are nnahle, by reason of age and other iusurmouut- 
ahle conditions, to seoiire a thorough literary training. Many ministers engaged in active pastoral 
work who feel the need of further training will find this course specially adapted to their case. It 
may, ordinarily, he completed in a year. Ko person will ho allowed to pursue this course in the 
Eichmoud Theological Seminary except residents of the State of Virginia. Certificates will ho given 
to such as complete the course in a .satisfactory manner. The instruction to be given is to be included 
under the following heads: 

I.— STUDY OF THE ENGLISH BIBLE. 

The vrork done under this head is to be strictly Biblical. Xo time is to bo spent upon speculations ' 
about the Bible. The study of Divine truth itself and the best methods of communicating this 
truth to the minds and hearts of others are to occupy the entire attention. Tho inductive method 
of instruction is to bo pursued, and the special aim of the work is to accomplish the following ends : 

(a) To permeate the minds and hearts of the students with tho spirit and power of Divine truth. 

(b) To give to tho students a general but comjtrehensivo knowledge of the Bible as a whole. 

(c) To impart to the students a correct method of studying tho Scriptures, and practical and effec- 
tive methods of conveying Bible truth to tho minds and hearts of other persons varying in. age, 
capacity, and mental training. 

In seeking to accomplish these three ends in the most successful manner, tho following order of 
study and of imparting instruction is to bo pursued: 

(1) Tho study and application of (a) Bible stories, (h) Bible characters, (c) consecutive Bible n.arra- 
tive or history. 

(2) Tho study of principles and methods of giving Bible instruction. This exercise includes (ff) 
the Btudj' of subjects .specially selected, (b) parables, (r) miracles, etc. 

(3) Tlio study of tho life of Christ, m.aking the gospel of Luko the basis of instruction. 

(4) Tho study and analysis of selected topics and selected books of tho Bible. 

(5) The systematic study of Biblo doctrines as explicitly taught in the Bible itself. 

II.— FAMILY ORG.\NIZATION. 

Under this head tiie teachings of the Bible in reference to tlie family are to be carefully studied and 
enforced in a practical way. The following order is pursued: 

(1) Tho teachings of tho Xew Testament upon marriage. 

(2) Tho Scripture teachings regarding the reciprocal duties and resx>onsibilities of husband and 
wife. 

(3) Tho Scriptiire teachings in reference to the relation of parents and children, (a) Tho father's 
position in the family and his special responsibilities; {b} the mother's position and her rcsponsihiii- 
ties; (c) home surroundings, what thej' should be, and how to make them such; (d) Tho children in 
the home, and their duties and responsibilities to their parents and to each other. 

(4) Eights, duties, and responsibilities of employers and emplojees as taught in tho Word of God. 

III. — CIIUECII WORK. 

In this department instruction is to be given on everything that pertains to a wcU-orgaui/.ed work- 
ing church. 

Special attention will be given to tho peculiar needs of small country churches and mission 
stations. Tho instruction is to be of the most practical nature. It is to be accompanied also by such 
church work upon the part of the students as will fix it iirmlj' in their minds. The following jireseuts 
the order of study and instruction: 

(1) Tho nature of church organization as taught in the Xew Testament: {a) Tho elder, bishop, 
presbyter, minister, or pastor — his office, his (xi^slification, and his duties and responsibilities, both 
private and public : (&) tho deacons, their ofQce, qualifications, and duties ; (c) deaconesses, their place 
and work in the church ; (f?) church members, their relations to the minister or pastor, also to each 
other, and their special work and responsibilities; {e) church order and discipline. 

(2) Church helps as a part of church organization: (a) All helps are to bo regarded as subordinate 
to the church itself; (b) societies. Christian association, young people's union. Christian endeavor 
society, literary society, homo and foreign missionary society, mission circle, mission band and tem- 
per.moo society, etc. 

1 Rev. A. L. Phillips, secretary for colored evangelization for tho Southern General Assembly, 
Presbyterian Church, in Second Mohonk Conference, pp. 33-35. 



1568 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. 



(3) 'Ihe Bible Sunday scliool as the training school of the church: (a) Methods of organizing such 
a school; (&) the officers and teachers, their qualifications, duties and responsibilities, and relation of 
their work to the church; (c) the home school, and the pastor's relation to it; (d) mission schools, 
their organization and management, and their relations to the church; (e) teachers' meetings, how 
best conducted ; (/) methods of instructing and managing Bible classes, intermediate classes, and 
primary classes. 

IV.— MISSIONARY WOEK. 

The training in this department is to be strictly practical. The principle "To do is to know" is to 
be carefully applied. "While a knowledge of the best methods of doing missionary work is regarded 
as very important, actual practice in doing the work is regarded as still more imi)ortaiit. Without 
this latter the former will be of little value, and the training given will be very defective. This 
practical work, during the school year, is to receive special attention, and will be under the special 
direction of the teachers. In addition to this practical work, each student will also be required to 
pursue a systematic course of missionary reading. This course is to include a careful selection of 
works on the history and progress of missionary effort and a wide range of biographical sketches 
of eminent and successful home and foreign missionaries of the Baptist and other denominations. 

The foregoing is to be hereafter the maximum theological course for each of the home mission 
schools, except the Eichmond Theological Seminary. The president of each school may, however, 
exercise his discretion in omitting from this course such portions of the work as he may deem 
necessary in the interest of the class of students who receive instruction. 

The full course at the Riohmoncl Theological Seminary includes Hebrew, Greek, 
Biblical introduction, English interpretation. Biblical theology and ethics, church 
history, homiletics, psychology, and moral philosophy, and is in short a regular 
theological seminary, having a course of four years such as was described in the 
report of this Bureau for 1890-91. 

Other schools have courses ranging from two to five years, but generally of three, 
with the omission of Hebrew and Greek, with the exception of Wilberforce Univer- 
sity, which has both in its ''regular course;" Gammon Theological Seminary, which 
has both elective except for candidates for a degree, and Howard University, which 
has both in its " classical course of theology." 

Several missionary courses have been established. That of the Central Tennessee 
College is called a "Training school for Africa." 

There is no charge for tuition in these institutions, and it is believed that lodging 
is also free. At the Gammon Seminary eight cottages have been erected for the use of 
married students, and at this school and at others loans and gifts are made to deserv- 
ing students. 

Tabi,e 1. — Statistics of institutions for educating the colored race, showing grade of 

students during 1892-98. 





Name. 


Presiding ofticer. 


Profess- 


Students in — 




ors 
and in- 
struct- 
ors. 


Elemen- 
tary 
grades. 


Second- 
ary 
grades. 


Colle- 
giate 
courses 
proper. 


P 
o 




g 
3 


a 

o 




g 

a 

o 

7 



70 
154 


g 

8 

95 

10 
11 


a 

a 

o 

9 

30 

24 


o 

10 





11 


d 

a 

o 

11 




24 


13 

O 

u 

a* 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


12 


Athens, Ala 

Marion, Ala 

Mobile, Ala 

Prattville Ala 


Trin ity Norm al School . 

Lincoln Normal School. 

Emerson Normal In- 
stitute. 

Prattville Male and 
li'emale Academy. 

Burrell School 


Miss Katharine S. 

Dal ton. 
MissM. E.Wilcox. 
Jehiel K. Davis - . . 


, 8 

1 

1 


8 

5 
6 


70 

72 
54 








Selma, Ala 

Do 


Eev. A.T. BurnelL 


2 
4 
9 
3 


6 

4 

17 




64 

(6 
199 



55 
3) 
263 



63 

(1 
19 




60 

79) 

24 




6 

( 
3 





5) 







Talladega, Ala... 
Tuscaloosa, Ala . 


Talladega College 

Institute for Tr.iiniug 
Colored Ministers." 


Henrv S.De Forest. 
Eev. A. L.Phillips. 


15 
25 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1569 



Table 1. — Statistics of institutions for educating the colored race, sliowing grade of 
students, during i.SSf-SJ— Continued. 



Location. 



Tu.skegee, Ala.. . 
Little Kock, Ark. 
Pine Bluff, Ark.. 



Southland, Ark. 

Washington, 
D. C. 
Do 

Do 

Jacksonville, 

Fla. 
Live Oak, Fla. . . 
Tallahassee, Fla 

Athens, Ga 

Do 

Atlanta, Ga 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Augusta, Ga 

Lagrange, Ga, .. 
Mcintosh, Ga. . . 

Macon, Ga 

Savannah, Ga.. . 
Thomasville, Ga 

Waynesboro, Ga 
Berea, Ky , 

Lexington, Ky. . 

New Castlo, Ky. 
Alexandria, La.. 
New Iberia, La. 

Now Orleans, La 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Do 

Winsted, La 

Baltimore, Md.. 

Princesa Anne, 
Md. 



Name. 



Tuskegee Normal and 
Industrialln.stitute. 

riiilander Smith Col- 
lege. *■ 

Branch Normal Col- 
lego of Arkansas In- 
du.strial L'niversity. 

Southland College and 
Normal Institute. 

Howard University.. 

Nonnal School, seventh 
and eighth divisions. 

Wayland Seminary 

Cookman Institute 



FLorida Institute 

State Normal College 
for Colored Teachers . 

Jerual Academy 

Knox Institute 

Atlanta Baptist Semi- 
nary. 

Atlanta University... 



Clark University 

Gammon School of 

Theology. 
Spelman Seminary 



Storrs School 

The Paine Institute. 



Lagrange Academy. . . 
Dorchester Acadeniy . . 
Ballard Normal School . 

Beaeli Institute 

Allen Normal and In- 
dustrial School. 

Haven Academy 

Borca College 



Presiding officer. 



Booker T. Wash- 
ington. 



J oseph C. Corbin . . 

William Eussell . . 

Rev. J. E.Rankin. 

Lucy E. Moton... 

Rev. G.M.P. King. 
Lillie M.Whitney. 



No report 

T. Do S. Tucker 



Chandler Normal 
School. 

Christian Bible School. 

Alexandria Academy. . 

Mount Carmel Con- 
vent. 

Leland University 

La Harpo Acad em j^.. 

New Orleans Univer- 
sity. 

Southern University 
a n d Agricultural 
and Mechanical Col- 
logo. 

Straight University . . . 

Gilbert Academy and 
Agi-icultural College. 

Morgan College ".. 



Delaware Academy . . . 



John H. Brown . . . 

L.S.Clark 

Rev. George Sale. . 

Rev. Horace Bum- 
stead. 

Rev. D.C.John-.. 

Rev. Wilbur . P. 
Thirkield. 

Miss Harriet E. 
Giles. 

Ella E, Roper 

Rev. Geo. Wms. 
Walker. 

No report 

Fred W. Foster. .. 

F.T. Waters 

Julia B. Ford 

KatharineB. Dowd 

No report 

AVilliam Goodell 

Frost. 
Mrs. L. A. Shaw.. 



No report. 
do 



Profess- 
ors 
and in- 
struct- 
ors. 



Students in- 



Elemcn- 

tary 
grades. 



6 





I 
(3.11) 





5 164 



28 



E.C.Mitchell. 
No report 



H.A.Hill. 



Oscar Atwood 

W. D. Godman 

Rev. Francis J. 

Wagner. 
No report 



400 320 

(28) 
107 46 



20 



80 ,170 
16 14 




50 1 145 

(385) 
25 I 65 



119 180 



Second- 
ary 
grades. 



9 



Colle- 
giate 
courses 
projier. 



10 



11 





(7) 

64 I 27 



19 4 
37 ; 29 
23 I 



53 



; 49 




61 50 



7 5 

60 165 

(43) 

4 : 28 



16 22 
5 1.5 



(110) 
214 338 



175 16G 
76 



(35) 



46 



20 




25 15 



(9) 
3 



For 1891-92. 



ED 93- 



-99 



1570 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. 



Table 1. — Siaiistlcs of institutions for educating the colored race, slwioing grade of 
students, during 1893-93 — Coutinued. 



Location. 



Clinlon, Miss 

Holly Springs, 
Miss. 
Do 



Jnclif.on, Miss.. 
Meridian, Miss . 
IS'atchez, Miss .. 
Kodney, Miss.. 



Tougaloo, Miss . . 

MillSiH-ina.-, Mo., 
All Healing, N. C 
Asliboro, K. C . - . 

Beaufort, IST. C... 
Concord, JST. C ... 

Charlotte, IS". C . . 
Franklin I on, N.C 

Goklsboro, IxT. C 
Greensboro, N. C, 
Plymouth, ISr.C.. 
Raleigh, N". C... 
L'o 



Salisburj, N. C. 
Do 

"Wilmingto n, 

Windsor, il. C. .. 

Winton, N. C... 

"Wilborforce,OMo 

Lincoln Univer- 

sity, Pa 

.Aiken, S.C 

Charleston, S. C. 

Do 

Chester, S. C 

Columbia, S. C... 
Do 

Frogmore, S. C... 

Greenwood, S. C. 
Oraiigeburg, S. C. 



Knoxville, Tenn 
Memphis, Tenn. 



Name. 



Profess- 
ors 
and in- 
strnct- 
ors. 



Presiding officer. 



Mount Hermon Pe- 

male Seminary. 
Rust University 



State Colored ISTormal 
Sciiool. 

Jackson College 

Meridian Acaclemy 

Natchez College 

Alcarn Agricultural 
and Mechanical Col- 
lege. 

Tougaloo University.. 



Hale's College , 

Lincoln Academy 

Ash b ore Normal 

School. 
"Washburn Seminary.. 
Scotia Seminary 



Biddle University 

State Colored Normal 

School. 
do 

Bennett College 

State Normal School. . . 

Shaw University 

St. Augustine Normal 
School and Collegi- 
ate Institute. 

Livingstone College.-. 

State "Colored Normal 
School. 

Gregory Institute 



Rankin-Richarda In- 
stitute. 

Waters Normal Insti- 
tute. 

Wiiberforce Univer- 
sity. 

Lincoln University * . . 

Schofield Normal and 
Industrial School. 

AA'ery Normal Insti- 
tute. 

Wallingford Academy 

Brainerd Institute 



Allen University 

Benedict College 

Penn Industrial and 

Normal School. 
Brewer Normal School 

Claflin University, Ag- 
ricultural College, 
and Mechanics' In- 
stitute. 

Knoxville College 

Le liloyne Normal In- 
stitute. 



Sarah A. Dickey . . 
Rev. C.E.Libby .. 
E.D. Miller 



Rev. Charles Ayer 

No report 

do 

T.J. Calloway 



Frank G. Wood- 
worth. 

No report 

do 

....do 



F. S. Hitchcock . . . 
Rev. D. J. Satter- 

iield. 
Rev. D. J. Sanders 
No reijort 



Rev. R.S. Rives.. - 

J. D. Chavia 

H. C. Crosby.- 

Rev.C. F. Meserve 
Rev. A.B. Hunter. 



F.M. Martin 

A.F. Beard 

Rhoden Mitchell. 
Rev, C. S.Brown. 
S. T. Mitchell.... 



No report 

Morrison A. 

Holmes. 
Rev. S. A. Grove - 
John S. Marquis, 

jr. 



C. E. Becker 

Misses Towne and 
Murray. 

Rev. J.M. Robin- 
son. 

Rev.L.M.Dunton 



J. S. McCuUoch. 
No report 



12 



Students in- 



Elemen- 
tary 
grades. 



Second- 
ary 
grades. 



188 



(33) 



(22) 



119 



150 



(354, 



85 



(174) 



(63) 



101 



(184) 
11 



(45) 



' For 1S91-92. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1571 



Takle 1. — Staiistica of uistUtiiions for educating the colored race, sltoivlng grade of 
students, durino 1S02-93 — Continued. 



Location. 



1 

M or r i s town, 
Teii'.i. 

Nasliville^ Tenn 

Do 

Do 

AiKstin, Tex 

Crock ott, Tex... 
Hcariio, Tex 

P ra i lio Tic\v, 

Tex. 
Mar.^liall, Tex . . 

Do 

"Waco. Tex 

Hampton, Va . . . 

Norfolk, Ya 

Petersburg, Ya . 

Eichnicnrt, Ya . . 

Do 

Har]'.er8 Ferrv, 
W. Va. 



Name. 



Morristown Normal 

Academy. 
Central Tennessee 

College, 
risk University 



Eoger "Williams Uni- 
versity. 

Tillotsoii Collegiate 
and Normal Insti- 
tute. 

Mary Allen Seminarjv 

U e a r n o Academy, 
Normal and Indus- 
trial Institute. 

Prairie View State 
Normal Sckool. 

Bishop College 

Wiley University 

PaiirQuinn College . . . 

Hamilton Normal and 
Agricultural Insti- 
tute. 

Norfolk Mission 
School. 

Yirginia Normal and 
Collegiate Institute. 

Hartshorn Memorial 
College. 

Richmoiid Theological 
Seminary. 

Storer College 



Presiding officer. 



Eov. Judson S. 

Hill. 
John Bradeu 



Erastus Milo Cra- 
vat h. 
Eev. Alfred Owen. 

Kev. AY. M.Brown. 



Rev. J. B. Smith. 
M. U. Broyles.... 



L. C. Anderson... 



N. Nolverton . 
J.B. Scott.... 



liev.H.B.Prissell 



EcT.. J.B. "Work... 

James II u g o 

Johnston. 
Rev. Lvmau B. 

Tettt.' 
Eov. Charles H. 

Corey. 
N. C. Brackett... 



Profess- 
ors 
and in- 
struct- 
ors. 



Students in- 



Elemen- Second- 

tary ary 

grades. ' grades. 



(190) 
•217 90 



27 
36 
136 
87 
15 



220 
3 



112 



m 

106 12G 



Collo- 
giato 


courses 


proper. 




s 

o 


10 


11 


11 


4 


29 


10 


42 


9 


41 


1 

























10 
( 



7 
7) 














16 


2 





















12 



193 
4 





T.\BLE 2. — Statistics of institutions for educating the colored race which failed to rci)ort 

grade of students, 1S92-93. 



Normal schools. 



Central Alabama Academy, Huntsville, Ala 

State Colored Normal and" Industrial School, Huntsville, Ala 
State Normal School for Colored Students, Montgomery, Ala. 

Lmciiln Institute, Jetterson City, Mo '. 

State Colored Normal School, Fayettevillc, N. C 

AVliitin Normal School, Lumbertou, N. C.* 

Schotield Normal and Industrial School, Aiken, S. C 

Lo Moyno Normal Institute, Memjihis, Tenn 

Tillotson Collegiate and Normal In.stitute, Austin, Tex 

'•I'orlS91-92. 



Profess- 
ors and 
instruct- 
ors. 



Students. 



Men. 



63 
(516) 
395 

92 

35 

15 
140 
2:>6 

35 



505 
90 
71 
12 
170 
325 
34 



1572 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. 

Table 3. — Colored iiiulents in schools for the special classes, 1S92-93. 



Names. 



In schools for tlio deaf: 

Arkansas Institute 

riorida Institute 

Georgia Institute 

Kentucky Institution 

Marj-land School 

Mississippi Institution 

Missouri School 

North Carolina Institution 
South Carolina Institution 

Tennessee School 

Texas Institution . .' 

Total 

In schools for the blind: 

Arkansas School 

Kentiicky Institution 

Maryland School 

North Carolina Institution 
South Carolina Institution 

Tennessee School 

Texas Institute 

Total 



Male 


Female 


students. 


students. 


12 


5 


10 


8 


*(81) 

22 i 12 


10 


7 


15 


13 


17 


5 


29 


27 


15 


8 


18 


13 


23 


18 


S ^-(31) 

\ 172 116 


*(24) 

13 1 10 


13 


6 


20 


14 


6 


6 


7 


6 


29 


24 


S •■(24) 

\ 91 1 76 



* For 1891-92. 



CHAPTER VIII. 
EDUCATION OF THE COLOEED EACE IN INDUSTEY.* 



The financial history of the larger institutions for the education of the colored race 
is epitomized In the case of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute of Alabama. 
That institution, on the 4th of July, 1881, started in the world without a dollar except 
an annual appropriation of $2,000 from the State for tuition of State students. Dur- 
injX the thirteen years that have elapsed since that date the institution has received 
$421,956 in cash, derived from the following sources: 

The State of Alabama, about 9 per cent, or $37, 000 

The Peabody fund, about 1 per cent, or 5, 163 

The John F. Slater fund, about 4 per cent, or 15, 500 

The students, about 12 per cent, or 51, 451 

Gifts, about 74 percent, or 312,842 

Total for tlie thirteen years 421, 956 

Of the above amount about 44 per cent, or $187,613, was paid for student labor 
between 1881 and 1894. 

Reduced to its essential element, the Avholc matter is "student labor," paid for by 
benevolent people and done in buildings and fields, provided by these same kind- 
hearted persons for the purpose of enabling the negro youth to acquire an education 
witliout loss of seif-respect.' Indeed it may be said that the necessitous condition 
of the negro and the idea of self-helpfulness are the magic notes tiiat have drawu so 
many millions from, more especially, the North, to elfect his education. Eutthis, so 
to speak, incidental idea of manual labor in exchange for an education raj'tidly became 
the general principle, that the education of the negro is to bo best effected thi'ough 
systematically teaching him to labor. Thus "student labor" is no longer at this 
epoch of the education of the colored race a meaus to an end, but is an end, if not the 
end. The same phenomenon may be observed in older and more stratified societies 
than our own, and it is the wish of the Commissioner to have presented the character 
of the technical equipment and course of instruction of the institutions interested in 
the effort to teach the negro the dignity of labor.- 

In applying to the negro in ximerica a course of trade instruction such as has 
never been in general systematically or successfully operated in schools for the 
whites in this country,'' it is a question how far methods that in the past have failed, 
or the newer so-called "manual-training" methods are applicable to the colored 
race. Unmistakably there is abroad at the present time an idea that in regard to 

' Students must pay in advance $5 a month for board. * * * xiie school endeavors to give each 
pupil ifS worth of work monthly, which in most cases able-bodied persons can earn.— Catalogue Hamp- 
ton Institute, p. 58. 

^The object of this institution is, "First, to teach the dignity of labor."— Many catalogues. 

^Tho l\ew York trade schools are not an exception, for their work is completely divorced from 
niciital training. 

*By Mr. AVellford Addis, specialist in the Bureau. 1019 



1020 EDUCATION REPORT, 1893-94. 

tlie mental training of the negro tliore must be '' appreciated one important and far- 
reacliing fact — a fact tliat has been too generally overlooked by those charged with 
the education of the negro — namely, that the curriculum and methods employed in 
the instruction of the white race need essential modification and adaptation in their 
application to negro schools," for in the education of the negro, it is necessary to 
have a " practical knowledge of his peculiar intellectual difficulties and a sympa- 
thetic appreciation of his moral weaknesses." ' Now, if we substitute for the "intel- 
lectual difSculties" and " moral weaknesses" to be considered in the mental trainmg 
of the negro the hereditary aptitudes for certain kinds of labor possessed by him, 
the conclusions of an official of the last census will bear ui^on the line of least resist- 
ance for imparting the idea of the dignity of labor or self-helpfulness. These con- 
clusions are — 

"The proportion of the negroes in the cities [of 8,000 population or more] lias in 
every case been less than that of whites, though their proportionate increase has 
been greater than that of the whites. This gain is, however, very slight, and is 
probably not significant. While the negro is extremely gregarious, and is by that 
instinct drawn toward the great centers of xaopulation, on the other hand he is not 
fitted either by nature or education for those vocations for the pursuit of which men 
collect in cities; that is, for manufactures and commerce. The inclinations of this 
race, drawn from its inheritance, tend to keep it wedded to the soil, and the proba- 
bilities are that as cities increase in the United States in number and size and with 
them manufactures and commerce develop, the great body of the negroes will con- 
tinue to remain aloof from them and cultivate the soil, as heretofore."- 

Whether hereditary inclination, early association, or social antagonism will keep 
the negro wedded to industrial isolation as a small farmer, it is undoubtedly a fact 
that his longings are away from the farm, as are those of the youth of the white race, 
and probably for the same reasons ; both having seen so much of its worst side before 
experience had taught them to recognize the better. This tendency away from the 
farm has been ascribed to the quickening of the intellectual operations and the birth 
of high aspirations due to an elementary education, but instead of counteracting it 
by agricultural instruction, in the case of the negro the greatest weight is being put 
upon industrial instruction, as will appear in the sequel, for which vocation the 
negro "is not fitted either by nature or education," according to the authority 
quoted above. 

Taking the negro in his present industrial condition as more at home on the soil 
than in the alleys and back streets of cities and towns, it will be best to examine into 
the character of the instruction which is intended to fit him for his ancestral vocation, 
then into that which fits him for village or cross-roads industries and those of the 
shop or foundry. 

Before presenting these topics, however, the recent establishment of the Shorter 
University at Arkadelphia, Ark., requires mention. This institution, as yet a uni- 
versity only in plan, owes its existence to the jsolicy of the African Methodist Epis- 
copal Church to establish schools in every State where its membership is very large. 
The progress of the school under its original name of Bethel Institute is due to the 
active service of the ministers and members of the African Methodist Ejjiscopal 
Church in Arkansas, who have given labor and money to promote "liberal learning" 
within its territory among the colored race. The prospectus is quite guarded in its 
reference to industrial education, the new university "aiming to give ample prepa- 
ration to young men and young women for personal success and usefulness, and 
endeavoring to correct the effects of too great specialization on the one hand and 
extreme diffusion on the other." ^ 

1 Report of Commission of Visitation to Tuscaloosa Institute for Training Colored Ministers, Third 
An. Eept. of Ex. Com. to Gen'l Ass. of Amer. Pres. Church, pp. 13, 14. 

2 Statistical Sketch of the Negroes in the United States, p. 16, by Henry Gannett, published by Slater 
Fund. 

* So also Fisk University. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1021 



TRAINING IN AGRICULTURE. 

In the teaching of agriculture in the colleges for the colored race science — chem- 
ical, physical, or botanical — andnouremunerative practice have been in the position of 
vowels and consonants in the science of philology of the eighteenth century, in which, 
according to Voltaire, consonants went for verj- little and vowels for nothing at all. 
The fact of the matter is, that schools having large farms must, under the stress of 
the necessity of supporting the simple-minded, confiding proletarians who crowd to 
their halls, use their fields to support their charges as well as to educate them within 
the walls, though the latter purpose is the essence of their being. The value of the 
strength of the would-be educated field hand in tilling the scholastic acres is obvious, 
and it is probable that those acres have been increased in order that the clients of 
the institution to which they belong might be more numerous and thus more colored 
people educated. 

Let it not be supposed, however, that the management of the several schools are pur- 
posely ignoring that agricultural phenomena and operations have an interesting and 
intelligible explanation systematically digested into a body of doctrine called science, 
which is well calculated to enlarge the understanding and develop reflection. At 
several institutions, especially at those endowed with the national land-grant act of 
1862, or the additional endowment act of 1890, an effort is being made to teach the 
scientific principles of agriculture. At the Hampton Institute, for instance, which 
is iu reality a village of over a thousand people, the purpose of the department of 
agriculture is to give every boy in the day school instruction in the elementary 
principles of farming, and to carry those who may so elect through a higher course, 
which will fit them to be teachers of agriculture and superintendents of farms. The 
equij)meut consists of the home and Hemenway farms. In order to produce milk 
and vegetables for the boarding department and hay and ensilage for the stock, 110 
acres of the home farm are kept under cultivation. The Hemenway farm is devoted 
to grass, grain, stock, and dairy purposes. The farms have the necessary buildings 
for 75 cows, 50 horses, 500 swine, and a flock of sheep ; the home farm having also 
two greenhouses, hot beds, etc., where boys and girls are taught the forcing of flowers 
and of vegetables. There are two courses: one elective and the other required. 
The required course covers a period of three years, one lesson a week being given 
to each boj^ of the normal school. This instruction deals with — 

1. The origin, formation, composition, and me- 

chanical condition of soils. 

2. Composition of the plant. 

3. Plant food in the soil. 

4. Efi'ect of water on soil and crop. 

5. Drainage. 



6. Preparing the land for the crop. 

7. How plants grow. 



8. Cultivation of the crop. 

9. Manures and fertilizers. 

10. Rotation of crops. 

11. Diversified farming. 

12. Culture of the leading farm crops. 

13. Fruit culture. 

14. Truck and kitchen garden. 

15. Farm live stock. 



The boys taking the elective course receive five lessons instead of one during the 
week, and the above course is "greatly enlarged." For the elective students in 
the spring of 1894 a small experimental garden was carried on. This experimental 
work is to be enlarged and every theoretical principle of the class room is to be 
demonstrated as far as possible in the field. 

Another well-considered course, though perhaps less theoretic, is given iu the cata- 
logue of the State Colored Normal and Industrial School at Normal, Ala. The cur- 
riculum is as follows : 

First year; Soils, plants, animals, management and diseases of live stock, gardening. 
Second year: Soils, dairying, manures. 

Third year: Gardening, drainage, grain and grass growing, poultry, sheep and cattle raising, 
dairying, pruning, grafting, budding, bees, political economy. 

The course of another institution, however, more accurately shows the character 
of the agricultural instruction given m the schools for colored people. The depart- 
ment of agriculture of this institution consists of a school of agriculture, which is 



1022 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1893-94. 

a farm of 150 acres, producing 1,000 bushels of corn, 1,200 bushels of potatoes, etc., 
and a school of horticulture (a new department) of 12 acres, planted in potatoes, sweet 
corn, turnips, etc. These schools furnish employment and experience to students 
and supply, at the market price, fresh provisions for the boarding department. 

TRAINING IN INDUSTRIES. 

The industrial work of the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute may be 
divided into three classes. The first of these is instruction in work from doing 
which no pecuniary profits arise to the student "while in the school; the second is 
instruction in trades which may profit the student in money value, and the third 
is work in which the chief object is the self-support of the student while at the 
institution, such as the girls of the normal department do in the steam laundry and 
the boys of the night school do on the home and Hemenway farms, as mentioned 
under instruction in agriculture above. But as the organization of industrial 
training at the Hampton Institute is unusuallj'- complete, the aim of a large insti- 
tution farther South is a better expression of the general character of industrial 
education as given in the schools for the colored. This aim is " to turn all labor 
and all articles produced by labor to advantage and utility. Therefore the indus- 
trial departments contribute in some way to the equipment of the institution, and 
they are in most cases a source of income to the student as well as a means of 
instruction." 

Thus acquainted with the underlying principle of the industrial instruction, we 
may |)as3 to its kinds and methods, noting as we proceed, the change in the character 
of the work being effected by the requirements of the trustees of the Slater Fund; 
to wit, that the underlying principle shall be instruction instead of remuneration. 



The institutions for the education of the colored race take kindly to the printiug 
press ; perhaps printing is a vocation strongly congenial to the colored man. Among 
the first industries introduced into a school for the negro is the trade of printing. 
Nothing could be more useful to institutions situated financially as these institu- 
tions were and are now, nothing certainly could be more alluring to the aspiring 
student than to become familiar with the processes for disseminating the necro- 
mancy of words; besid.es all this, as a trade it ofi'ers more opportunities of arousing 
the intelligence than all the other trades put together. 

With a very few exceptions there is no large institution for the education of the 
negro that does not teach printing. At the Schofield School, established at Aiken, 
S. C, in 1868, the printing office is the oldest and most important department and 
for several years has been self-supporting, a fact very encouraging to the manage- 
ment, when consideration is made that there are three other printing ofiices in Aiken 
with which their press has to compete. Most of the trade of this school comes from 
the hotels and business houses of Aiken, but at the St. Paul Normal and Industrial 
School "jobs come to the Normal School press from all parts of the United States, 
the aim being to satisfy both in style and price of work, making the work of the 
printing oifice one of the best paying features of industry in the school at present." 
Still another instance of the diversity of the commercial value of the school printiug 
office is afl'orded by that of Wilberforee University. From this department are 
issued the university circulars, letter heads, programmes, forms, rules, and general 
job work, the value of which for 1893-94 was estimated to be $148.70. At the Norfolk 
Mission College the boys of the high school receive training in composition, type- 
setting, and presswork, thereby practically illustrating the rules of grammar and 
rhetoric w^hile doing the college job work. 

The course in printing is well attended. At Biddle University, out of 131 students 
in carpentry, printing, ehoemaking, and bricklaying, 27 per cent were studying 
printing At Wilberforee as many were in the printing office as in the carpenter 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1023 



shop. At Central Tennessee College, out of 77 in 5 mechauical departments, 19 per 
cent were in the printing office. At Liviugstone College 8 of the 15 students receiv- 
ing a course in trades were in the printing office. At the Alcorn College 14 students 
entered the printing department the year of its introduction (1893^, with 82 in the 
older carpenter and blacksmith courses. It should be remarked, however, that at 
Wilberforce and other institutions young women engage in this vocation. 

The course in printing is probably the most thorough, and certainly the longest, at 
the Hampton Institute and its follower, the Tuskegee Institute. The course is four 
years in duration, ten hours a day once or twice a week being devoted to the trade. 
Special instruction is given in the class room, but outside of working hours, regard- 
ing stock, making estimates, and various other matters. In the first year general 
duty Avork is required, folloAved by instruction on job presses. During the sec- 
ond year instruction is given at the case on newspaper and book composition. 
During the third year there is general job work and book imposing. During the 
fourth year the teaching includes miscellaneous job work, proof reading, cylinder 
press work, tablet making, and the binding of check and order books. Applicants 
to learn this trade must pass an examination in reading, spelling, writing, and gram- 
mar. At Tuskegee Institute the course of training is three years, though the cur- 
riculum is of four. There the theoretical instruction is given from 4.45 to 5.30 p. m. 
The usual course, however, is of two or three years, and is very well shown by the 
curriculum of "Wilberforce University : 



First year. 

First term: Printers' terms. Practice in fixed 
rules for punctu.ation. Use of appliances. Prac- 
tice at ease. 

Second term : Plain composition. Measurement 
of type. Newspaper and job work begun. 

Tbird term : Plain composition and job work 
continued. Estimating, grading measurement of 
paper and cardboard. 



Second year. 

First term : Bookwork begun. Casting off, mak- 
ing up, and locking forms. 

Second term : Bookwork continued. Plain and 
ornamental job work. 

Tbird term : Book and job work continued. 
Proof reading. 



At Fisk University the class, which consists of 15 young men and 7 young women, 
gives one hour a day to the work, and students may remain in the class two years. 
At the State Colored Normal School of Alabama 11 per cent of the 134 students in 
7 trades are in the printing department, three hours for three days each week for 
three years being devoted to acquiring the trade. 



CARPENTRY. 



The beginnings of the great schools for the colored race being hampered by tlie 
impecuniosity of the founders, as in the ultra case of the Tuskegee Institute, which 
was originally housed in an old negro church and a shanty, a corps of carpenters 
became necessary for the development of the school. The light character of tim- 
ber coD.struction employed in this country and the great facility with which all the 
more intricate portions of a building can be obtained, from a factory fitted up 
v.ith appliances for the manufacture of sash, doors, and the other suboriudate 
parts that give finish to a house, have enabled the schools for the colored race to 
reduce their expenses for building to a very great extent by using the muscle of 
the pupils. The benevolent gave money to be paid for student labor, the students 
at carpentry paid the institution the money they received, and the institution gave 
them tuition, board, and lodging, and in addition taught them carpentry and the 
dignity of labor very muck in the same way that the apprentice boy is taught his 
profession and its dignity. Under the directive influence of the management of 
the John F. Slater Fund and the equally conclusive provisions of the act of Con- 
gress of August 30, 1890, granting the proceeds from the sale of public lands for the 
better endowment of colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts, 
another conception of teaching carpentry has been inculcated, in which there is, so to 



1024 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1893-94. 



speak, much, less field work but much more preparation. Thus the most extensively 
followed trade taught in the class of institutions under review is being placed ou a 
purely instructional basis, the State and the two funds above mentioned doing, or 
allowing other money to be used in doing, the institutional building. 

The Hampton Institute is the only institution that makes a sharp distinction 
between the manual training (or Russian system of preparatory instruction) and 
trade teaching, other institutions more or less mixing the two ideas. Its course 
in manual training is put down as a branch of technical work, and is a course in 
the manij^ulation of wood, covering three years, while its course in carpentry, also 
of three years of ten hours a day, is a trade department, in which the primary 
object is the imparting of skill to the apprentice, and the secondary object his per- 
sonal pecuniary gain. For purposes of comparison by those interested in distinctions 
which are based on a difference, the two courses are given in a footnote.^ This 
remunerated work is, in the St. Paul Normal and Industrial Schooi, paid for by a 
salary scheme. The carpentry department of that school is under a foreman of great 
practical experience as a housebuilder and joiner, and apt and industrious young 
men are salaried as follows: First year (probationary), board and washing; second 
year, $50 and board and washing ; third year, $75 and board and washing ; fourth 
year, $100 and board and washing. These salaried loersous work through the day 
and attend the night school. They haA'^e erected all the school buildings and a num- 
ber of valuable buildings for the public. 

The "manual training" course as put in operation in the Ham2:)ton Institute is due 
to the Slater Fund trustees. The institutions having instruction of the kind are 
Tougaloo University, Straight University, Orange Park Normal and Manual Training 
School, Atlanta University (first year), Howard University, and probably Fisk Uni- 
versity. But with these exceptions the majority of the institutions have only the 
"trade course" of the HamiDton Institute, though the splendid shops of that school 
may give its students advantages of familiarizing themselves with machinery not 
possessed-by less favored institutions. 

The course of Clark University is unique and well worth reproduction. Its prin- 



1 Manual training course. 
(Three years.) 

This course is to give practice in the ordinary 
processes and. principles which enter into con- 
struction in wood. The course is given to all the 
boys not taking trades and the girls of the middle 
normal class : 

Measuring on a plane surface with rule and 
knife. Squaring with try-square and knife. 
Gauging with thumb gauge. Sawing to a line 
with back saw. Planing to a true surface. Test- 
ing with square and by sight. Planing to size 
squarely and truly. Planing ends with block 
plane. Lining rough lumber with straightedge 
and line. Ripping with saw. Making half joint, 
or box halving. Making dado, or cross groove. 
Nailing butt joints. Mortise and tenon. Boring, 
doweling, etc. Making joints fastened with 
screws, rivets, and bolts. Clinch nailing. Gluing. 
Making a smooth surface. Grooved work. Miter 
joints. Irregular bevels. Dovetail and scarf 
joints. Laying out and sawing curved lines. Put- 
ting together curved work. Bending by sawing 
and by steaming. Articles are occasionally made, 
but training in principles after models is the 
object. There is also taught : Tools, their names, 
etc. Materials, character, etc. Principles of wood 
construction. Terms. Measuring lumber. Bill 
of materials. Beading plans. 



Carpentry course. 
(Three years, ten hours a day.) 

First year. One month's technical instruction 
and practice in the use of tools. Assisting more 
advanced students in filling orders, at the lathe, 
scroll saws, tenoner, mortiser, and borer. 

Second year. Instruction and practice in ope- 
rating one or more of these machines. Instruction, 
and practice in regular bench work. Making 
window and door frames, sash, doors, and mantels. 
Instruction in drawing. 

Third year. Instruction and practice in more 
advanced carpentry work. Instruction in archi- 
tectural drawing . Practice in working from detail 
drawings. 

To those who show special fitness for it instruc- 
tion is given in cabinet work, stair building, wood 
carving, or designing. 

Blackboard exercises with explanatory talks 
relative to the work are given each week. 

Carpentry is also taught in the repair shop. 
Much new work in building (upon the grounds of 
the institution) and in furniture making is also 
done, affording valuable practice, 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1025 

cipal heads are experiments and lectures, woodworking, ironworking, carriage paint- 
ing, harnessmaking, and printing. There is a clear ring to its apparently especial 
adaptation to carriage building. 

EXPERIMENTS AND LECTURES. 

1. Strengtli of materials. 

a. Arrangement of materials for greatest strength. 

h. Methods of joining together timbers, plates, etc., to give least per cent of lost strength. 

c. Selection of materials. 

d. The foregoing as applied to wagon making, truss work, house building, bridge work, etc. 

2. Powers. 

a. The lever. 
6. The wedge. 

c. The screw. 

d. The foregoing as applied to animal, wind, steam, and electric power. 

3. Friction. 

a. The drag. 
6. The wheel. 

c. The inclined plane with various materials. 

d. The foregoing as applied to air, water, machinery, etc., special attention being devoted to the 

draft of veliicles on soft and hard roads. 

WOODWORKINa. 

1. Name and use of tools (on waste lumber). 

2. Making joint from drawing. 

3. Making joint from pupil's own drawing, repeated until a certain degree of perfection is acquired 

and command of tools attained. 

4. Making plain, straight vehicle body and gear from specification, also making design to give 

required strength with least outlay of material and labor. Estimate of cost. 

5. Making complete set of geometrical figures. 

6. Tracing out projections of ditferent combinations of geometrical figures. 

7. Circular joint making from pupil's own drawing. 

8. Curved and paneled body making from pupil's own design. Estimated cost. 

Elective: "Wood turning and wood machine work. Wood and scroll design. Pattern making. 
Cabinetmaking. 

IRONWORKING. 

1. Use of tools and forgo on waste iron. 

2. Plain welding, upsetting, and drawing out iron; staple, hasp, and bolt making; scroll, spiral, and 

curve bending from drawing. 

3. Joint and tool making from pupil's own design. 

4. Ironing of plain vehicle from specifications furnished, making the design to give proper strength 

to each part with the least weight of material. Estimate of cost. 

5. Making complete set of geometrical figures. 

6. Tracing out projections of diflereut combinations of geometrical figures. 

7. Jump welding, scroll cutting, and ornamental work from pupil's own design. 

8. Ironing of carriage from pupil's own design. Estimate of cost. 

Course. — Every young man above the age of 16 and below the college classes is 
required to devote two hours per diem to manual training, consisting of theoretical 
and jiractical work. Pupils are required not only to construct miniature models, but 
products for the market as well, and are thus prepared for the struggle of life should 
no professional position open to them. 

The Clafflin University makes a division of its carpentry department into a " school 
of woodworking" and another of '-'woodworking by machinery." In the tirst a 
variety of actual work is performed, such as building cottages, shops, repairing build- 
ings, furniture, fences, and agricultural implements, and in the second the work of 
a sash and furniture factory has been carried on. 

The industrial organization of the Hampton and the Tuskegee institutes is so com- 
plete as to embrace a sawmill. At Hampton this feature is considered as an 
"industry" (primarily remunerative to the student) and though the employee may 
learn the handling, drying, grading, and measuring of rough lumber, the industry 
does not seem to be considered a trade as at Tuskegee, where there is a "course of 
ED 94 65 



I 

102(5 EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1893-94. 

study in sawmilling" whicli seems to be very mucli tlie same as what may be learned 
at the Hampton Institute except the felling of timber which is cut for Hampton Insti- 
tute in North Carolina and floated up in rafts. At Clafflin University there is a grist- 
mill. Both of these dejiartments, however, may be looked upon as having been 
introduced more for their utility to the institution than to add to its industrial 
equipment. 

WHEELWEIGHTES'G. 

Tills is a special form of carpentry, and is with two exceptions treated as belong- 
ing to that department. It is by no means so numerously followed as carpentry nor 
have nearly as many institutions introduced it as have introduced woodworking. 
At Tuskegee the course is coupled with carriage trimming, and at Hampton with the 
making of farm implements, or the wooden portion thereof ; at Clark University the 
course in wood and iron working, and painting, seems to be a special course in car- 
riage and wagon building. 

ELACKSMITHING OR METAL ■WORKING. 

This trade follows carj)entry in point of numbers in the nine institutions which 
have introduced it as an isolated course. The subject is taught in thirteen institu- 
tions, seven of which receive an annual apiTortionment from the endowment fund of 
1890, called the Morrill fund. The cost of erecting a forge and of the accessories neces- 
sar5'' to equip it and the cost of maintenance have prevented the general introduc- 
tion of metal working to any great extent until a very recent date. 

Among the institutions having a course in metal working that of the Central Ten- 
nessee College is eminent for its completeness and duration. At Hampton the course 
is carried on in the Pierce machine shops and follows three lines : Blacksmithing 
and horseshoeing; blacksmithing without horseshoeing, but with iise of power 
machinery; and machine Avork. Each course is of three years, ten hours a day for at 
least one day in the week. As may be readily inferred from their titles, the first 
course is adapted for a village blacksmith, the second for a hand in an iron foundry, 
and the third for a machinist. The first course with horseshoeing very well repre- 
sents the course in the majority of the schools, though much ''forge" and machinist 
work is frequently included. 

There are three institutions — Tougaloo, Atlanta, and Arkansas industrial univer- 
sities — in which ironwork follows in natural sequence after instruction in the more 
easily manipulated wood. At Tougaloo the instruction in woodworking is given to 
the 4-8 grades and in forging to the 7-9 grades for one and one-half hours each day 
with the object of general culture of the mind and hand. With the same object and 
allotment of time Atlanta University introduces ironworking in the second year of 
its mechanical course, following it in the third year with exclusive attention to 
mechanical drawing, and in the fourth year with pattern making and machine-shop 
work. To enable a young man to choose his trade intelligently and to acquire a 
sound basis for it the Arkansas Industrial University (in its colored department) 
has a course in general shoj) work extending over three years. 

SHOE AND HARNESS BIAKING. 

Wo have, says the Wiley University, more applicants than we can accommodate in 
the shoe shop ; it is a practical work and should be provided with better facilities. 
By doing all the work for the students and professors, says another institution, ample 
opportunitj^is given for making this branch of the work thoroughly practical. The 
course is usually of three years, and is very succinctly given by Benedict College as 
follows : 

First year, making and mending coarse shoes. 
Second year, making and mending fine shoes. 
Third year, cutting and finishing. 

Harness making is carried on in several institutions, and is reported by one school 
to bo quite remunerative to the shop and useful to the farms of the institution. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1027 

Such are the principal features of the industrial organization of schools for the 
education of the colored race. The eriuipinent of those schools has been greatly 
improved during the last few years, receiving an impulse from the attempt during 
the last half of the 80's to add industrial training to the public schools and the con- 
sequent elaboration of plans for trade instruction of the Caucasian. In the case of 
the negro a more humble subject was found, and to him the system is being more 
and more thoroughly applied. The eftort of those who direct this application is to 
change the old system, which in some measure sacrificed the future welfare of the 
2)upil to the j)resent necessities of the institution, to one of less economic value to 
the school, but also less selfish as concerns the pupil. Such a change, however, 
involves financial questions regarding the source of support of these institutions 
and adai^tation of aims to means that arc well worthy the deepest consideration of 
the innovators. 

A few pages back we have seen that a very able statistician has thoiight the 
negro to be uuadapted to commercial pursuits. In the large sense of marine trade or 
great wholesale transactions this judgment is possibly correct, but for shopkeepiug 
the negro Avhu has received a good common-school education is eminently fitted, 
being bold, confident, and not less "sharp" than the business ethics of his locality 
imperatively demands. It is therefore i>referable to note the progress which "busi- 
ness education," so called, is making in schools for the colored than to describe the 
courses of bricklaying and making, tinning, tailoring, etc., which this or that insti- 
tution has introduced for the iiurposo of building its structures and teaching the 
dignity of labor. In passing to this topic, however, we note the absence of a course 
of instruction iu weaving — a trade especially adajited to the great cotton growing 
region of the world — among the industries taught at the class of institutions of 
which we are speaking. Such a school is iu successful operation in Philadelphia, 
and that of Chemnitz iu Saxony is a model that can not be surpassed here until 
after years of organization. 

A highly organized business course was established at Wilberforce University in 
the fall of 1893. It had its origin in a desire to meet the growing demand for a 
more direct and practical education for business and everyday life. The course ia 
as follows : 

"Commercial arithmetic, i^ractical grammar, bookkeeping, commercial correspond- 
ence, commercial law, rapid calculations, business methods and practice, public 
speaking, and, incidentally, rhetoric, parliamentary proceedings, civil government, 
political economy, business habits, etc. Shorthand and typewriting courses are 
also olfered." 

Typewriting and phonography, one, or both, are also tatight in four other institu- 
tions, two situated in large cities, the others being the St-. Paul Normal and Indus- 
trial School and the Orange Park School. The Colored Normal School of Kentucky 
has a business course of two years, which unites the studies of a secondary school to 
those of the business course of Wilberforce University. 

In conclusion, it may be of interest to the reader to know how all this industrial 
work advances hand in hand with the imparting of the elements -of a thorough com- 
mon-school education, and to gratify any curiosity as to the correlation of the two 
processes the following facts are given: 

At Shaw University, in addition to the four hours required to be spent at one of 
the trades daily for three years, these studies must be pursued: 

First year. Reading, spelling, writing, and mental arithmetic. 
Second year. Writing, arithmetic, geography, and drawing. 
Third year. Arithmetic, grammar, and mechanical drawing. 

At Clark University students iu trades are given a two-hour lesson each day from 
2 to 4 p. m. At the Alcorn College students are divided into squads and cl.asses ; each 
class receives instruction forty-five minutes each day during the forenoon, and the 
squads do "practical" work in the afternoon, for which each student receives from 



1028 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1893-94. 

5 to 8 cents per hour, according to liis ijroficiency. At tlie Alabama State Normal 
and Industrial School the organization as to time is as follows: 

MECHAJfIC ARTS. 

Sec. 1. Carpentry — 3 classes, 8 hours daily, 3 clays a week. 
Sec. 2. Priniing— 2 classes, 3 hours daily, 3 days a week. 
Sec. 3. Mattress making— 1 class, 2 hours daily, 6 days a week. 
Sec. 4. Shoemaking — 2 classes, 2 hours daily, 3 days a week. 
Sec. 5. Blacksmithing — 3 classes, 2 hours daily, 3 days a week. 

AGEICULTDEE. 

Sec. 1. Earming and horticulture — 2 classes, 2-8 hours daily 6 days a week. 
Sec. 2. Dairy and live stock— 1 class, 2-8 hours daily, 6 days a week. 

The Hampton and Tuskegee institutes have inaugurated the night school. These 
night schools are in session from 7 to 9 p. m. and are attended by a few persons who 
work during the day at some remunerated labor. At Hampton labor is required of 
all for the sake of discipline and instruction. Students in the day schools usually 
work during one school day each week and the whole or half of Monday, thus secur- 
ing 4 whole days for study each week and from one and a half to two days of work. 
Work students remain on the place the entire year. 

The mechanics arts course of the branch normal college of Arkansas Industrial 
University is a very complete expression of the bipartite arrangement of the mental 
and manual training in the curriculum of schools having such arrangements or 
advanced lines, and as such is given : 

I. Mechanics Arts Course. 



First term English, 4; geography, 4; arithmetic, 4 ; shop work, principles of carpentry and joinery, 

ten hours per week. 

Second term. — English, 4 ; arithmetic, 4 ; United States history, 4; shop work, wood turning, cabinet- 
making, ten hours per week. 

Third term. — English, 4; arithmetic, 4; United States history, 4; shop work, pattern making, and 
moulding, ten hours per week. 

SUBFBESHMAN CLASS. 

First term: — English, 4 ; geometry, 4 ; physical geography, 4 ; shop work, moulding, and casting, ten 
hours per week. 

Second term. — English, 4 ; algebra, 4 ; physical geography and bookkeeping, 4 ; shop work, manage- 
ment of cupola, forging, ten hours per week. 

Third term. — English, 4; algebra, 4; bookkeeping, 4; elementary physiology, 4; shop work, draw- 
ing, welding, tempering, 10 hours. 

FRESHMAN CLASS. 

First term. — Algebra, 4; English, 4; physics, 4; shop work, chipping, and tiling, 10 hours. 

Second term. — Algebra and geometry, 4; English, 4; physics, 4; shop work, drilling, turning, 10 hours. 

Third term,. — Geometry, 4; English, 4; physics, 4; shop work, planing, 10 hours. 

SOPHOMORE CLASS. 

First lei m. — Geometry, 4 ; chemistry, 4 ; general history, 4 ; shop work, ten hours, or care of engines 
and boilers, 10 hours. 

Second term. — Plane trigonometry, 4; chemistry, 4; general history, 4; shop work, 10 hours, or care 
of engines and boiler.s, 10 hovirs. 

Third term.— Guneral history, 4; psychiology, 4; civil government, 4; shop work, 10 hours, or care 
of engines and boilers, 10 hours. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED EACE. 



1029 



STATISTICAL SUMMARIES. 

Common school statistics classified by race, 1893-94. 



Estimated number 
of i)eraous 5 to 18 
years of age (tlie 

school population). 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware (1891-92) .. 
District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kent acky 

Louisana (1892-93)... 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Korth Carolina 

South Carolina 

Tennessee (1802-03) . 

Texas 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

Total 

Total for 1889-90 . . . . 



White. 



327, 

312, 

39, 

43, 
84, 
357, 
539, 
194, 
247, 
208, 
849, 
379, 
169, 
462, 
693, 
348, 
261, 



5, D18, 290 
5, 132, 948 



Colored. 



280, 600 

121,000 

8,980 

24, 000 

66, 770 
335, 900 

92, 460 
206, 900 

71, 400 
303, 800 

51,700 
227, 800 
283, 900 
150, 000 
212, 500 
247, 900 

10, 800 



2, 702, 410 
2, 510, 847 



Per cent 

of 
colored. 



46.15 
27.94 
18.40 
35.49 
44.21 
48.41 
14.62 
. 51. 58 
22.38 
59.29 

5.74 
37.48 
62.66 
25.23 
23.45 
41.57 

3.96 



32.85 



Pupils enrolled in the 
common schools. 



White. 



190, 305 

209, 109 

28, 316 

26, 242 

59, 503 

262, 530 

394, 070 

92, 816 

166, 248 

158, 685 

623, 589 

242, 572 

106, 176 

368, 481 

463, 888 

231, 433 

211, 630 



3, 835, 593 
3, 402, 420 



Colored. 



115, 709 
76, 050 
4,858 
14, 43(i 

37, 272 
174, 152 

73, 381 
62, 654 

38, 598 
186, 899 

33, 916 
128, 318 

120, 530 
94, 980 

134. 720 

121, 277 
7,185 



1, 424, 995 
1, 296, 959 



Per cent of the 

school population 

enrolled. 



White. 



.58. 13 

67 

71.05 

60.14 

70.63 

73.37 

73. 02 

47.78 

07.19 

76.10 

73. 62 

63.84 

62.76 

79.72 

66.85 

66.42 

80. 93 



69.50 
66.28 



Colored. 



41.23 
62.81 
54.09 
60. le 
55.81 
51.84 
79.38 
30.29 
54.06 
61.51 
65.00 
56.34 
42.48 
59.50 
63.41 
48.92 
60.53 



52.72 
51.66 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware (1801-92)... 
District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky 

Louisiana (1892-93)... 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

North Carolina 

South (Carolina 

Tennes.see (1892-93) . . 

Texas 

Virginia 

West Virginia 



Total 

Total for 1889-90 . 



Average daily 
attendance. 



White. 
9 



112, 800 



19, 746 

20, 224 
38, 752 

157, 626 

243, 433 

C5, 352 

98, 173 

98, 753 



154, 361 
77, 987 
266, 851 
334, 884 
137, 451 
131, 279 



Colored. 



10 



72, 300 



2,947 
11, 124 
25, 386 

104,414 
25, 031 
42, 018 
18, 369 

107, 494 



75, 940 
87, 128 
64, 127 
83, 185 
66, 423 
4,102 



Per cent of the 
enrollment. 



White. 



11 



59.26 



69.70 
77.07 
65.13 
60.04 
61.77 
70.42 
59.06 
62.23 



63.63 
73.45 
72.43 
72.18 
59.40 
62.03 



Colored. 



IS 



02.49 



60.66 
77.05 
68.13 
59.96 
34.10 
6':'. 05 
47.59 
57.51 



59.17 
72.25 
67.53 
61.73 
54.76 
57.10 



65.20 
63.83 



60.07 
62.42 



Number of teachers. 



White. 



13 



4,412 
4,878 
734 
626 
2,151 
5,827 
8,494 
2,333 
3,627 
4,386 
13, 766 
5,285 
2,636 
6,949 
9,960 
6,113 
5,909 



Colored. 



14 



2,196 

1, 408 

106 

310 

772 

8,206 

1,314 

911 

691 

3,191 

755 

3,075 

1,958 

1,803 

2,502 

2,100 

206 



88, 086 
78, 903 



26. 570 
24, 072 



1030 



EDUCATION REPOET, 1893-94. 



Teachers and students in institutions, mainly other tlian common schools for the colored 

race.''- 





4 

o 

05 
U 


Teachers. 


Students. 








1 


Elementary. 


Secondary. 


Collegiate. 


State. 




1 


1 

H 




a 


-i 






1 


"3 

H 




10 
C 
1 
4 
6 

21 
1 
3 

8 
4 
9 
6 

24 
1 
1 
1 

12 

12 
9 

12 
2 


52 

21 

3 

80 
13 
51 
1 
3 
17 
43 
14 
12 
16 
72 


40 
14 

'19' 
13 
62 
1 
3 
39 
28 
10 
10 
10 
40 


113 
39 
3 

103 
42 

131 
2 
6 
56 
71 
24 
60 
26 

143 


712 
128 


774 
143 


1,653 
271 


466 
181 

14 

325 

122 

685 

6 

49 
170 
271 
177 
513 
232 
945 


819 
129 

2 

414 

131 

729 

15 

80 

359 

286 

180 

258 

258 

1,121 


785 
310 

16 

739 

253 

1,414 

21 
129 
529 
557 
357 
771 
490 
2,066 

54 
113 


51 
12 
10 
24 


12 
2 
4 


63 




14 




14 










30 


Florida 


221 
1,246 


250 
2,416 


470 
4,208 


21 




99 


30 


129 








303 

217 
50 
27 

464 
21 

703 


374 
451 
250 

20 
573 

24 
1,293 


677 

906 

807 

47 

1,037 

45 

1,996 










28 
120 
16 
40 
4 
91 


24 

91 

4 

62 

'i3 


52 




211 




20 




102 




4 




104 






Ohio - . .... 


12 

12 
28 
58 
30 
35 
3 


6 

29 
55 
35 
80 
1 


18 
12 
86 

158 
85 

159 
13 








64 


49 


20 
199 
33 
76 
40 


2 

"3' 
10 
14 


22 










199 




1,001 

857 

388 

442 

9 


1,050 

1,180 

643 

710 

7 


2,091 
2,187 
1,031 
1,052 
16 


395 
458 
443 
607 
75 


568 
593 
613 
570 
102 


1,110 
1,051 
1,056 
1,177 
177 


36 




86 


Texas 


54 


















Total 


160 


576 


495 


1,350 


6,789 


10, 158 


18, 494 


6,198 


6,776 


13,175 


863 


277 


1,161 







1 Owing to the failure of some institutions to report the sexes separately', tlie totalis frequently 
larger than it apparently should be. 

2 One school not reporting. 

^ Two schools not reporting. 

'' Three schools not reporting. 

B. 

Students studying to he teachers 5, 940 

Students studying to be nurses 95 

Studying a learned profession 1, 067 

In industrial departments 8, 050 

There are, as shown in the foregoing table (A), over 33,000 pnpils in the elemen- 
tary, secondary, and collegiate departments of institutions which, are very largely 
private cori>orations in character. At equally spaced intervals in the past these 
figures have been as follows: 



Tear. 



Attend- 
ance. 



Increase. 



1877-78 

1882-83 

1888-89 

1893-94 

In 16 years. 



12, 146 
17, 439 
23, 952 
33, 077 



Per cent. 



44 

37 

38 

172 



In short, for every 100 pupils in this class of schools in 1877-78, there were 272 in 
1893-94. It is very hazardous to compare institutions of "secondary grade" for 
whites with anything, even itself; but it appears probable that the increase in 
attendance of private schools for secondary institution from 1880-81 to 1888-89, was 
13 per cent, and in the public high schools of cities 37 per cent. The question then 
is, are we to attribute this extraordinary increase in attendance, on the part of 
the negro, to dissatisfaction with the facilities afforded in the rural districts for 
obtaining an education? Great sums are given to these secondary institutions to 
instruct, lodge, and board the negro pupil, but with the announcement of the 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1031 

offer is coupled the steru reminder that every one must labor, that no loafing will 
he alloAved, as though the authorities had found themselves hampered hy the pres- 
ence of persons attracted to their institution hy the desire for novelty and a childish 
fancy which allows itself to expect results Avithout personal exertion. It is a very 
difficult task the institutions for the higher education of the colored race have set 
for themselves, hut it is to their distinguished merit that the being in them is prob- 
ably the best education that the negro receives, and it is probable that for many 
years they will be, outside of large towns of 10,000 or more inhabitants, the only 
place where his home and school surroundings are not repugnant to a sense of 
delicacy, not to say of decency. 



1032 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1893-94. 

Statistics of schools for the education 



Post-office. 



Athens, Ala 

Huntsville, Ala. . . 

Marion, Ala 

Montgomery, Ala. 

Normal, Ala 



Selma, Ala 

do 

Talladega, Ala . . . 
Tuskaloosa, Ala . 
Tuskegee, Ala . . . 



Arkadelphia, Ark 

do 

Little Rock, Ark . 
do 

Pine Bluff, Ark... 



16 Southland, Ark. 

17 Dover, Del 



"Washington, D. C 

do 

do 

do 



Jacksonville, Pla. 
do 

Live Oak, Ma 

Ocala, Pla 

Orange Park, Ma. 

Tallahassee, Fla. . 



Athens, Ga. 

do 

do 

Atlanta, Ga. 

do 

do , 

do 

do , 

do 

do 

Augusta, Ga . 



.do 



....do 

College, Ga 

La Grange, Ga. . . 

Mcintosh, Ga 

Macon, Ga 

Koswell, Ga 

Savannah, Ga 

Thomasville, Ga . 



Waynesboro, Ga . . 

Cairo, 111 

Evansville, Ind . . . 
Indianapolis, Ind . 
New Albany, Ind . 

Berea, Ky 

Frankfort, Ky.... 



Lebanon, Ky... 
Lexington, Ky. 
Louisville, Ky . 



Name. 



Trinity Normal School 

Central Alabama Academy 

Lincoln Normal School 

State Normal School for Colored 
Students. 

State Normal and Industrial 
School. 

Burrell Academy 

Selma University 

Talladega College 

Stillman Institute 

Tuskegee Normal and Industrial 
School. 

Arkadelphia Baptist Academy. . . 

Shorter University 

Arkansas Baptist College 

Philander Smith College 

Branch Normal College of Ar- 
kansas Industrial University. 

Southland College and Normal 
Institute. 

State CoUege for Colored Stu- 
dents. 

High School, 7th and 8th divisions . 

Way land Seminary 

Howard University.... , 

Washington Normal, 7th and 8th 
divisions. 

Cookman Institute 

Edward Waters College 

Florida Institute 

Emerson Home 

Orange Park Normal and Normal 
Training School. 

State Normal and Industrial Col- 
lege for Colgred Students. 

West Broad Street School 

Jeruel Academy 

Knox Institute 

Gammon Theological Seminary.. 

Stor rs School 

Clark University 

Atlanta Baptist Seminary 

Atlanta University 

Morris Brown College 

Spelman Seminary 

Haines Normal and Industrial 
School. 

The Paine Institute 

Walker Baptist Institute 

Georgia State Industrial College. 

La Grange Academy School 

Dorchester Academy 

Ballard Normal School 

Roswell Public School 

Beach Institute 

Allen Normal and Industrial 

School. 

Haven Normal Academy 

Sumner High School 

Governor Street School 

Indianapolis High School (colored) 

Scribner High School 

Berea College 

State Normal School for Colored 

Persons. 

St. Augustines Academy 

Chandler Normal School 

Central High School 



President or principal. 



Miss K. S. Dalton 
A. W. McKinney . , 

W. J. Larkiu 

No report 



W.H.Councill. 



Rev. A. T. Burnell 

C.S.Dinkins 

Martin Lovering , 

Rev. A. L. Phillips 

Booker T. Washington. 



F.L.Jones 

B.W.Arnett.jr-... 
Joseph A. Brooker. 

Thomas Mason 

Joseph C. Corbin . . 



William Russell. 
Wesley Webb . . . 



F. L. Cardoza . . 

G. N. P. King . . 
J. E. Rankin . . . 
Lucy E. Moten. 



LillieM. Whitney... 

Rev. John R. Scott 

Rev. G. P. McKinney 

C. A. Bnckbee 

Amos W. Farnham . . 



T.DeS. Tucker. 



Archibald J. Cary 

John H. Brown 

L.S.Clark 

Wilbur P. Thirkield. . . . 

EUa E. Roper 

D.C.John 

Rev. George Lale 

Horace Bumstead 

A. St. George Richardson 
Miss Harriet E. Giles . . . 
Miss Lucy C. Laney 



Rev. George Wms. 
Walker. 

G. A. Goodwin 

R.R. Wright 

J. H. Brooks 

Fred. W. Foster 

F.T. Waters 

J. L. Strozier 

Julia B. Ford 

Miss Amelia Merriam. . 



E. C. Fairchild , 

J. C. Lewis 

John R. Blackburn 

Goorge W. Hufford 

W. O. Vance 

Rev. William G. Frost . 
John H. Jackson 



Sister Mary Oswin. 
Fanny J. Webster . 
A. E. Meyzeek 



Religiows de- 
nomination. 



Cong 
M. E. 
Cong 



None 

Cong 
Bap.. 
Cong 
Pres . 



Bap .. 

Meth 



Friends . 



Bap 

Nonsect 



M.E 

A.M.E.. 
Bap 



A.M. A. 



Bap 

Cong 

M.E 

Cong 

M.E 

Bap 

Nonsect 
A. M. E . 

Bap 

Pres 



Meth 



M.E. 
Cong 
...do - 



Cong 
. . -do . 



Cath. 
Cong. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1033 



of the colored race, 1S93-94. 



Source of support. 








Students. 




Teachers. 


Ele- 
mentary. 


Sec- 
ondary. 


CoUe- 
giate. 


Indus- 
trial. 


Normal. 


Profes- 
sional. 




2, 


_2 

a 


"0 

H 


6 




eS 
1 


"0 




"a 
1 


3 




.2 
3 


a 


3 



H 


3 


a 


"3 


6 


6 

1 
Ph 


1 




® 
■« 
S 


_© 

a 


1 


H 




5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


16; 16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 




A.M. A 






5 
4 
6 


36 
"55 


102 
"83 


138 
167 
188 


14 


16 


30 


... - -- 






















1 


F.A.&S.E.S 

A.M. A 


i 


"5 


























2 


1 


















5 


5 








3 




























4 




13 

I 


11 

6 
2 


24 

8 
6 

12 
2 

46 

4 

in 


115 
2i5 


28 
117 


28 

059 


153 105 

3 2 
89 70 
38 25 


258 

5 
159 
63 


13 


9 


22 


112 
75 


146 

47 


258 
122 


62 
25 


51 

60 


113 

85 
44 
12 








5 


A.M. A 








6 




...1... 
287502 


2 

8 

28 


3 


5 
8 

28 


3 
10 
25 


"2 


3 
12 
25 


7 


A.ii.A 

Pres.Ch 








4 


8 


8 


2... 
30 Ifi 












9 


State and county 


291 
35 


157 
49 


448 

84 


169 loi 


270 
20 








169101 270 




10 






10 
23 
13 
36 
90 

9 

14 

140 
1]2 
72 

1 

35 


12 
33 
5 
13 
51 

15 
2 

320 
57 
12 
25 

30 


















25 








11 


A.M. E. Conf 


6 
2 
5 

4 

4 

3 

12 

7 

61 


4 


56 










21 


21 






6 




6 


12 




2! 4 








18 
49 
141 

24 

16 

460 
169 
84 
26 

65 


I 


2 


5 
9 








8 


n 




3 
2 

3 

7 


8 
6 

7 

3 

1Q 


















18 




18 


14 




25 

68 


15 

79 


40 
147 


42 
16 


20 
40 


62 
56 


115 
25 


66 isi 


15 










33 


58 








16 




10 


4 


14 










17 


City and Nation 

A. B. H. M 
























18 


5 12 

7 fi8 
















1 


112 


57 


169 
169 


34 




34 
(1214 


19 










24 


6 


30 




1 


20 






4 

.5 










1 


1 


25 


''6 




21 


P.A.and S. E. S 


"3 
3 
1 




78 


128 
44 
35 


206 










1 










?? 


3 fi' 74 


118! 22 
65' 25 

1 


19 41 
























23 


A.B.H.M 


5 
2 


8 30 


46 


71 












21 


40 


61 


17 




17 


2| 




3 
11 

q 












30 30 


25 


A.M. A 


30 


43 


82 


13 

27 

16 

26 

3 


5 

31 

21 
24 

1 


18 

58 

37 

50 

4 










13 

10 


5 

8 


18 
18 








26 




6 


3 

1 
3 






21 


1""" 

27, 31' 58 








27 




2 
4 
4 
4 
7 
16 
3 
7 
10 
12 
14 

6 

4 
10 
2 
2 
4 


177 
34 
85 


233 


-nn 








28 




32 66 
154 239 










26 
3 


24 

1 


50 
4 








29 










6 7.5 ai 








30 


Endowment 




"7 
4 
2 
2 
7 
11 












8 




SO 


31 




90 


167 257 
























32 




12 

5 
3 
1 




372 

86 

274 


42 
94 
46 
176 

'26 

63 

24 
43 


44 


86 
0.1 


14 




14 




.. -^14 






51 

57 
99 
25 
17 
71 

111 

93 

47 
25 








33 




86 


... 




12 


13 




13 


34 




3[ 49 
193.369 
56 56 


18 
10 


5 
25 


23 
35 






35 


A. M. E 




1 






24 




24 


36 




ii5 

40 
41 


546 
217 

25 

63 


546 
332 

65 

4 




375 s?.'; 


26 

61 

6 


17 
45 

50 

87 


37 


Pres 


45 
64 


71 

127 

24 
43 




















38 


M.E.Ch.So 


4 

3 
10 
1 
1 
2 


2 
1 

i 

1 

2 




















39 






















40 




57 




57 
















41 




40 


f;i 


91 








10 15 


1 




1 


42 




154'236 


10 

12 


4 
28 
37 
38 
71 

100 


14 
40 
69 
43 
83 

155 














43 


A.M.A 


100 360 460 








45 


370 


415 


2i 9 


11 








44 




111 
113 


109 2201 32 
135 248! 5 
21' 31! 1'' 


















45 


A.M.A 




8 
6 

10 
3 

3 

10 
6 


8 














1 


1 








46 


do 




6! 10 








7 


73 


80 










47 




2 

1 

\ 

1 
10 
3 


6 
2 
? 


50 


67117 


55 
6 
16 

28 
5 










55 


100 


155 








48 




15 21 


















49 




?83 


342 625 


28 
44 


44 

72 
13 
190 
83 

41 
























50 




? 






























51 




2 

^^ 

3 
10 

7 


20 


32 


52 
























5'> 




77'lis 


17 
11 


4 
20 


21 
31 


30 
22 


45 
54 


75 
76 


.33 


6 
59 


6 
92 






53 










27 


56 
41 






54 


Sisters of Loretto 

A.M.A 




35 


35 
238 
308 








50 








50 


125 I7n 


5 


14 


19 








56 


\ 1 


82 226 


43 


122 


165 




... 






■ 








57 



a Not including 85 nurses. 



1034 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1893-94. 



Statistics of schools for the education 



Post-office. 



IName. 



President or principal. 



Religious de- 
nomination. 



115 
116 



Louisville, Ky . 



Paris, Ky 

Alexandria, La . 
Baldwin, La 



New Iberia, La . . 
New Orleans, La. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Baltimore, Md ... 



do 

Hebbville, Md 



Princess Anne, Md 



Clinton, Miss 

Edwards, Miss 

Holly Springs, Miss 

do 

Jackson, Miss 

Meridian, Miss 

Natchez, Miss 

Tongaloo, Miss 

"Westside, Miss 



Bowling Green, Mo . 

LLannibal, Mo 

Jefferson City, Mo . 
Kansas CityjMo.. . 

Mill Spring, Mo 

Sedalia, Mo 

Borden town, N. J . . 

Asiiboro, N. C 

Beaufort, N. C 

Charlotte, N. C 

Clinton, N.C 

Concord, N.C 

Elizabeth City,]Sr. C 
Eayetteville, N. C. 
Franklinton.N. C. 

Goldsboro, N. C 



Greensboro, N.C... 
do 



Kings Mountain 

N. C. 
Lumberton, N. C. . . 
Pee Dee, N.C 

Plymouth, N. C . . . . 

Raleigh, N. C 

do 

Keidsville, N, C . . . . 
Salisbury, N. C .... 

do 

Warrenton, N. C . . 
Wilmington, N. C. 
Windsor, N. C . . . . 

Winton.N. C 

Wilberforce, O 

Lincoln University 

Pa 
Aiken, S.C 

Beaufort, S. C 

do 



Christian Bible School 



Paris High School 

Alexandria Academy 

Gilbert Academy and Agricul- 
tural College. 

Mount Carmel Convent 

Now Orleans University 

Leland University 

Southern University 

La Harpo Academy 

Straight University 

Baltimore City Colored High 
School. 

Morgan College 

Baltimore Normal School for 
Training Colored Teachers. 

Princess Anne Academy of Mary- 
land Agricultural College. 

Mount Hermon Female Seminary. 

Lutherau Christian Institiite 

Mississippi State Normal School. . 

Rust University 

Jackson College 

Meridian Academy 

Natchez College 

Tongaloo University 

Alcorn Agricultural and Me- 
chanical College. 

Bowling Green High School 

Douglass High School 

Lincoln Institute 

Lincoln High School 

Hale's College 

George R. Smith College 

Colored Industrial School 

Ashboro Normal School , 

WashbuTu Seminary 

Biddle University 

Clinton Normal Institute 

Scotia Seminary 

State Colored Normal School 

State Normal School 

Albion Academy and Normal 
School. 

State Normal for the Colored 
People. 

Bennett College.. 

Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
lege for the Colored Race. 

Lincoln Academy 



Adoniram Judson Thorn 
son. 

J. C. Graves 

No report 

Rev. W. D. Godman 



Christ . 



No report 

L. G. Adkinson 

Edward C.Mitchell.. 

H.A.Hill 

(Siispeuded) 

Oscar Atwood 

George Lewis Staley 

E.G.Wagner 



M.E. 



Cong 
M.E. 



B. O.Bird 



Sarah A. Dickey 

J. B. Lelimau 

E.D. Miller 

C.E.Llbby 

C. Ayer 

G. G. Logan 

S.N. C.Owen 

Erank G. Wood worth. 
T. J. Calloway 



Christ 



M.E. 
Bap. . 
Meth 



Whitin Normal School 

Barrett Collgeiate and Industrial 
Institute. 

Plymouth State Normal 

St. Augustine's School 

Shaw University 

City Graded School (col.) 

Livingstone College 

State Normal School 

Shiloh Institute 



Gregory Normal Institute 

Rankin Richards Institute 

Waters Normal Institute 

Wilberforce Uuniversity 

Lincoln University 



Schoiield Normal and Industrial 
School. 

Beaufort Academy 

Harlison Institute 



W.J.Rowley 

J.H.Pelham 

InmauE. Page 

G.N. Grisham 

W.H.Hale 

Rev. P. H. Cool 

Rev. W.A.Rice 

No report 

E.S.Hitchcock 

D. J. Sanders 

G.W. Herring 

D. J. Satterfield 

P. W. Moore 

G.H. Williams 

Rev. John A. Saverger. 

Rev. R. S. Rives 



Rev. J. D. Chavis 
J. O. Crosby 



Miss Lillian S. Cathcart. 



D.P.Allen.... 
A. M. Barrett . 



H.C.Crosby 

Rev. A. B. Hunter. . 
Charles S. Meserve 

C. C. Somerville 

William K. Golar . . 

Rev. J. Rumple 

J.A.Whitted 

F. T. Waters 

Rhoden Mitchell. . . 

C. S. Brown 

S.T.Mitchell 

Isaac N. Rendall ... 



Martha Schofleld . 



Rev. G.M.Elliott. 
do 



NonS 
M.E.. 



NonS 
Pres . ? 



Pres . 



Meth . 



Cong 



NonS . 
do. 



P.E 
Bap. 



M. E . . 
Non S 



Cong ... 
Non'S .. 

Bap 

A. M. E . 
Pres 



Non. S . 



Pros . 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1035 



of the colored race, 1893-94 — Continued. 



Source of support. 








Students. 




Teachers. 


Ele- 
mentary. 


Sec- 
ondary. 


Colle- 
giate. 


Indus- 
trial. 


Normal. 


Profes- 
sional. 




_2 


6 

i 


o 
H 





6 

a 





6 


s 


1 


H 

14 


'a 
15 


6 
"3 

g 

16 


3 

"o 
H 

17 


.2 

"is 

IS 


6 

a 

19 


"3 

H 


■3 


.2 

IS 

a 
22 


1 

H 

23 


6 
"3 

24 

22 


"3 

a 

52 


3 


H 
26 

22 




5 


G 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


20 21 




Clirist. Ch 


2 

1 


7 


2 

8 


27 

ins 


... 27 
190 298 


6 

17 


27 


6 

44 












5 






















5 
































6( 


F. A. and S. E. S 


8 


10 18 


44 


i46 igo 


11 


8 


19 








20 


60 


80 














6 


























6' 




18 
4 
6 


I 

7 


24 

7 

13 


... 


...437 


23 


in 


33 7 


1 


« 




i46 
43 


168 




'ie 


39 
44 


42 




42 


fi' 




1071'>7 


2S4 i% I.q' r>2'iAn 


ogol 2« 


H'l 




6ioi'i2n 


32| 22 54' 68 71 ISO 64 


107 


■ 








6r 












!.. 














6f 




7 
1 

4 

1 

8 


2 
3 

4 
3 


9 

4 

8 
1 

11 


... 


... 


GO 


98 110 21 7i 2'.-_ 


2... 




173 








10 




10 


«■ 




29 

113 

7 

28 


75104 

61174 
lOJ 17 

34 62 










6f 










16 


4 


20 


8 


7 


15 


"7 
34 


"io 
45 


82 
17 

79 


6 




6 


6f 










7( 




27 20 
78 1 14 


47 












100 








71 


K 


192 
20 




















7' 


Christ Cli 


1 


5 


6 


in 


10 
97 


■A^ 


34 73 

5' 17 
10 30 




















8 




8 


7' 




3 88 
10 67 


IBR 12 


"'7 


60 
2 


60 
9 




85 


85 


12 

31 


5 

41 


17 
72 


7, 




6 


4 


941 fil '.'(\ 










A.B.H.M 


! 








79 


57 136 
















7f 


F. A.&S.E.S 


4 
1 


"i 


9,7 


44 

58 


71 


102 165 

28 54 

16 36 

6 260 

20 40 
20 35 
77 167 
62 87 
20; 45 
59 116 














21 


18 


39 








7' 


2j 24 
16170 


S2 26 




















7f 




150 326 20 








80 
29 1 


95 
2 


175 
293 


20 


16 


36 








7': 








13 
9 






254 

20 


33 




3? 








8f 






2 


Ti 


20 35 


















R 






2 2| 6 


4 10 T5 


















"*' ' 








8' 




6 
3 
3 

4 


2 8 
1 4 
1 4 








90 
25 
25 
57 


4 




4 




















8' 




























8 




























2 




2 


8' 


F.A.&S. E.S 


2 


fi 




















8( 












54 












54 














8' 








































8f 


A.M. A 


1 

12 


5 




6 

12 
9 


72 


77i49 
















77 


77 
136 


10 
40 
40 


15 

'44 
16 


25 








8' 






"09 


203 
44 84 


57 





57 




40 
84 
16 


18 




18 


9f 








40 

'58 

15 

185 

24 

G2 
30 

4 

16 
40 

50 
3 
22 
5 
64 
14 
20 
15 
10 

;-t5 

64 


tl 


Pres.Ch 


1 


1 


2 
3 




270 270 


16 16 
116174 

51 66 
235 420 










286 


286 








9' 






















C) 


State 






3 

5 

6 

10 

7 

6 

2 
4 

3 
2 

26 
2 

17 
4 
8 
7 
3 
3 

18 

12 

12 
8 


20 


20 


40 














15 


51 


66 













2, 3 








40 
59 


60 
104 


100 
163 








q 






35 
5 

71 

6 

20 


53 

125 

15 
25 


88 
5 

196 

21 
45 


51 

106 
19 

9 

25 
57 

111 

.t 

9 

63 
26 
45 
50 
25 
48 
49 


75 

198 
49 

13 

41 
97 

161 
7 
33 
54 

127 
40 
65 
65 
35 
83 

113 








1 
3 


2 
12 


3 
15 








q 




5 5 

1 ... 

3 3 

\ 1 














q 


State 






7 














q 


A.M. A 


26 


160 


186 


11 
16 


18 
25 


29 
41 








<! 
















10 






















10 


















50 
17 
81 


111 

16 

108 


161 
33 
189 








in 




j 


63! 103 
52:135 
139 147 


166 
187 
286 








33 
67 


55 
94 


88 
161 








10 


B.H.M.S 


2ll 5 

2 
10 7 

3 1 


13 


7 


20 


111 




111 


10 
in 




10 

4 


4 
2 


14 
6 






45 






52 
118 
65 
68 


7 








State 


36 42 

30' 30 
70' 130 


78 
60 

200 
75 

130 


50 
20 
23 


68 
45 
45 


10 




















10 


A.M.A 




7 
1 
1 
6 

3 




















10 




2 
2 

12 
12 

9 


25 
59 


50 
71 




















11 


A.B.H.M 


























11 




20 
199 


2 


22 
499 


51 


82 


133 






eo 






7 
29 












29 ' 


1 1 




88 
184 


100 
196 


188 
■?8n 


52 

1 
15 


145 

7 
8 


197 

8 






35 


10 
1 


20 

7 


30 

8 






11 




















11 
11 


Pres.Ch 


1 2 




21 34l 35I 69 


23 





















1036 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1893-94. 



Statisiics of schools for the education 



Post-otfice. 



President or principal. 



Religious de- 
nomination. 



Camdon,S. C 

Charleston, S. C 

do 

Chester, S. C 

Columbia, S. C 

do 

Frogniore, S. C 

Greenwood, S. G . . . 
Orangeburg, S. C. . . 



Jonesboro, Tenn . . . 

Knoxville, Tenn 

do 

Mary ville, Tenn 

Memphis, Tenn 

do 

Morristown, Tenn . 
Murfreesboro, Tenn 
Nashville, Tenn . . . 

.... do 

do 

do 

Austin, Tex 



Brenham, Tex . 
Groctett, Tex . 
Galveston, Tex. 
Hearne, Tex ... 



Marshall, Tex 

do 

Prairie Vievr,Tex. 

Waco, Tex 

Burkeville, Va . . . . 



Hampton, Va 

Lawren cevlUe, Va 



Longfield,Va ... 
Manchester, Va. 

Norfolk, Va 

Petersburg, Va . 



-do 
-do 



Richmond, Va 

....do 

Staunton, Va 

Farm, W. Va 

jSarpers Ferry, W. 
Va. 



Browning Industrial Home and 

School. 

Avery Normal Institute 

Wallingford Academy 

Brainard Normal and Industrial 

Institute. 

Allen University 

Benedict College 

Penn Normal and Industrial 

School. 

Brewer Normal School 

Claflin Universitjf, Agricultural 

College and Mechanical Insti- 
tute. 

Warner Institute 

A ustin High School 

Knoxville College 

Freedmen's Normal Institute 

Hannibal Medical College 

LeMoyne Normal Institute 

Morristown Normal Academy ... 

Bradley Academy 

Central Tennessee College 

Fisk Univer.'iity 

Meigs High School 

Roger Williams University 

TilTotson Collegiate and Normal 

Institute. 

East End High School 

Mary Allan Seminary 

Central High School 

Hearne Academy and Industrial 

Institute. 

Bishop College 

Wiley University , 

Prairie View State Normal School 

Paul Quinn College 

Ingleside Seminary 



Hampton Normal and Agricul- 
tural Institute. 

St. Paul Normal and Industrial 
School. 

Cuny College 

Public High School (col.) 

Norfolk Mission College 

Bishop Payne Divinity and In- 
dustrial School. 

Peabod Y School 

Virginil JTormal and Collegiate 
Institute. 

Richmond Theological Seminary . 

Hartshorn Memorial College 

The Valley Training School 

West Virginia Colored Institute . 

Storer College 



Nellie A. Grouch. 



Meth 



Morrison A. Holmes . 
Rev. T. A. Grove - . . . 
John S. Marques, jr. . 



Joseph W. Morris . 
Rev. C. E. Becker . . 
Miss L. M. Towne . 



do .. 

A. M. E . 



Rev. J. M. Robinson 
L. M. Dunton 



Anna R. Miner 

J. W. Manning 

J. S. McCulloch 

L. H. Garner 

TarletonC. Cottrell., 
Andrew J. Steele — 

Judson S.Hill , 

F.G.Carney 

John Braden 

E.M. Cravath 

R.S. White 

A. Owen 

Rev. Wm. M. Brown 



H.M.Tarver 

Rev. John B.Smith. 

J. R. Gibson 

M. H. Braylos 



N. Nolverton 

I.B.Scott 

L. C. Anderson 

H.T.Kealing 

Rev. Graham C. Camp- 
bell. 
H.B.Frissell 



Rev. James S. Russell . 



R. E. Kennedy 

J. H. Blackwell 

J.B.Work 

Rev. E. L. Goodwin 



James E. Shields 

James Hugo Johnston . 



Charles H. Corey. 
Lyman B. Teflt . . 

D. C. Deans 

John H.Hill 

N. C.Brackett ... 



U. Pres . . . . 
So. Friends 



M. E 
Cong 



Bap. 



Pres . 



Bap . 
M. E. 



A. M.E. 
Pres 



Bap 



United Pres 
P.E 



Bap. 



-do 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED EACE. 



1037 



of the colored race, 1S93-94 — Coutiuiied. 



Source of support. 








Students. 




Teachers. 


Ele- 
mentary. 


Sec- 
ondary. 


Colle- 
giate. 


Indus- 
trial. 


Normal. 


Profes- 
sional. 




3 


6 

S 
o 


3 



H 


6 


6 

a 


3 




IS 


6 
1 


3 




6 

a 


"cs 



H 


ID 


6 

a 


"3 

H 


'3 


"3 

a 

Pm 
22 


1 
H 

23 


ID 

"3 
24 


6 
"3 

a 

25 


3 

H 

26 




b 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


U 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 




M E Ch 




4 


4 

9 
5 

4 

12 
9 
4 

8 
9 

4 
4 
16 
16 
13 
16 
12 


70 


,<n 


110 

275 
152 
162 

271 


9 

35 
12 
15 

16 


56 

92 
32 
23 

17 

12 

3 
173 

2 
12 
41 

9 


65 

127 
44 
38 

33 
147 
36 

10 
382 

4 

17 
80 

3 














9 

35 
15 
15 


56 

92 
25 
23 


65 

127 
40 
38 

28 
140 
30 

10 
91 

4 








117 


AMA 




122 1 ^^ 




















118 


Pres Ch 


3 

2 

8 
3 
1 


2 
2 

4 
6 
3 


78 
64 

139 

ii7 

105 


74 
98 

132 

ios 

117 
















... 




119 


cio 














120 




4 

1 




4 
1 


157 


175 


332 


13 

43 
(a) 




13 
43 


121 




40 ... 
222 24 

52?> 7 






192 




85 


83 


168 


20 

7 
43 

2 


10 

3 

48 

2 


123 


A M A 








124 










909 


28 


3 


31 


200 


194 


454 


30 




30 


125 








53 
215 

i26 


60 

218 

137 


113 
433 
150 
263 


2 

5 

39 
1 


12a 
127 




2 
6 
9 


2 

10 
7 




















U. Pres. Ch 


9 


1 


10 


35 


90125 


39 

45 


41 

44 


80 
89 


7 




7 


128 








129 





















9 


130 








188 


236 


424 


68i62 
124 901 


170 
325 

24 
200 

72 
102 

54 

34 

47 

19Q 














68 
124 


102 
201 


170 
325 






131 


























132 








131 


187 


318 


5 
93 
64 
31 
26 
22 

18 

24 

17 

105 
100 
104 
53 

411 

33 

10 

38 

23 

8 

11 
63 


19 

107 
8 
71 
28 
12 

29 
129 




















133 




24 
9 
3 
5 


10 

20 


34 
29 

3 
11 

9 

2 
14 

4 
11 

14 
11 
11 
9 
8 

80 

13 

4 
7 

14 
2 

2 
12 

4 
8 
3 
4 
9 


11 
37 


2 13 


43 


60 


103 
164 


"s 


'79 


35 

87 


166 
6 


'.'.'. 


166 



131 




96 


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BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

I. 
EDUCATION OF THE COLORED EACE. 

Abp.ott, Lymais'. The education of the freedmen. Proceed. Am. Inst. Instr., 1865, 
p. 71. 

A brief sketch of the schools for black people and their descendants, established by 
the religious society of Friends in 1770. Phila., 1867. 8°. Pamph. 32 pp, 

Adams, John, first colored teacher in Washington, D. C. Barnard's Am. Jour. Ed., 
19 : 198. 

African Education Society. Ee])ort of the proceedings at the formation of the 
society, Dec, 1829, Tvith address to the public. Wash., 1830. 8°. 

Alexander, J. W. Eeligious instruction to negroes. Princ, 17: 591. 

American Association of Educators of Colored Youth. 'Jour, of proceed, of session of 
Dec, 1891, held at Nashville, Tenn. Winston, N. C, 1892. 8'^. Pp. 192. 

American Missionary Association, History of the, ■with illustrative facts and anec- 
dotes. New York, 1891. 12°. 96 pp. 

Anduevv'S, C. C. B[istory of the New York African free schools, from their estab- 
lishment in 1787; also an account of the Now York Manumission Society, 
with appendix. New York, 1830. 12°. 

Andrews, C. G. Education of the colored race: its imi^ortaiice, its methods, its 
limitations. Educ.,6:221. 

Andrews, S. Education of negroes, Old and New, 1 : 200, 373. 

Armstrong, Samuel C. Coeducation of races. U. S. Bureau of Education — Giro, 
of Inform., No. 3, 1883, p. 63. 

Normal-school work among the freedmen. Proceed, Nat. Educ. Assoc, 1872, 

p. 174. 

What education has done for the negro. Frank Leslie's, Jan. 18, 1890. 

Arnold, S. G. Education among the freedmen. Meth. Quart. Eev., 60: 43. 

Bacon, Benj. C. Statistics of the colored people of Philadeli^hia, taken by and 
published by order of board of education of the Pennsylvania society for 
promoting the abolition of slavery. 2ded. Phila., 1859. 8°. Pamph. 24 pp. 

Barnard, Henry. Special re^iort on the condition aud improvement of the public 
schools in the District of Columbia. Legal status of the colored jjopulation 
in respect to schools and education in the differeut States, 1871. 8°. Also 
in Barnard's Am. Jour. Educ, vol. 19, pp. 1-300, 305-400, 401-850. 

Barrows, Samuel J. What the Southern negro is doing for himself. Atlan., 
67 : 805. 

Bartholomew, W. H. Educational work among the colored race. Nat. Educ. 
Assoc, 1886, p. 229. 

Bassett, E. D. The education of the freedmen. Proceed. Am. Inst. Instr., 1865, 
p. 79. 

Bateman, Newton. Colored children and the public schools. 111. Sch. Rep., 
1873-4, p. 43. 

Beach institute for colored children, 1879. Savannah, Ga. Baruard's Am. Jour. 
Ed., 19:470. 

Becraft, Maria, colored teacher. Barnard's Am. Jour, Ed., 19 : 204. 
1038 



BIBLIOGKAPHY OF NEGRO EDUCATION. 1039 

Bexezet, Antiioxy (1713-1784), first teacher of negroes in Philudelpliia. Bar- 
nard's Am. Jour. Ed., 19 : 374. 

BiXGiiA^r, ItOBEKT. The new Soutli. Delirered Feb. 25, 1884, in Wasliington, D. C, 
before llie Supts. Dept. of the Natl. Educ. Assoc. Pampb. 22 pp. 8^' 

Blair, Hexry W. A problem in civilization. Proceedings and Addresses of the 
Nat. Ed. Assoc., 1890, p. 276. 

BouRXE, W. 0. Schools for colored jjeople. In History of the public school 
society of the city of New York, p. 665. New York, 1870. 8'=. 

BowEN, E. A. A colored school in Georgia. New Eng. Jour. Ed., 12: 11. 

BuMSTEAD, Horace. The freedmen's children at school. Andov. Rev., 4: 550. 

BURRUS, Jonx H. Educational progress of the colored people in the South. Pro- 
ceedings and Addresses of the Nat. Educ. Assoc, 1889, p. 202. 

Cable, Geo. W. Does the negro pay for his education? Forum, 13: 646. 

Education of the common people of the South. Cosmopol., 14: 63. 

Calaiiax, Thomas. Teaching among the freedmeu. lud, Sch. Jour., March, 1864, 
p. 60. 

Carroll, Charlotte, teacher of negroes in Washington, D. C. Barnard's Am Jo'ir. 
Ed., 19: 272. . 

Carroll, H. K. Religious ^irogress of the negro. Forum, 14: 75. v^ rf\lLO. <AyV>AQA/ 

Chase, C. Thurstox. A manual on schoolhouses and cottages for the fjeajTlevof 
the South. Washington, D. C, 1868. 8^. '^ 

Cheney, Mrs. Edxah D. Mohonk conference to consider the education of the negro 
race. Open Court, July 3, 1890. 

Crowell, Wm. C. Report to the primary school committee on the petition of sun- 
dry colored persons for the abolition of the schools for colored children, 
with city solicitor's oinnion, 1846. Spec. Sch. Reps, of Boston, 1826-1866, 
pp. 3-30. 

Curry, J. L. M. Difficiilties, complications, and limitations connected with the 
education of the negro. (Trustees of the John F. Slater fund — occasional 
papers. No. 5). Baltimore, 1895. pp. 23. 8'^. 

• Education of the negroes since 1860. (Trustees of the John F. Slater fund — 

occasional papers. No. 3). Baltimore, 1894, 8°. 32 pp. 

Delaware Association for the Moral Improvement and Education of the Colored 
People. An. Reps., 1868, 1869, 1870. Wilmington, Del. 

for the education of colored people. Reports of the actuary for Oct. 1, 1876 to 

Juno 30, 1877; Oct. 1, 1877 to May 31, 1878; Oct. 1, 1878 to May 30, 1879; 
Oct. 1, 1879 to June 30, 1880; Oct. 1, 1880 to June 30, 1881; Oct. 1, 1881 to 
June 30, 1882; Oct. 1, 1882 to June 30, 1883; Oct. 1, 1883 to June 30, 1884; 
Oct. 1, 1884 to Juno 30, 1885; Oct. 1, 1885 to May 31, 1886. Wilmington, Del. 
[Delaware association for the education of the colored j)eople was formally 
abandoned in 1887, and the African School Society, incorporated in the year 
1824, and having for its object the education of colored children, assumed 
the work, issuing reports as follows: Oct. 1, 1886 to May 31, 1887; Oct. 1, 
1887 to April 30, 1888; Oct. 1, 1888 to May 31, 1889. AYilmington, Del.] 

Devclojiment of schools for the freedmen. Barnard's Am. Jour. Ed., 19 : 193. 

Education of the colored race. Am. Museum, 6 : 383. Am. An. Educ., 1831, p. 84; 
1833, pp. 284, 287, 498, 596; 1834, pp. 386, 481, 530; Am. Ed. Mo., 12: 28, 217; 
Brooklyn (N. Y.) Jour. Ed., 1:520; Am. Jour. Ed. St. Louis, 9:9; Ed. Jour. 
Ya., 10: 56; 111. Rep. Pub. Schs., 1873-74, p. 43; Independ., vol. 43, 1891, p. 
478 ; Ind. Sch. Jour., May, 1867, p. 152 ; Mass. Teach., 18 : 169 ; Nation, 45 : 109, 
246; NewEng. Jour. Ed, 14:119, 183,232,266,341,357; New York Sch. Jour., 
4:4; Mo. Sch. Rep., 1866, p. 190; Ohio Sch. Rep., 1865, p. 45; 1877, p. 45; 
Penna. Sch. Jour. 3: 262; R. I. Schoolmaster, 13:262; Teuu. Sch. Rep., 1869, 
pp. 90-94. 

Educational status of negroes. Lend a Hand, 6: 149. 



1040 EDUCATION REPOET, 1893-94. 

Extracts from letters of teachers and superintendents of the New England educa- 
tional commission for freedmen. Boston, 1864. 8°. 

Fairchild, E. H. Coeducation of the races and sexes. U. S. Bureau of Ed. — Spec. 
Eep. New Orleans Exposition, 1884-85, pp. 468-470. 

Finger, S. M. Educational and religious interests of the colored people of the South. 
U. S. Bureau of Ed.— Circular of Information, No. 2, 1886, pp. 123-133. 

Freedmen's Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. An. Reps. 1868-1895. 
Cinn., Ohio. 

Freedmen, Annual reports of the Presbyterian Committee of Missions for. 1871- 
1882. [Committee incorporated under the name of Presbyterian Board of 
Missions for Freedmen. An. Reps. 1883. Pittsburg. 8°.] 

Freedmen's Bureau: 

1. Reports. 

Annual re]3ort of Adjutant- General's Branch of Freedmen for 1873-1877. 

Annual report of Superintendent of North Carolina, for 1864, 1867; of Louisiana, 
for 1865; of Alabama, for 1867; of the District of Columbia and West Vir- 
ginia for 1867. 

Report of Commissioner of Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned 
Lands, for 1865-1871. 

Report of Schools and Finances of Freedmen, Jan., 1866 and July, 1866. 

Report of the General Superintendent of Freedmen. Department of the Ten- 
nessee and State of Arkansas, for 1864-65. 

Report of the Secretary of War for 1867, containing a synopsis of the report of 
the Commissioners of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned 
Lands, for the same year. 

Semiannual reports on schools and finances of Freedmen, by J. W. Alvord, 
inspector, from Jan. 1, 1866, to July 1, 1870. (In all ten reps.) 

2. GircuJars and Letters. 

Circulars, circular letters, etc., issued by the Commissioner of the Bureau of 
Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, during the year 1868. 

3. General Orders. 

General orders, 1862-1866. (Asst. Com. for So. C, Ga., and Fla.) 

General orders, 1863-1867. (Bu. of Ref., Freedmen and Aban. Lands.) 

General orders, 1865-1868. (Asst. Com. for Ga.) 

General orders, 1865-1868. (Asst. Com. for La. and Texas.) 

General orders, 1866-1868. (Asst. Com. for D. C. and Va.) 

4. Miscellaneous. 

A manual on school-houses and cottages for the people of the South, prepared 
by C. Thurston Chase, Supt. of Education, Fla. Washington, 1868. 8^. 

Index to acts and resolutions of Congress, and to proclamations and executive 
orders of the President, from 1861 to 1867, relating to refugees, freedmen, etc. 

Officers' manual. Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands. 

Washington, 1866. 8°. 

* * * * * * * 

Barnard, Henry. History of the Freedmen's Bureau. Barnard's Am. Jour. 

Ed., 18: 125. (1869.) 
Eaton, John. Report of freedmen's schools for 1864-65. (Contained in report 

of the Gen'l Supt. of Freedmen. Department of the Tennessee and State of 

Arkansas.; 1864-65.) ^ ., 

FiTZHUGriT,-Gs4>l'y. Freedmen's Bureau andvCamp Lee. ' De Bow, n. s., 2: 346. 
Gannett, W. C, awd Hale, Edward Everett. Education of the freedmen at 

Port Royal. No. Am. Rev., 101 : Ij-^SS-. \- \^%- 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NEGRO EDUCATION. 1041 

Freedmen's Bureau — Continued. 

General condition of colored schools under the supervision of the Freedmen'a 
\ Bureau, 1870. U. S. Bu. of Ed.— An. Rep., 1870, pp. 337-339. 

Hooper, Wm. R. Freedmen's Bureau. Lippinc, 7: 609. 
McKiM, J. M. Labor and education at Port Royal. Ind Sch.Jonr., 7: 323. 
Pierce, Edward L. The freedmen at Port Royal. Atlau., 12:291. 
T GrANNETT, Hexry. Statistics of the negroes in the United States. (Trustees of the 
r^ i John F. Slater fund — occasional papers, No. 4.) Baltimore, 1894. 8^. pp. 

•^l 28. [See pp. 25-28 — " Illiteracy and education."] 

SIGilmore, John R. [Edmund Kirke] How shall the negro be educated? No. Am. 

Rev., 143; 421. 
^ Goodwin, M. B. History of schools for the colored population in the District of 
r Columbia. U. S. Bureau of Education — Special Report on District of ( olum- 

Z bia for 1869, pp. 193-300. 

^ Goodwin, Maud Wilder. Educationof our colored citizens. Pop. Sci. Mo., 42: 789. 
> Greener, R. T. Intellectual position of the negro. Nat. Quart., 41' 164. 
S^ Greenwood, J. M. Colored race in Missouri. Educ, 8 : 366-374. 
p Grimke, Francis. Colored men as professors in colored institutions. A. M. E. Ch. 
J ■ Rev., 2: 142. 

\ t^TW g W Ajy, - - . Negro education; its helps and hindrances. Proceedings and 

/ * Addresses of Nat. Ed. Assoc, 1884, p. 106. 

GuNBY, A. A. Education of the negro. Am. Jour. Pol , 1 : 295. 

General statement of the race problem. Proc. and Address, of the Nat. Ed. 

N... Assoc, 1890, p. 254. 
Hand, Daniel. A sketch of the life of, and of liis benefaction to the American Mis- 
sionary Association for the education of the colored people in the Southern 
States of America. New York, 1889. 16 J. pp.31. 
Harris, Wm. T. Education of the negro Atlan., 69. 721. 

Higher education for negroes. An address made to the students of Atlanta 

University, Atlanta, Ga., Oct. 29, 1895. 
Hawkins, Dexter A. Education the need of the South. A paper read before the 
Am. Social Science Association, Saratoga, Sept., 1877. New York, 1878. 8°. 
Pamph. 16 pp. 
Haygood, Atticus G. The case of the negro, as to education in the Southern 

States. Atlanta, 1885. 8'^. 59 pp. 
Henderson, H. A. M. Colored schools. Ky. Sch. Rep., 1871-72, p. 45; 1874-75, p. 

105; 1876, p. 18; 1877, p, 58; 1879, p. 89. 
Hooper, Wm. R. Shall he be educated? A reply to The freedman and his future. 

Lippinc, 4: 671. 
Howard, Oliver Otis. Education of the colored race. Barnard's Am. Jour. Ed., 

16: 241. 
Howard University, Washington, D. C, origin and development of. Barnard's Am. 

Jour. Ed., 19: 245. Statistics of, same, 29: 513, 533. 
Howe, S. H. A brief Memoir of the life of John F. Slater, of Norwich, Conn., 1815- 
1884. (Trustees of the Jno. F. Slater fund — occasional papers, No. 2.) Balto., 
1894. 8°. pp. 16. 
Hunr.ARD, G. W. A history of the colored schools of Nashville, Tenn. Nashville, 

Tenn., 1874. S^^. Pamph., 34 pp. 
Humphreys, Richard, founder of institute for colored youth. Barnard's Am. Jour. 

Ed., 19: 379. 
Industrial Education: 

Johnston, W. P. Industrial education of the negroes. Educ, 5: 636. 
Rankin, J. E. Industrial education for the African. Independ., April 2, 1891, 

vol. 43, p. 3. Educ, 5: 636. 
Talbot, Henry. Manual training, art, and the negro. An experiment. (Re- 
printed from Pub. Sch. Jour., 18&4>, 16*^. pp. 34.) 
ED 94 66 



<^^.\V<7$^ 



1042 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1893-94. 

Industrial Education — Continued. 

Trade schools for negroes. Amer., 19 : 353. 

T^yeuty-two years' work of the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute 
Eecords of negro and Indian graduates and students, Tvitli historical and 
personal sketches, etc. Ham^jton, 1891. 8°. pp.57. 
Jefferson, Thomas. Intellectual capahilities of the negro. Barnard's Am. Joiir. 

Ed., 19:379. 
Jenifer institute for colored pupils, Cambridge, Md. Barnard's Am. Jour. Ed., 19: 

356. 
John F. Slater fund for the education of freedmen. 

Documents relating to the origin and work of the Slater trustees, 1882 to 1894, 
(Trustees of the John F. Slater fund — occasional papers. No. 1.) Baltimore, 
1894. 8°. pp. 32. 
A brief memoir of the life of John F. Slater, of Norwich, Conn., 1815-1884. By 
S. H. Howe. (Trustees of the John F. Slater fund — occasional papers, No. 2.) 
Baltimore, 1894. 8°. pp. 32. 
Education of the negroes since 1860. By J. L. M. Curry. (Trustees of the John 

F. Slater fund — occasional papers, No. 3.) Baltimore, 1894. 8°. pp.32. 
Statistics of the negroes in the United States. By Henry Gannett. (Trustees 
of the John F. Slater fund — occasional papers. No. 4.) Baltimore, 1894. 8'^- 
pp. 28. 
Difficulties, complications, and limitations connected with the education of the 
negro. By J. L. M. Curry. (Trustees of the John F, Slater fund — occasional 
papers, No. 5.) Baltimore, 1895. 8°. pp. 23. 
Occupations of the negroes. By Henry Gannett. (Trustees of the John F. 

Slater fund — occasional papers. No. 6.) Baltimore, 1895. 8°. pp.16. 
Proceedings of trustees, 1883-1894. Baltimore. 
Johnson, Wm. D. Educational work of the African M. E. Church. A. M. E. Ch. 

Eev., 8:391. 
Johnson, Wm. H. Institute for colored youth, Philadelphia (1857). Pa. Sch. 

Jour., 5:387. ,;w~/. A O-A-Jt M)-Lo-,_ t/ ,'^ ■w_4i. \ '^ ■ 

Johnston, AVm. Preston. 'TMiistrial educatiori ftPHfefT*eg*d©g. Educ, 5: 636. 
Jones, Charles Edgeworth. Institutions for colored people. U. S. Bureau of 

Education— Circ. of Information, No. 4, 1888, pp. 140-150. 
Keating, J. M. Tv^^enty years of negro education. Pop. Sci. Mo., 28; 24. 
KiLiiAM, E. Negro schools. Putnam, 15: 31, 205, 304, 

Lewis school for colored children, Macon, Ga. Barnard's Am. Jour. Ed., 19 : 341. 
LoVETT, J. A. B. Negro education by the State, and its limitations. So. Ed. Jour. 
(Ga.), July, 1893, p. 6. 

The education of the negro in the South. Proceedings and addresses of the 

Nat. Ed. Assoc, 1890, p. 497. 
McCoy, Benj., colored teacher in Washington, D, C. Barnard's Am. Jour. Ed. 

19:212. 
Mann, Maria E., teacher of freedmen in Washington, D. C. Barnard's Am. Jour. 

Ed., 19 : 237, 240. 
Massaquoy, Momula (Prince of the Voy Nation, Africa). In Search of an Education, 

Proceedings and addresses of the Nat. Educa. Assoc, 1891, p. 239. 
Mathew s, William. The negro intellect. No. Am. Eev., 149 : 91, 
'Mayo, Ar:D>- Mission schools for the freedmen of the South. New Eng. Jour, Ed., 

15: 51. 

Northern and Southern women in the education of the negro in the South. 

U. S. Bureau of Education — Circ. of Information, No. 1, 1892, p. 71. 

The third estate of the South. An address delivered before the Am. Soc 

Sci. Assoc, at Saratoga, N. ¥., September 2, 1890. Boston, 1890. Pamph. 
Ijp. 24. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NEGRO EDUCATION. 1043 

Molioiik conference on tlie negro question. First conference held at Lake Mohonk, 

N. Y., Juno 4-6, 1890. Boston, 1890. 8^. Pp. 144. Second conference held r, 

at Lake Mohonk, N. Y., June 3-5, 1891. Boston, >s aQ. SQ. pp. ^2^. . I » 

MoRGAJsr, Thomas J. Schools for the freedmen. The "Watchman, Aj^ril 3, 1884, p. 1. 

Ne£?ro education, limiting. Indepeua., 47: 1295. ft ^ fi A ' a r ^a jnv4 / 

N^^-mrSinrrH^aJ.^. Pub. 0pm., 3 ; 52G. ^^ Vfi d-H^&^.itAAJ, . vv^ .^ U^Jr^ 

Negro manual training experiVueut in Texas. Independ., 47: 1364. 

Negro school at New Haven. Nile's Reg., 41 : 74, 88. 

Negro schools in Georgia (note). Independ., 47: 552, 

Normal School for colored youth, Louisville, Ky. Barnard's Am. Journ. Ed., 19: 348, 

Northrop, B. G. Mixed schools, Maine Jour. Ed., September 1874, p. 326. 

Orr, Gustavus J. The education of the negro; its rise, progress and present 

, Status. Being an address delivered before the Nat. Educ. Assoc, Chautau- 

Orv>^) ^^^> ^- Y- Atlanta, 1880. Pamp., 15 pp. rs 

^"--■OiUUiegro schools. Harper, 49 : 457. ProccetL Nat. Ed. Assoc.^ 188CL,---- ' 

Owen, A. and Scarborough, W."H^. Higher education of tlio colored race — what 
has been done; what can be done. Proceedings and addresses of the Nat. 
Ed. Assoc, 1889, pp. 54G-553. ■ — 

• Education of the Colored Race. Sch. Jour., 38: 55. 




Patterson, J. Stahl. Increase and movement of the colored j)opulation. 

Sci. Mo., 19 : 665, 784. 
Peabody, Andrew P. Coeducation of white and colored r.aces. Unita. Rev 

593. 
Pearne, Thomas H. The freedmen : condition of educational institutions. Meth. 

Quart. Rev., 59: 462. 
Penn, I. Garland. Afro-American press and its editors, pp. 565, with appendix, 

Springfield, Mass., 1891. 8^. 
Powell, S. W. Should higher education bo provided for the negro? Cent., 49: 

956. 
Preston, J. T. L. Prospect before the colored peoi>le of the United States. Ed. 

Jour. Va., 9:293. . _C.:-\..^~X.O u^ f-^-'^'\'-^-^ '-^ ''-i'\x, V-ir-vOiO 

Religious education of the ^^©g^rT N*w^*B5r^^.^71jj680;;^^^ 

Price, J. C. Education and the race iiroblem. Proceedings and addresses of tfiS^^--^..^ 
Nat. Educa. Assoc, 1890, p. 267. •,_;. ,,,,. - .j- .-,s.i'' 

Prudence CRANDALL^&©kaaLior young colored wonfen^- MiOO 1091 . Barnard's Am. 
Jour. Educ, 19 : 328^^ I 'ir Is 'i 

Rankin, J. E. Ethical culture of negroes. Our Day, 6: 93. 

Report of the actuary of the Delaware Association for the Education of the Colored 
People [1877-78J, Wilmington, 1878. 8°. Pamph. 

Report upon the educational exhibit of colored people at the International Exposi- 
tion, New Orleans. Proceedings and addresses of the Nat. Ed. Assoc, 1885, 
p. 531. 

RuFFNER, W. H. Coeducation of the races improper as well as impossible. Va. Sch. 

Coeducation of the white and colored race. Scrib. M., 8 : 86. \ \\\f^v..„|,tM"'^^::___ 

The projier. educational policy for the colored people. [An addressi] Ed. 

Jour. Va., 5 : 405. 
Salisbury, Albert. Some conclusions concerning the education of the American 

negro. AndoA'. Rev., 6: 256. 
SCARB0R0UGH,JWV;Jfc> and Owen, A. Higher education of the colored race. What 

^-- ^as been done; what can be done. Nat. Educ. Assoc, 1889, pp. 546-553. 

Schools for colored children, Hartford, Conn. Barnard's Am. Jour. Educ, 19: 328. 
Schools for colored children, Philadelphia, Pa. Barnard's Am. Jour. Educ, 19. 374. 
Slatterly, John R. How shall the negro be educated? Cath, W., 56! 28. 



1044 EDUCATION REPORT, 1893-94. 

Smith, Annie Tolman. The supjiort of colored public schools. Independ., April 

2, 1891, vol. 43, p. 7. 
Smith, M H. The teaching capabilities of colore<l persons. Proceedings and 

papers, 10th annual meeting of Mo. State Teachers' Assoc, held at Chilli- 

cothe, Mo , 1871, p. 44. 
Steele, A. J. Normal school work among the colored people. Proceedings and 

addresses of the Nat. Ed. Assoc, 1889, p. 588. 
Stetson, Geokge R. The educational status of the negro in the United States. 

Liberia, Bulletin, No. 5, November 1894, p. 6. 
New basis of education of negroes. Andov. Rev., 14: 254; Unitar'n Rev., 27: 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher. 'Education of the- freedmen. No. Am., Rev. 128: 605; 
129:81. ^"^ 

Straker, D. a. The negro in science, art, and literature. A. M. E. Ch. Rev., 1 : 56. 

Strieby, M. E. "Work of half a generation among the freedmen in the United States. 
Am. Mission. Assoc, N. Y., 1878. 16°. Pamph., No. 5, 31, pp. 

Negro evangelization and education in America. Schaif Herzog Encyclo- 
pedia of Religious Knowledge, vol. 3, pp. 1617-1621. 

Sumner, Charles. Argument before the Supreme Court of Massachusetts, in the 
case of Sarah C. Roberts v. The City of Boston. December 4, 1849. Wash- 
ington, 1870. 8^\ Pamph. 

Tabbs, Thomas, teacher of colored children in Washington, D. C. Barnard's Am, 
Jour. Ed., 19: 213. 

Thompson, Maurice. The intellectual future of the negro. Independ., April 16, 
1891, vol. 43, p. 2. 

Thorn, Wm. T. Some reflections on race in education, with special reference to 
the negro problem. U. S. Bureau of Education — Spec. Rep,, N. O. Exposi- 
tion, 1884-85, pp. 775-781. 

Turney, Edward, Educational work of, for freedmen. Barnard's Am. Jour. Ed., 19 : 
243. 

United States Bureau of Education. Education of the colored race ; general remarks 
aud statistics. 
Annual reports: 1870, pp. 61, 337-339; 1871, pp. 6, 7, 61-70; 1872, pp. xvii, 
xviii; 1873, p. Ixvi; 1875, p. xxiii; 1876, p. xvi; 1877, pp. xxxiii-xxxviii ; 
1878, pp. xxviii-xxxiv ; 1879, pp. xxxix-xlv; 1880, p. Iviii; 1881, p. Ixxxii; 
1882-83, p. liv, pp. xlviii-lvi, p. xlix, p. 85; 1883-84, p.liv; 1884-85, p. Ixvii; 
1885-86, pp. 596, 650-656 ; 1886-87, pp. 790, 874-881; 1887-88, pp. 20, 21, 167, 
169, 988-998; 1888-89, pp. 768, 1412-1439; 1889-90, pp. 620, 621, 624, 634, 
1073-1102, 1388-1392, 1395-1485; 1890-91, pp. 620, 624, 792, 808, 915, 961-980, 
1469; 1891-92, pp. 8, 686, 688, 713, 861-867, 1002, 1234-1237; 1892-93, pp. 
15, 442, 1551-1572, 1976. 
Circulars of luforraatiou: No. 3, 1883, p. 63; No. 2, 1886, pp. 123-133; No. 3, 

1888, p. 122; No. 5, 1888, pp. 53, 54, 59, 60, 80-86; No. 1, 1892, p. 71. 
Special Report on District of Columbia for 1869, pp. 193, 300, 301-400. 
Special report. New Orleans Exposition, 1884-85, pp. 468-470, 775-781. 
Schools for colored people, by States and Territories. 

Alabama. Annual reports: 1870, p. 84; 1871, p. 68; 1873, pp. 3, 4; 1875, pp. 
5, 10; 1876, pp. 7, 8; 1877, pp. 5, 6; 1878, pp. 5, 7; 1879, pp. 5, 8; 1880, 
pp. 4, 8; 1881, pp. 4, 6; 1882-83, pp. 4, 9; 1883-84, pp. 4-10; 1884-85, pp.4, 
11; 1885-86, pp. 650-653, 655; 1886-87, pp. 94, 95, 874-876, 878-879; 1887-88, 
pp. 167, 988-993,996-998; 1888-89, pp. 1412, 1413, 1418, 1419, 1424, 1427, 1428; 
1889-90, pp. 1073, 1074, 1075, 1076, 1077, 1084-1088, 1090; 1890-91, pp. 961- 
961; 1891-92, pp. 868, 869, 1234, 1235; Circular of Information, 3, 1889, p. 269. 
Arizona. Annual Report, 1872, p. 365. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NEGKO EDUCATION. 1045 

United States Bureau of Education — Coutinued. 

Arkansas. Aunual reports: 1870, p. 86; 1871, p. 71; 1872, p. 13; 1873, pp. 11, 17; 
1874, p. 12; 1880, p. 12; 1882-83, p. 10; 1883-84, p. 11; 1884-85, p. 12; 
1885-86, pp. 653, 655; 1886-87, pp. 874-876,878,879; 1887-88, pp. 988-990, 
998; 1888-89, pp. 1412,1413, 1418-1421, 1423, 1424, 1428,1429; 1889-90, pp. 
1074, 1077, 1084-1091, 1094; 1890-91, pp. 961-963, 1469,1470, 1473; 1891-92, 
pp.. 863-865, 869, 1234-1237. 

Calijornia. Annual reports: 1870, pp.89, 92; 1872, p. 30; 1873, p. 19; 1874, pp. 
16, 19; 1879, p. 13; 1885-86, pp. 650-655. 

Colorado. Annual Report, 1872, p. 369. 

Connecticut. Annual Report, 1872, p. 49. 

Dakota. Annual Report, 1872, p. 371. 

Delaware. Aunual reports: 1870, p. 104; 1871, p. 115; 1872, pp. 55, 57; 1873, p. 
63; 1874, p. 56; 1876, p. 57; 1877, pp. 32, 33; 1878, pp.34, 35; 1879, pp. 33, 
34; 1880, p. 46; 1881, p. 34; 1882-83, p. 37; 1883-84, p. 44; 1884-85, p. 43; 
1885-86, pp. 650-655; 1886-87, pp. 249, 874, 875, 876, 877; 1887-88, p. 988; 
1888-89, pp. 1412-1415, 1423, 1429; 1889-90, pp. 1074, 1075, 1078, 1090; 1890-91, 
pp. 961-962. 

District of Columhia. Annual reports: 1870, p. 313; 1871, p. 388; 1872, pp.390, 
397; 1873, pp. 434, 437, 439, 441 ; 1874, pp. 472, 477; 1875, p. 484; 1876, pp.437, 
441 ; 1877, pp. 278, 279 ; 1878, pp. 273, 274 ; 1879, pp. 270, 272 ; 1880, p. 3^0 ; 1881, 
p. 285; 1882-83, p. 288; 1883-84, p. 294; 1884-85, p. 294; 1885-86, pp. 650-656; 
1886-87, pp. 874-876, 878-880; 1887-88, pp. 988-994, 997, 998; 1888-89, pp. 1412, 
1413,1418,1420-1424; 1889-90, pp. 1073-1075, 1085-1091; 1890-91, pp. 961-963, 
967, 1469, 1470, 1472, 1473; 1891-92, pp. 863-865, 869, 1234, 1236, 1237. Special 
Report on District of Columbia for 1869, pp. 193-300. 

Florida. Annual reports : 1870, p. 106 ; 1871, pp. 119, 121, 122 ; 1872, p. 61 ; 1873, p. 
67; 1885-86, pp. 650-652, 655; 1888-87, pp. 874-876, 878-880; 1887-88, pp.48, 
988-992,994,997; 1888-89, pp. 1412, 1413, 1418, 1420, 1422-1424, 1429; 1889-90, 
pp. 1074, 1075, 1078, 1085-1087, 1089-1091 ; 1890-91, pp. 961-963, 1469, 1471, 
1473 ; 1891-92, pp. 863-865, 1234, 1235, 1237. 

Georgia. Annual reports: 1870, p. 109; 1871, p. 134; 1872, pp.69, 70; 1875, p. 
70; 1876, p. 67; 1878, p. 42; 1879, p. 40; 1880, p. 58; 1881, p. 40; 1882-83, p. 44 ; 
1883-84, p. 53; 1884-85, p. 51; 1885-86, pp. 223, 650-656; 1886-87, pp.250, 
874-875, 878-880; 1887-88, pp. 988, 989, 991-994, 997-998; 1888-89, pp. 1412- 
1413, 1418-1424, 1430; 1889-90, pp. 1074, 1078, 1079, 1082, 1084-1091; 1890-91, 
pp. 961-963,1469-1473; 1891-92, pp. 863-865, 869, 1234-1237; Circular of Infor- 
mation, 4, 1888, pp. 140-150. 

Idaho. Annual Report, 1872, p. 374. 

Illinois. Annual reports: 1870, pp. 110, 112, 120-122; 1871, p. 138; 1872, p. 104; 
1873, p. 79; 1874, p 81; 1885-86, p. 77. 

Indiana. Annual reports: 1870, pp. 123, 127; 1871, p. 151; 1872, pp. 100, 113, 114; 
1873, pp. 93, lOJ ; 1874, pp. 98, 102; 1875, p. 98; 1876, p. 94; 1877, p. 53; 1878, p. 
59; 1879, p. 56; 1880, p. 78; 1881, p. 56; 1882-83, p. 61 ; 1883-84, p. 71 ; 1884-85, 
p. 69; 1886-87, pp. 874-875, 880; 1887-88, pp. 988-989. 

Indian Territorxj. Annual Report, 1870, i). 337. 

Iowa. Annual Report, 1872, p. 117. 

Kansas. Annual reports : 1870, pp. 140, 142 ; 1872, p- 123. 

Kentucky. Annual reports : 1870, p. 147; 1871, p. 185; 1872, p. 130; 1873, pp. 125, 
127; 1874, p. 133; 1875, pp. 136, 139; 1876, pp. 132, 136; 1877, pp. 74, 75 ; 1878, p. 
81; 1879,pp. 77,78, 83; 1880, p. 108; 1881, p. 81; 1882-83, p. 84 ; 1883-84, p. 97; 
1881-85, p. 94 ; 1885-86, pp. 100, 650, 651, 654-656 ; 1886-87, pp. 137, 138, 875-878, 
880; 1887-S8, pp. 988-990, 992, 994,998; 1888-89. pp. 712, 1412-1414,1416,1417, 
1418, 1421, 1423, 1424, 1430, 1431 ; 1889-90, pp. 1074, 1075, 1082, 1085, 1087, 1089- 
1091; 1890-91, pp. 961-964, 1470-1473; 1891-92, pp. 863-865, 869, 1235-1237. , 



1046 EDUCATION REPORT, 1892-93. 

United States Bureau of Education— Continued. 

Louisiana. Annual reports: 1870, pp. 150, 152; 1871, pp. 193,195, 196, 198, 199; 

1872, pp. 136, 137 ; 1873, p. 137 ; 1874, p. 148 ; 1878, p. 87 ; 1879, p. 84 ; 1880, p. 120 ; 
1883-84, p. 104 ; 1884-85, p. 101 ; 1885-86, pp. 650-655 ; 1886-87, pp. 874, 875, 878, 
880; 1887-88, pp. 113, 988-990, 992-994, 998; 1888-89, pp. 713,714, 1412,1413, 
1418-1424,1431-1432; 1889-90, pp. 1073,1075,1082-1094; 1890-91, pp. 961,962, 
963, 964, 965, 967, 1469-1473; 1891-92, pp. 863-865, 869, 871, 1234-1237. 

Maine. Annual Report, 1872, p. 147. 

Maryland. Annual reports: 1870, pp. 156,157, 158,162, 163; 1872, pp. 150,1.54; 

1873, pp. 154, 158; 1874, p. 168; 1876, pp. 170, 177; 1877, pp. 96, 97; 1878, p, 
97; 1879, p. 95; 1880, p. 132; 1881, pp. 97, 98; 1882-83, p. 100; 1883-84, p. 118; 
1884-85, p. 115; 1885-86, pp. 650-656; 1886-87, pp. 874,875, 879, 880; 1887-88, 
pp. 988-990, 993, 994, 998; 1888-89, pp.717, 1412-1414, 1422-1424,1432; 1889-90, 
pp. 1074, 1075, 1079, 1087, 1089-1091; 1890-91, pp. 961-963, 965, 966, 1469-1473; 
1891-92, pp. 863-865, 869. 

Massaclmselts. Annual Report, 1872, p. 183. 

Midiigan. Annual Report, 1872, p. 187. 

Minnesota. Annual Report, 1872, p. 192. 

Mississippi. Annual reports: 1871, p. 257; 1872, pp. 195, 198, 200; 1873, pp. 212, 
213; 1875, p. 232; 1876, p. 221; 1877, p. 138; 1878, p. 135; 1879, p. 132; 1880, p. 
178; 1881, p. 138; 1882-83, p. 140; 1883-84, p. 157; 1884-85, p. 154; 1885-86, pp. 
650-656; 1886-87, pp. 874-876, 878-880; 1887-88, pp. 988-994, 997, 998; 1888-89, 
pp. 723, 1412,1413, 1418, 1420,1421, 1423-1425,1432; 1889-90, pp. 1074, 1075, 
1082, 1084-1092, 1094; 1890-91, pp. 961-963, 966; 1891-92, pp. 863-865, 868, 
869, 1234-1237. 

Missouri. Annual reports: 1870, pp. 202, 204, 210, 211; 1871, p. 264; 1872, pp. 
207, 211; 1873, pp. 220, 222; 1874, pp. 235, 237; 1875, pp. 240, 243; 1876, pp. 
228, 232; 1877, p. 143; 1882-83, p. 145; 1883-84, p. 162; 1884-85, p. 158; 
1885-86, pp. 650, 652, 655; 1886-87, pp. 874, 875, 878, 880; 1887-88, pp. 988-991, 
994, 997; 1888-89, pp. 726, 1412, 1413, 1417, 1418, 1420, 1423, 1433, 1434 ; 1889-90, 
pp. 981-963, 1074, 1090; 1891-92, pp. 863-865, 871, 1234,1235,1237. 

Montana. Annual reports: 1872, p. 375; 1873, p. 453. 

Nebraska. Annual Report, 1872, p. 214. 

Nevada. Annual reports: 1871, p. 273; 1872, p. 216; 1873, p. 245. 

Neiv Hampshire. Annual Report, 1872, p. 223. 

New Jersey. Annual Reports : 1870, pp. 222, 223; 1872, p. 229. 

New Mexico. Annual Report, 1872, p. 376. 

New York. Annual Reports: 1870, p. 235; 1872, pp. 240, 257; 1874, p. 287; 1875, 
p. 292; 1873, p. 270. 

North Carolina. Annual Reports : 1870, p. 248; 1871, p. 316; 1872, pp. 261, 267; 
1873, pp. 298, 301; 1875, p. 318; 1876, p. 296; 1877, p. 190; 1878, p. 186; 1879, 
p. 181 ; 1880, pp. 236, 242 ; 1881, p. 193 ; 1882-83, p. 192 ; 1883-84, p. 206 ; 1884-85, 
p. 209; 1885-86, pp. 650-656; 1886-87, pp. 267, 874,875, 878-880; 1887-88, pp. 
988, 989, 991-994, 997, 998 ; 1888-89, pp. 1412, 1413, 1418-1426, 1434, 1435 ; 1889-90, 
pp. 1074, 1079, 1080, 1082, 1085-1091 ; 1890-91, pp. 961-963 ; 1891-92, pp. 863-865, 
868, 869, 871. 

Ohio. Annual Reports : 1870, pp. 252, 260, 262, 263, 266, 267 ; 1871, p. 318 ; 1872, pp. 
272,281; 1873, pp. 309, 313; 1874, pp. 325,328; 1875, p. 330; 1876, p. 308; 1877, 
p. 196; 1878, p. 190; 1879, p. 185; 1880, p. 244; 1881, p. 199; 1882-83, p. 199; 
1883-84, p. 212; 1884-85, p. 213; 1891-92, p. 869. 
Oregon. Annual Report, 1872, p. 286. 

Fennsylvania. Annual Reports : 1872, p. 301 ; 1873, p. 338 ; 1882-83, p. 217 ;1883-84, 
p. 228; 1891-92, p. 870. 

Ehode Island. Annual Reports : 1872, p. 310 ; 1885-86, p. 150. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NEGRO EDUCATION. 



1047 



United States Bureau of Education— Continued. 

Soiiih Carolina. Annual Reports: 1870, p. 285; 1871, pp. 341, 345; 1872, pp. 312 
314,316; 1873,pp.360, 361, 367; 1874, p. 387; 1876, p. 361; 1877, p. 232; 1878, p 
222; 1879, p. 218; 1880, p. 290; 1881, p. 235; 1882-83, p. 236; 1883-84, p. 249 
1884-85, p. 247; 1885-86, pp. 154, 650, 656; 1886-87, pp. 874, 875, 878-880 
1887-88, pp. 988-993, 997, 998; 1888-89, pp. 743, 1412,1413, 1418-1424, 1435 
1889-90, pp. 1074,1082, 1084-1091, 1093 ; 1890-91,p p. 961-963, 1469-1473 ; 1891-92, 
pp. 863-865, 869, 1234-1237. 
Tennessee. Annual Reports : 1870, pp. 286, 288, 289 ; 1871, p. 349 ; 1872, p. 323, 325 
1873, p. 368; 1876, p. 369; 1877, pp. 237, 238; 1878, p. 226; 1879, p. 223; 1880 
p. 298; 1881, pp. 240, 243; 1882-83, p. 241; 1883-84, p. 255; 1884-85, p. 253 
1885-86, pp. 650-656; 1880-87, pp. 874,875,878-880; 1887-88, pp. 988-992, 994, 
997,998; 1888-89, pp. 745, 1412, 1413, 1418-1425,1436; 1889-90, pp. 1074, 1080; 
1081, 1082, 1084-1092; 1890-91, pp. 1470-1473, 961-963, 967; 1891-92, pp 
863-865, 869, 1234-1237. 
Texas. Annual Reports : 1872, pp. 327, 331, 333; 1878, p. 233; 1879, p. 230; 1880, 
p. 308; 1881, p. 246; 1882-83, p. 248; 1883-84, p. 261 ; 1884-85, p. 259; 1885-86, 
pp. 162, 237,650-055; 1886-87, pp.163, 874,875, 878,879; 1887-88, pp. 988, 989, 
991-993, 997; 1888-89, pp. 1412, 1413, 1418-1424, 1436,1437; 1889-90, pp. 1074, 
1082,1084-1086, 1088, 1091; 1890-91, pp. 1470-1473,961-963; 1891-92, pp. 863- 
865, 869, 1234-1237. 
Utah. Annual Report, 1872, p. 379. 
Vermont. Annual Report, 1872, p. 337. 

Virginia. Annual Reports : 1870, pp. 296, 297 ; 1871, p. 358 ; 1872, pp. 341, 347 ; 1873, 
pp. 393, 401; 1874, pp. 423, 424; 1875, p. 421; 1876, p. 398; 1877, p. 255; 1878, 
p. 243 ; 1879, p. 242 ; 1880, p. 324 ; 1881, p. 256 ; 1882-83, p. 259 ; 1883-84, p. 271 ; 
1884-85, p. 269; 1885-86, pp. 326, 6.50,655; 1886-87, pp. 875,878,879; 1887-88, 
pp. 988-993, 997,998; 1888-89, pp.748, 1412,1413, 1418, 1420-1422, 1424, 1437, 
1438 ; 1889-90, pp. 1074, 1084, 1085, 1086, 1088-1090, 1098-1102 ; 1890-91, pp. 961- 
963; 1891-92, pp. 863, 864, 1234-1236. 
JVashingion. Annual Report, 1872, p. 381. 

West Virginia. Annual Reports: 1871, p. 366; 1872, p. 3.54; 1874, p. 439; 1878, p. 
I 250; 1879, p. 250; 1880, p. 334; 1881, p. 263; 1882-83, p. 264 ; 1883-84, p. 277 ; 

' 1884-8.5, p. 276 ; 1885-86, pp.652, 655: 1886-87, pp. 875,876, 878; 1887-88, pp. 

I 988-991, 994, 997; 1888-89, pp. 1412, 1413, 1420, 1423,1438,1439; 1889-90, pp. 

' 1073, 1086, 1088, 1090; 1890-91, pp. 961, 962; 1891-92, pp. 803, 864, 1234. 

JVisconsin. Annual Rejiort, 1872, pp. 362, 363. 
Washington, Booker T. Address delivered at the opening of Atlanta Exposition, 

Sept. 18, 1895, "Atlanta Constitution," Sept. 19, 1895. 
/Wj-ITH EU'1i;li:7-;Jt-K. The negro as a i)roducer of literature. Chaut. 15:224. 
What becomes of our graduates? (Editorial) A. M. E. Ch. Rev., 3: 312. 
Why colored people in the South want colored teachers. New Eng. Jour. Ed., 16 : 187. 
Wiley, C. H. Education of the negroes. Greensboro (N. C.) Patriot, March 26, 1879. 
WOODWORTH, Frank G. The kind and scojje of education needed for the colored 
race. A pajjcr read before the Miss. State Teachers' Assoc, (white) in Dec, 

1892. . 8^. 

"Wright, Richard R. Brief historical sketch of negro education in Georgia. Sa- 
<>■« — .__,^vannah, Ga., 1894. 8^^. pp.58. 'f\.<, 

Wyman^. B. Ciiace. --OhTrrctr5s"antr"scliools oFnegioe*. New Eng. M.,^^: 785 
Young, Charles S. Coeducation of races (followed 
of Education — Circular of Information, No. 2 

i 



by discussion). U, 
1886, pp. 96-103. 



S. Bureau 






\ 



1048 EDUCATION llEPORT, 1893-94. 



II. 

NEGEOES IN AMERICA. 

Abolition and negro equality, reply to W, Phillips on, 1864. Brownson, 21 : 186. 

Address of the managers of the American Colonization Society to the people of the 
United States. Adopted at their meeting June 19, 1832. With appendix. 
Washington, 1832, 8°. 38 pp. 

Alexander, W. T. History of colored race in America. New Orleans, 1888. pj). 
600. 

Allen, W. F. Negro dialect. Nation, 1 : 744. 

American society for colonizing the free people of color in the United States. 2d 
An. Report, with appendix. 2ded. Washington, 1819. 8'. 6th An. Report, 
with apjiendix. Washington, 1823. (Reviewed in No. Am. Rev., 18: 40.) 
pp. 142. 

Antislavery conference. Special report of the, held in Paris, in the Salle Herz, on 
the 26th and 27th Aug., 1867. Hon. President M. le Duo de Broglie; Presi- 
dent, M. Edouard Lahoulaye. London, — . (Pub. by Committee of the 
British and Foreign Autislavery Society.) 8"^. pp. 16G. 

Armstrong, Samuel C. Emigration to Liberia. An address delivered before the 
American Colonization Society, Jan. 21, 1879. Washington, 1879. 8'. pp.9. 

Arnett, Benj. W., Ed. Duplicate copy of the souvenir from the Afro- American 
League of Tenn. to Hon. Jas. M. Ashley, of Ohio. Phila., 1894. 8°. pp. 8,51. 

Bacon, L. Noah's prophecy of the negro: " Cursed be Canaan." New Eng. M., 21: 
341. 

Baker, W. M. Two couples: A white and a yellow. Scrib. M., 18: 37.5. 

Barrow, Jr., D. C. A Georgia plantation. Scrib. M., 21: 830. 

Barrows, S. J. What the Southern negro is doing for himself. Atlan., 67: 805. 

Bassett, John S. Slavery in North Carolina (1663-1865). Johns Hopkins Press, 
Baltimore, 1896. 

Beauties of negro rule. De Bow, 18 : 710. 

Benton, Thos. H. The Dred Scott decision. New York, 1857, pp. 193. 

BiRNEY, James G. The American churches the bulwarks of American slavery. 3d 
American ed. Concord, N. H., 1885. 12°. ]3p. 48. 

BiXBY, J. T, Will the negro die out? Nation, 1 : 325. 

Blacknall, O. W. The new departure in negro life. Atlan., 52: 680. 

Bleckley, L. E. Negro outrage no excuse for lynching. Forum, 16: 300. 

BoDiNGTON, Alice. The importance of race and its bearing on the ''negro ques- 
tion." Westm., 134:415. 

Brackett, Jeffrey R. Notes on the progress of the colored people of Maryland 
since the war. A supplement to "The negro in Maryland: A study of the 
institution of slavery." Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical 
and Political Science. 8th series, vii, viii, ix. Baltimore, 1890. 8°. pp. 96. 

The negro in Maryland : a study of the institution of slavery. Johns Hopkins 

University Studies in Historical and Political Science. Extra Vol. VI. 
Baltimore, 1889. 8°. 268 pp. 

Bradford, G. Lifting of the negroes. Nation, 39: 462. 

Breckinridge, C. R. The condition of the negro — the race question. Independ., 
..^ 43 : 1-2. Arena, 2 : 39. 

Brown, M. R. Negroes of the South a peculiar people. So. M., 13 : 172. 

The negro in his religious aspect. So. M., 17 : 498. 

Brown, J. M. Songs of the slave. Lippinc, 2: 617. 

Brown, W.W. The black man, his antecedents, genius, etc. New York, 1863. 12o. 

The negro in the Rebellion. Boston, 1867. 8°. pp. 380. 

Bruce, Wm.C. Negro problem. Baltimore, 1891. 8^. pp.33. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NEGRO EDUCATION. 1049 

Bryce, James. Thoughts on the uugro xnoblema^ No. Am. Rev,, 153 : 641. 
Cable, Gf.okge W. A simiiler southern question. Forum, 6: 392. 

' Solutious of Southern problems. Our Day, 5 : 308. 

• The frcedniau's case in equity. Cent., 7: 409. 

The negro question. New York, 1880. 8^\ pp.31. 

The silent South ; together with freedman's case in equity and convict lease 

system. N. Y., 1889. 8°. pp.231. 

• What shall the negro do ? Forum, 5 : 627. 

Caix, R. H. Negro problem in the South. A. M. E. Church Rev., 2: 139. 

Cairnes, J.E. Negro suffrage. Macmil., 12: 334. 

Caldwell, J. H. The negroes and the Methodist Episcopal Church South. Meth. 

Quart., 26:418. ^^"^ \ ^ 

Camp, Eugene M. Our African contingent. Forum, l:Yl886. Q> 

Thii 11111,1 II ill lliii TTiii)n1~"tTti Forum, 1: 562. 
Campbell, Sir George. Black and white in the Southern States. Fortn., 25: 449. 
Carlyle, Thomas. Negro question. Fraser, 40: 670; Liv. Age, 24: 248. 
Carroll, H. K. Negro in his relations to the church. Independ., 47: 1712. 
Cartwrigiit, S. a. Diseases of negroes. De Bow, 11: 29, 331. 

Negro freedom an impossibility. De Bow, 30: 648; 31: 507. 

■ Physical characteristics of the negro. De Bow, 11: 184; So. Q., 22: 49. 

Chalmers, H. H. Effects of negro suffrage. No. Am. Rev., 132: 239, 
Chamberlain, A. F. Negro dialect. Science, 12 : 23. 

T liA Tirirrn nn xLt bp. Tndj p n- .ftfcU<wlwyi>>arUy fAnKi<1pTP.«l^<^^ Science, 17: 85. 

Chamberlain^D. H. Reconstruction and the negro. No. Am. Rev., 128: 161 

"The race problem^ ^^iass-Bn^^^. , 62 : 507. 'YvXAAJ ' ^7j~- ,a, qaO ^^^^^^ /jJ-A/ 

Chapin, A. L. Negro race in America. "Dial (Ch.), 3: 252. \J -.._..■ -""^ I 

Chesxut, Charles W. The condition of the negro. A multitude of counselors. 

Independ., 43 : 4. 
Chittenden, C. E. The African in the United States. Pop. Sci. Mo., 22 : 841 ; Atlan., 

51: 564. 
Cincinnati convention of colored frcedmen of Ohio. Proceedings, Jan, 14-19, 1852. 

Cincinnati, 1852. 8". 
Clark, E. P. Plantation negroes as freedmen. Nation, 49: 26. 

■ Progress among negroes. Natiou, 48: 461. 

The negro in Southern politics. Nation, 41 : 67. 

Clarke, J. F. Condition of negroes in the United States. Chrn. Exam., 66: 246. 

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1050 \ EDUCATION REPORT, 1893-9^^ , i > £ 

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WW 



of tii g- ftoiiM ttfr^yoT 



GRO EDUCATION. 



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re 



^ 



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^r\jS)^ 



^1054 EDUCATION REPORT, 1893-94. 

V 

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^KSiJirx^-^-^ fj-'^-^'dk^X/^ cutw^UulJ *Vw^i3UM^JU/L ■ 



^•V '•-'^•^ 



I 

OF NJ 



1055 



An 



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Race progress in the United States. NNo. Am. Rev., 138: 163. 
Right to vote. iUwElTg. M., 3 I f)39. - \ ■ ^ 



8 : 177. 



Vail, T. H. Missionary bishops for the negro 




301. 



^^(xV'jJUsUsAyC 



1056 -^A^ -^ '^ EDUCATI0N\ EEPORT, 1893-94. 

Van Buren/T. B., speech of, ou tlie bilu. to ratify the amendment to the Constitu- 
tion df the United States prohibiting slavery. In the New York house of 
" assemTl\ly March 15, 1865. Albaiy, 1865. 8°. pp. 24. 
Van EvRiE, J.jH. Negroes an inferior ijace. New Yorli, 1861. 12°. 
WaEkekTT. a. I The colored race in the/United States. Forum, 11: 501. 
Watterson, W. The South and tb«-^i«gro. CosmopoL, 9: 113 ^^ Nation, 46: 383. 
Watson, Thos. E. Negro question in the South. Arena, 6: 540. 
Wayland, H. L. Negro higher education. Independ., 47:1387. 
Weeks, Stephen B. History of negro suffrage in the South. (Eeprinted from 
Polit. Sci. Quart., vol. ix, Dec, 1894.) Boston, 1894. 8°. pp. 33. 

• Southern Quakers and slavery. A study in institutional history. Baltimore, 

1896. pp. 414. 8°. 
Welling, James C. Slavery in the Territories historical]}" considered. M. Am. 

Hist., 27: 132, 196. 
What should be the policy of the colored American toward Africa (J. B. Eeeve, E. 
\, L. Perry, S. P. Hood, C. H. Thompson). A. M. E. Ch. Eev., 2: 68-75. 

Wilson, Henry. Eise and fall of the slave power in America. 3 vols. Boston, 
y^^ 1872. 8°. 

WiCKLiFFE, Jno. C. Negro suffrage a failure ; shall we abolish it? Forum, 14: 797. 
Winchell, a. The experiment of universal suffrage. No. Am. Rev., 136: 119. 
Winkler, E. T. The negro in the Gulf States. Internat. Rev., 1: 577. 
• Williams, A. B. Voting of negroes. Amer., 17: 203. 
Williams, Geo. W. History of the negro race in America from 1619 to 1880. 2 
vols. New York, 1883. 8°. 

( History of the negro troops in the war of the rebellion. New York, 1888. 

,, S°. pp. 353. 

^^ViLLiAMS, E. H. Suffrage for negroes; how to be regulated. Arena, 5: 95. 

WiTHROW, John L. The hour for Africa. An address delivered before the Amer- 
ican Colonization Society, Jan. 18, 1881. Washington, 1881. 8°. pp. 12. 
Woodward, C. L. Enfranchisement of the negro. Cong. Eec, 7: 254; No. Am. 

Rev r^ 128: 225. 
Wright, E. E. The negro as an inventor. A. M. E. Ch. Eev., 2: 397. 

III. 

WOEKS BY NEGEO AUTHOES. 

[The following bibliography was compiled from data furnished by Bishop Benjamin W. Arnett, D. D., 
of Wilberforce, Ohio, Bishop Howard H. Turner, LL. D., of Atlanta, Ga., Prof. Booker T. Wash- 
ington, of Tuskegee, Ala., and Mr. E. E. Cooper, of Washington, D. C] 

Allen, Eichard. Life of Bishop Eichard Allen. Philadelphia, 1793. 8°. pp. 69. 

(Published by Ford & Eipley.) 
Armstrong, J. H. AVhat communion hath light with darkness. Philadelphia, 

1883-1894. 8°. pp.94. (A. M. E. Pub. House.) 
Arnett, Benj. W., compiler and editor. Life of Paul Quinn. — , 1873. pp. 54. 

Speeches and addresses of negroes, collected and published. 15 vole. 8'-', 

Semicentennial address. Cincinnati, 1874. pp. 142. 

General conference journal. — , 1876. pp. 240. 

Centennial address, Urbana, 1876. pj). 80. 

General conference journal. — , 1880. pp. 320. 

TaAvawa journal. — , 1883. pp. 40. 

Biennial address to G. 0. of O. F., 1884. pp.36. 

Centennial address, 1884. pp. 40. 

General conference journal. — , 1884. pp. 440. 

Wilberforce annual, 1886. pp. 64. 

Black laws of Ohio. — , 1887. pp. 40. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OP NEGRO EDUCATION. 1057 

Arnett, Benj. W. Jubilee of freedom. — , 1888. pp. 100. 

Address at Claliiu, 1889. pp. 40. 

Qnartocenteuary A. M. E. C, 1890. pp. 500. 

Orations and speeches of Hon. J. M. Ashley. Phila., 1894. pp. 905. 8*^. (A. 

M. E. Pnh. House) 
Ayler, J. C. Guide lights. Princeton, 1887. 8^^. pp. 40. (Princeton Press.) 
Blackwell, G. L. The model homestead. Boston, 1893. 12'^. pp. 76. (H. Mar- 
shall & Co.) 
Blyden, E. W. Christianity, Islam, and fhe negro race. London, 1888. 8°. pp. 

432. (W. B. Wittiugham & Co.) 
From West Africa to Palestine. Sierra Leoue, 1873. 8°. pp. 200. (T. J. 

Sawyer.) 

Liberia's ofteriug. London, 1862. S'^. pp. 181. (Juo. A. Gray.) 

Booth, C. O. Plain theology for plain people. Philadelphia, — . 

Brooks, C. H. History of the Grand United Order of Odd Fellows. Philadelphia, 

1893. 8°. pp.260. (Publishedby the author.) 
Brown, Wm. Wells. The black man. New York, 1863. 8°. pp. 310. (Thomas 

Hamilton. ) 

Clotelle. Boston, 1867. 8°. pp.114. (Lee & Shepard.) 

The negro in the Rebellion. Boston, 1867. 8"^. pp.380. (Lee & Shepard.) 

The rising sun. Philadelphia, 1874. 8°. pp. 555. (A. G. Brown & Co.) 

Three years in Europe. London, 1852. 16°. pp.312. (Chas. Gilpin.) 

Cannon, N. C. W. Rock of wisdom. — , 1833. 8°. pp. 144. 

Carson, Hannah. Glory in affliction. Philadelphia, 1864. 16°. pp. 64. 

Clark, Peter H. History of the Black Brigade. 

Coleman, Afrs. Lucretia H. N. Poor Ben. Philadelphia, 1889. 12°. pp. 106. (A. 

M. E. Pub. House.) 
Coleman, W. H. A casket of pulpit thought. Newark, Ohio, 1889. 8^. pp. 250. 

(Advocate Printing Co.) 
Cooper, Mrs. A. J. A voice from the South. Xenia, Ohio, 1892. 12°. pp. 304. 

(W. B. Chew.) 
CoppiN, L. J. A. M. E. Church Review. Philadelphia, 1888-1895. 7 vols. 8°. 

(A. M.E. Pub. House.) 
Relation of baptized children to the church. Nashville, 1890. 8°. pp.220. 

(A.M.E.S. S.Union.) 
CosTON, W. H. A free man and yet a slave. Burlington, Iowa, 1884. 16°. pp. 84. 

(Wohlwend Bros.) 
Crummell, Alex, The greatness of Christ. New York, 1872. 8°. pp, 352. (Thomas 

Whitaker.) 

The future of Africa. Boston, 1862. 8°. pp.304. (Scribners' Sons.) 

Delaney, Lucy A. Struggles for freedom. Now York, 1890. 16°. pp.64. (Pub- 
lished by the author.) 
Delaney, Martin R. Principia of ethnology. 
The condition, elevation, emigration, and destiny of the colored people of the 

United States, politically considered, Philadelphia, 1852. 
Douglass, Frederick. Life and times of Fi'ederick Douglass. New York, 1893. 

8°. pp.752. (Miller, Orton & Co.) 
My bondage and freedom. New York, 1855. 8°. pp. 464. j^Miller, Orton «fe 

Co.) 

Narrative of the life of an American slave. London, 1847. 

Douglass, Wm. Annals of First African Church. Philadelphia, 1862. 8°, pp.172, 

(King & Baird.) 
DvBt, Jno. L, a talk on my native land. Rochester, N. Y., 1892. 16°. pp. 47. 

(R. M. Swinburne & Co.) 

ED 94 07 



1058 " "EDUCATION EEPORT, 1893-94. """"*-- ■^"^ 

DuxBAR, Paul. Oak and ivy — poems. Dayton, Ohio, 1890. 8°. pp. 62. (U. B. 

Pub. House.) 
Dyson, J. F. Eicliard Allen's place in history. Nashville, 1887. 16"^. pp. 49. (Cum- 
berland Presby. Pub. House.) 
Earle, Victoria. Aunt Lindsay. New York, 1893. 12°. pp. 20. (Published by 

the author.) 
Embry, J. C. Digest of Christian theology. Philadelphia, 1890. 12°. pp 293. 

(A. M.E. Book House.) 
Equiano, Olandah. Autobiography. iBoston, 1837. 
Flipper, Henry O., ex-lieut. U. S. A. The colored cadet at West Point. New York. 

1878. 8°. pp. 322. (Homer, Lpe & Co.) 
FOOTE, Mrs. Julia A. J. A brand plucked from the fire. Cleveland, Ohio, 1879. 

16°. pp. 124. (W. F. Snyder. ) ; 
Fortune, T. Thomas. Black and White. New York, 1884. 6°. pp. 310. (Fords 

&Co.) 
Gaines, AV. J. African Methodism ip. the South. Atlanta, 1890. 8°. pp. 305. 

(Franklin Pub. House.) ; 



/flARNET)*"S. 6ta-iret^sTn"emtrritrl-dts'cr)HFse7--~Jose^iJSZil&6ffi, Philadelphia, 1865. 8°. 
/ pp. 91. 

Grant, A. The literary and historical society of A. M. E. Georgia Conference. 

Nashville, 1893. ' 8°. pp. 181. (A. M. E. S. S. Union. ) 
Green, A. E. Life of Eev. D. F. Davis. — , 1850. 16°. pp.128. (Benj.F. Pe- 
terson.) 
Gregory, James M. Frederick Douglass, the orator. Springfield, Mass. 1890. 

8°. pp.200. (Willey&Co.) 
Harper, Francis E. W. lola Leroy— a novel. Philadelphia, 1892. 8°. pp. 281. 

(Garrigues Bros.) 
HaVgood, L. M. The colored man in the M. E. Church. Cincinnati, 1890. 8°. 

pp. 327. (Cranston & Stowe.) 
Hayne, Joseph E. The black man. Charleston, 1894. pp. 144. (Edwards & 

Broiighton. ) 
■ The negro in sacred history. Charleston, 1887. 12°. pp.112. (Walker, 

Evans & Co.) 
Heard, Josie D. Morning glories. — , 1890. 8°. pp. 108. 
Henson, Josiah (Uncle Tom). Father Henson's Story. Boston, 1858. 8°. pp. 

212. (H.P. B.Jewett.) 
Hogarth, Geo., Editor. A. M. E. Magazine. Philadelphia, 1841-1847. 2 vols. 

(A. M. E. Book Concern.) 
Hood, W.J. History of A. M. E. Z. Church. New York, 1895. 8°. pp.625. (A. 

M, E.Z.Book Concern.) 
The negro in the Christian pulpit. Ealeigh,N. C, 1884. 8°. pp.363. (Ed- 
wards & Co.) 
Howard, Jas. H. W. Bond and free. Harrisburg, Pa., 1886. 8°. pp.280. (E.K. 

Meyers.) 
Johnson, Edward A. School history of the negro race. Ealeigh, N. C, 1891. 8°. 

pp. 196. (Edwards & Broughtou.) 
Johnson, -ITrs. E. A. The Hazeley family. Philadelphia, 1894. 8°. pp. 191. TAmer. 

Baptist Pub. Soc.) 
Clarence and Corinne. Philadelphia, 1889. 8°. pp. 187. (Am. Baptist Pub. 

Soc.) 
Johnson, Jas. H. A. The Pine Tree mission. Baltimore, 1893. 8°. pp. 114. (J. 

Lanham.) 
Johnston, H. T. Divine Logos. Philadelphia, 1890. 16°. pp. 117. (A. M. E. Pub. 

House.) 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OP NEGRO EDUCATION. 1059 

Lamptox, E. W. Sacred dynamite on l)aj)tism. Greenville, Miss., 1892. 8^. jip. 

60. (Greenville Times.) 
Langston, Jxo. M. Freedom and citizenshij). Washington, 1883. 8°. pp. 286. 
(R.S.H. Darby.) 

From the plantation to the national capital. Hartford, Conn., 1894. 8*^. 

pp. 534. (Amer. Pub. Co.) 
Lewis, 11. B. Light and truth. Boston, 1844. 
LoGUEX, J. W. As a slave and as a freeman. New York, 1859. 8°. pp. 450. 

(J. K. Truar&Co.) 
Love, E. K. History of the First African Baptist Church. Savannah, 1888. 8^. 

pp. 360. 
Magee, J. H. The night of affliction. Cincinnati, 1873. 8=. pp. 180. (Published 

by the author.) 
Majors, M. A. Noted negro women. Chicago, 1893. 8°. pp. 365. (Donohue & 

Heneberry.) 
Marsh, T. B. Story of the jubilee singers. New York, 1880. pp.243. (Houghton, 

Osgood & Co., noxo Houghton, Mifflin »S: Co.) 
Mixox, W. H. A Methodist luminary. Selma, Ala., 1891. 16^. pp. 56. (Selma 
Print Co.) 
-vMoOKE, J. J. History of A. M. E. Z. Church. York, Pa., 1884. 8°. pp. 399. 
. (Teacher's Journal Office.) 

/^lossELL, Mrs. N. F. The work of Afro-American women. Philadelphia, 1894. 12°. 
^j pp. 178. (G. S. Ferguson.) 

jMyrick, D.J. Scripture baptism. Macon, Ga., 1882. 8=. pp.130, (J. W. Burns 
^ & Co.) 

^ Neil, W. C. Services of colored Americans in the wars of 1776, 1812. 2d ed. Bos- 

ton, 1852. 8°. 

Paige, T.F. Twenty-two years of freedom. Norfolk, Ya., 1885. 8^. pp. 100. (Pub- 
lished by the author.) 

Payxe, D. a. a treatise on domestic education. Cincinnati, 1885. 12°. pp. 184. 
(Cranston & Stowe.) 

History of A. M. E. Church. Nashville, 1891. 8°. pp. 498. (A. M. E. S. S. 

Union.) 
Pexx, I. Garlaxd. Afro-American press. Springiield, Mass., 1891. 8°. pp. 549. (j_^^ < 

(Willey & Co.) "~~* 

Perry, Rufus L. The Cushite. Springfield, Mass., 1893. 8°. pp. 175. (VVil- 

ley &, Co.) 
Raxdolpii, E. a. Life of Rev. John Jasper. Richmond, Va., 1884, 8°. pp. 167. 

(T. Hill & Co.) 
Raxsome, R. C. School days at Wilberforce. Springfield, Ohio, 1892. 8°. pp. 70. 

(New Era Co.) 
Ray, H, Cordelia, Lincoln— a poem. New York, 1893, 8°, pp, 12. (Published 

by the author. ) 
RiDEOUT, Jr.,D. A. Life of Rev, D. A. Rideout, sr. 1891. 8°. pp.103. (Published 

by the author.) 
RoLLixs, Fraxk a. Life of Maj. Martin Delaney. Boston, 1868. 8°, pp. 367, 

(Lee & Shepard,) 
RowE, Geo, C, Thoughts in verse, Philadelphia, 1887, 12°. pp, 113. (Kahers, 

Stalzo & Welch.) 
RuDD, L. E. Catholic Afro-American Congresses, Cincinnati, 1893, 16°. pp.160. 

(Amer. Cath. Tribune.) 
Rush, Christopher. Rise and progress of the A. M. E. Church. New York, 1866. 

10°. pp. 106. (Published by the author.) 
SampsoXj^J, p. Temperament and phrenology of the negro race. 1881. pp, 171, 
^y'-'^ublished by the author.) Mixed races. Hampton, Va., 1881. 



r\ . / 



1060 EDUCATION REPORT, 1893-94. 

Scarborough^ W. S. First Greek lessons. New York, 1881. 8°. pp. 150. (A. S. 

Barnes.) 
SCRUGGS; L. A. Women of distinction. Raleigh, N. C, 1893. 8°. pp.382. (Pub- 
lished by the author.) 
Shorter, Susie I. Heroines of African Methodism. Xenia, Ohio, 1891. pp. 70. 

(W. B. Chew.) 
Simmons, R. W. J. Men of mark. Cleveland, 1887. 8°. pp.1138. (Geo. M. Re well 

& Co.) 
Smith, Mrs. Amanda. Autobiography of Amanda Smith. Chicago, 1893. 8°. pp. 

506. (Meyer Bros.) 
Smith, C. S. Liberia in the light of living testimony. Nashville, 1895. 8°. pp 

61. (A. M. E. S. S. Union.) 
• Monogram of Bishop D. A. Payne, LL. D. Nashville, 1884, 8°. pp. 60. 

(A. M. E. S. S. Union.) 
-Official sermons of Bishop D. A. Payne, LL. D. Nashville, 1888. 8°. pp. 64. 

(A. M. E. S. S. Union.) 
Smith, J. W. Addresses and sermons of Bishop S. T. Jones. York, Pa., 1892. 8°. 

pp. 302. (P. Anstadt & Son.) 
Smith, L.H. Earnest pleas. Nashville, 1891. 8°. pp.64. (A. M. E. S. S. Union.) 
Still, Wm. The underground railroad. Philadelphia, 1883. 8°. pp. 780. (Pub- 
lished by author.) 
Stevinson, J. W. Church financiering. Albany, N. Y., 1886. 8°. pp.283. (Weed, 

Parsons & Co.) 
Steward, T. G. Genesis reread. Phi ladelphfa, 1885. 8°. pp.252. (A. M. E. Pub. 

House.) 
■ Life of Mrs. Rebecca Steward. Philadelphia, 1877. 16°. pp. 131. (A. M. 

E. Pub. House.) 
Stewart, Austin. Narrative of Solomon Northup. New York, 1859. 

■ Twenty-two years a slave and forty years a freeman. Rochester, 1861. 

Stewart, T. McC. Liberia, the Americo- African Republic. New York, 1886. 8°. 
^^ pp. 106. (Edw. 0. Jenkins.) 

Straker, D. Augustus. The New South investigated. Detroit, 1888. 8°. pp.230. 

(Ferguson Printing Co.) 
Tanner, B. T. A. M. E. Church Review. Philadelphia, 1884-1888. 4 vols, 8°. 

(A. M. E. Pub. House.) 
Apology for African Methodism. Philadelphia, 1867. 8°. pp. 468. (A. M. 

E. Pub. House.) 
Outlines of history and government of A. M. E. Church. Philadelphia, 1884. 

8°. pp. 206. (Grant, Faires & Rodgers.) 

Theological lectures. Nashville, 1894. 8°. pp.185. (A. M. E. S. S. Union.) 

Taylor, Marshall W. Plantation melodies. Cincinnati, 1883. 16°. pp. 272. 

(Published by the author. ) 
Thomas, L. L. A colored man's reply to Bishop Foster. Baltimore, 1893. 8°. pp. 

118. (H.H.Smith.) 
Trotter, James M. Music and some highly musical people. Boston, 1878, 8°. pp, 

505. (Lee & Shepard. ) 
Truth, Sojourner. Sojourner Truth's narrative. Boston, 1875. 8°. pp. 320. 

(Published by the author.) 
Turner, JIoward jL Barbarous decision of the United States Supreme Court. 

»— --"-*°ppr?2r 

Catechism of the A. M. E. Church, pp. 100. 

Catechism upon Palestine, or the Holy Laud. pp. 64. 

Conflict of civil rights, pp. 40. 

History of Good Samaritans and Daughters of Samaria. Washington, 1881. 

8^. pp. 180. (R. A. Waters.) 
Hymn book for A. M. E. Church. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NEGRO EDUCATION. 1061 

TuRyER. Howard H. Methodist polity, or the geuius and theory of Methodism, 
f'hiladelphia, 1885. 8°. pp. 342. 

Printed speeches : 1. The duty of the negro to the General Government. 

2. The wisdom of the Reconstruction measures. 3. The civil and political 
status of Georgia. 4. Hon. Charles Sumner as a statesman. 5. The negro 
and his civil rights. 

The negro in all ages. pp. 84. 

Wallace, John. Carpetbag rule in Florida. Jacksonville, Fla., 1888. 8°. pp. 
44K (De Costa Pub. House.) 

Ward, S. G. Autobiography of a fugitive negro. London, 1855. 

Washington, Booker T. Address delivered at the opening of Atlanta Exposition, 
Sept. 18, 1895. "Atlanta Constitution," Sept. 19, 1895. 

Way.aian, a. W. a cyclopedia of African Methodism. Baltimore, 1882. 8^-'. pp. 
190. (M. E. Book Depository. ) 

Life of Bishop Jas. A. Shorter. Baltimore, 1890. 8°. pp.50. (J.Lanahan.) 

My recollections. Philadelphia, 1881. 8°. pp.250. (A. M. E. Pub. House.) 

WiiiTFiKLD, James M. Volume of poems. 1846. 

Whitman, A. A. Not a man and yet a man. Springfield, Ohio, 1877. 8^. pp. 254. 
(Republic Printing Co.) 

Twasiuta's Seminoles. St. Louis, 1890. pp.58. (Nixon ife Jones Printing Co.) 

Williams, D. B. Freedom and progxess. Petersburg, Va., 1890. 8". pp. 150. 
(Fenu & Oliver.) 

Science and art of teaching. Petersburg, Va., 1880. 8'^. pp. 126. (Fenn 

&. Oliver.) 

Williams, Geo. W. History of negro troops in the civil war. New York, 1888. 
8°. pp.353. (Harper Bros.) 

History of the negro race in America. 2 vols. New York, 1882. 8'^. (Put- 
nam's Sons.) 

Wilson, C. B. Manual and history of the Grand United Order of Odd Fellows. 
Philadelphia, 1894. 8^. pp.360. (Published by the author.) 

Wilson, Joseph T. Emancipation. Hampton, Va., 1882. 8°. pp. 242. (Hamp- 
ton Normal School.) 



CHAPTER XXX. 

EDUCATION m THE SEVEEAL STATES. 



ALABAMA. 

[Letter of Dr. J. L. M. Curry to the gubernatorial candidates of Alabama.] 

Washington, D. C, May 21, 1896. 
To ihe Hon. Joseph F. Johnston and Hon. Albert T. Goodwyn. 

DiCAR Sirs : I address this open letter to you as the accredited representatives of 
the two great parties seeking to control the government of the State. I need make 
no apology for my interest in Alabama or the cause which I seek to bring before 
you. 

With the issues which divide the parties I have no concern in this letter. The 
subject of this communication is higher, far more important, more paramount than 
all the issues. Federal and State, which divide parties, local or national. It involves 
vitally every county, neighborhood, family, and citizen. It is not of temporary, 
but of permanent interest. It affects the people individually, socially, intellectually, 
and materially. All patriots should combine and labor incessantly until there be 
permanently established and liberally sustained the best system of free schools for 
the whole people, for such a system would soon become the "most effective and 
benignant of all the forces of civilization." Such a cause should enlist the best and 
most practical statesmanship, and shoufd be lifted above and out of mere party 
poiitics, which ia one of the most mischievous enemies of the public school system. 

Mr. Jefferson is quoted by both parties ou fiscal and currency and constitutional 
questions. Let us hear what he says on the education of the people, lu 1786 he 
wrote to George AVythe: "I think by far the nmst important bill in our whole code 
is that for the diffusion of knowledge among tlie people. No surer foundation can 
be devised for the preservation of their freedom and happiness." To Washington 
he wrote: "It is an axiom in my mind that our liberty can never be safe but in the 
hands of the people themselves, and that, too, of the people of a certain degree of 
instruction. This it is the business of the State to effect and on a general plan." 

The best test of a country's civilization is the condition of public instruction, 
said a Frencli statesman. Tested by that standard, what is the rank of Alabama 
among civilized people? The total population of Alabama over 10 years of age by 
tlie last census is 1,069,545, and of these 107,355, or 18.2 per cent of the white i)eople 
are illiterate, and 331,260, or 69 per cent of the negroes are illiterate. Of 540,226 
children between 5 and 18 years of age 301,615, or 55 80 per cent are enrolled in 
schools, leaving only two States in this particular below her. In 1891-92 the per- 
centage of school population (5 to 18 years) in attendance was 33.78 per cent with 
four States below. The average school term or sessiou was eeveuty-thrce days, 

1277 



1278 

This diagram shows graphically tlie rank of eaclx State and Territory according to 
the rates of illiteracy in 1890: 

Nebraska 3.1=™ 

Wyoming 3. i nrr^^ 

Iowa 3. 6:>:..>c»>i 

Kansas 4. i — i .— 

South Dakota 4. 2...i - i 

Washington 4. 3 i-.i. 

Idaho 5.1 

Colorado 5.2=..^ «. 

Illinois 5. 2 ., , . 

Connecticut 5. {{ ■< 

Oklahoma 5. 4===!>==a, 

Maine 5. 5 ^ 

Montana 5. 5=e.=i™i™™ 

New York 5.5™=,==. 

Utah 5.C ., 

Micliigan 5. «. .m.~. >. 

Minnesota 6. 0-.>,..n«z,.=.,c_ 

North Dakota C 0.»=_™=_ 

Massachusetts C. 2. m --4.. .^ x» a a. 

Indiana G. 3 ■■'■■■^■■ '■ ■' ■ — ™ 

NewJeresy 0.5——— 

Vermont 6. 7 ■■i.ii. — .ii. i.. 

Wisconsin 6. 7 

New Hampshire 6. 8 ^ ..•..t-, .i 

Pennsylvania 6. 8 - ;^^„^., .. . .. .ji 

California 7. 7 ,~-..-.^:.r.: ~,.:i. . 

Missouri 9. l.. = .. ^L^u .^o .. =i t^i,..^.'.. . ^., .n 

Ehcde Island 9. 

Nevada 12. 8 . 

District of Columbia 13. 2^ 

Delaware 14. 3= 

West Virginia 14. 4= 

Maryland 15. 7» 

Texas 19.7- 

Kentucky 21.6. 

Arizona 23. 4- 

Arkansas 26. 6=: 

Tennessee 26. 6« 

Morida 27. 8« 

Virginia 30. 2„ 

North Carolina 35.7= 

Georgia 38. 9, 

Mississippi 40. 0= 

Alabama 41.0= 

New Mexico 44. 5=: 

South Carolina 45. 0„ 

Louisiana 45. 8= 



This beggarly array does not fill up the dark outlines of the picture. These short 
schools are in many cases inefficient and inadequate, and the graduates of high 
schools, even, are three years behind the German graduates in the amount of knowl- 
edge acquired and in mental develoi^ment. This inferiority is largely attributable 
to the shorter terms of school years, to the want of professional teachers, and to the 
small enrollment. In Prussia, under a compulsory law, 91 per cent are inslructcd in 
the public elementary, or peoi^le's schools, or only 945 of the children subject to the 
law Avere unjustly withheld from school. It is lamentable that in many cases a 
teacher in primary schools need not know much more than he is required to teach, 
and that knowledge may he confined to the text-hook. This deficiency in teacher 
training is, with political and sectarian influence, the most vulnerable point in our 
school system. The lack of proper supervision and inspection of schools is traceable 
to this same pestiferous iuilueuce, and hence the officers charged with this duty 
remain too short a time in their places to be qualified for their work. Eotation in 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1279 

office, narrow partisaushij), inefdciency, are tlic direct fruits of making school offices 
not places of trust, but siioils of political victory. Our system of public instructiou 
Las acquired sucli dimensious, ramifies so minutely into every family and neiolibor- 
liood, concerns so greatly every interest of the State, that its administration should 
be vested in officers of the highest intelligence and patriotism, of administrative 
skill and ability, of thorough acquaintance with school and educational ([uestions. 
The state superintendent should remain in office long enough to be thoroughly 
familiar with the duties of his exalted position, and should bo an expert, capable 
of advising executive and legislature, and school officers and teachers, and in full 
and intelligent sympathy with the educational problems that are so important and 
numerous. Greatly blessed is a State and are the children who have at head of 
school affairs such men as Mann, Sears, Dickinson, Draper, White, Ruffner, and our 
peerless Harris. 

The statistics of defective schools and consequent illiteracy teach their own sad 
lessons. The calamities which, in the inevitable order of events, must result from 
having so large a portion of the people in ignorance, need not be elaborated, but 
they should fill every patriot with alarm and impel to the adoption of early and ade- 
quate remedies as an antidote for what is so menacing to free institutions and to 
general prosperity. While ignorance so abounds, how can we hope for purity in 
elections and safety from deraagogism, immorality, lawlessness, and crime? "What- 
ever children wo sufl:er to grow up among us we must live with as men; and our 
chihlren must be their contemporaries. They are to be our copartners in the rela- 
tions of life, our equals at the polls, our rulers in legislative halls, the awarders of 
justice in our courts. However intolerable at home, they can not be banished to any 
foreign land ; however worthless, they will not be sent to die iu camps or to be slain 
in battle ; however flagitious, but few of them will be sequestered from society by 
imprisonment, or doomed to expiate their offenses with their lives." 

Perhaps tlie argument most likely to reach the general public is the close relation 
between public free schools and the increased productive power of labor and enter- 
prise. The political economy Avhich busies itself about capital and labor, and revenue 
reform and free coinage, and ignores such a factor as mental development, is suprem- 
est folly ; for to increase the intelligence of the laborer is to increase largely his pro- 
ducing power. Education creates new wealth, develops new and untold treasures, 
increases the growth of intellect, gives directive power and the power of self-help; 
of will and of combining things and agencies. The secretary of the board of educa- 
tion of Massachusetts in his last report makes some valuable statements and sugges- 
tions. No other State is giving as much for education, and yet each inhabitant is 
receiving on an average nearly seven years of two hundred days each, while the aver- 
age given each citizen in the whole nation is only four and three-tenths of such years. 
While the citizens of Massachusetts get nearly twice the average amount of education, 
her wealth-producing power as compared with other States stands almost in the same 
ratio. This increased wealtli-producing power means that the 2,500,000 people pro- 
duce $250,000,000 more than they would produce if they were only average earners. 
And this is twenty-five times the annual expenditure for schools. The capacity to 
read and write tends to the creation and distribution of wealth, and adds fully 25 
per cent to the wages of the working classes. It renders an additional service in 
stimulating material wants and making them more numerous, complex, and refined. 
We hear on every hand louder calls for skilled labor and high directive ability. It 
is a lack of common business sagacity to flinch from the cost of such a wealth- 
producing agency. This question is not. How can we afford to do it? but. Can we 
afiord not to do it? 

All experience shows only one means of securing universal education. Private and 
parish schools educate only about 12 per cent of the children, and if they could cdu- 
cnto all there would remain insuperable objections to them iuthe way of management, 
classification, efficiency and support. Our institutions and rights demand free schools 
for all the people, and they must be established and controlled by the State, and for 
their support combined municipal, county, and State revenues are needed. Eighty- 
seven per cent of the children of the Union are now in public schools. In 1890 the 
entire costs for school purposes were estimated at $113,110,218, toward the payment 
of which the local school tax contributed $97,000,000. While furnishing education 
is a legitimate tax on property, whether the taxpayer takes advantage of the public 
schools or not, the history of education in the United States shows that with Slate 
revenues should be combined local taxation. This insures immediate interest in the 
schools, better supervision, greater rivalry, and, on the whole, better results. 

The schools in Alabama are handicapped by a clause in the constitution limiting 
local taxation to an extremely low figure. If by general agreement among the triends 
of education the removal of this restriction could be separated from party politics, 
and local taxation could bo brought to the support of schools, there would soon be 
an era of educational and material prosperity. What a commentary it would be on 
the capacity of our people for self-government, on their catholic patriotism, on the 



1280 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1894-95. 

subordination of private wishes to tlie public good, if, uuder the advice and leader- 
ship of those selected as fittest persons for the executive chair, the whole subject of 
free and universal education should be elevated to the jilane of organic law, and be 
as sacred and irremovable as any of the fundamental muniments of liberty. 
Yours, trulj^ 

J. L. M. CUREY. 

CALIFOENIA. 

EDUCATING GIRLS. 

[Commvinicated to the Boston Sunday Journal by President David Starr Jordan, of the Leland Stan- 
ford Junior University.] 

The subject of the higher education of young women at present usually demands 
answers to these three questions: 

1. Shall a girl receive a college education? 

2. Shall she receive the same kind of a college education as a boy? 

3. Shall she be educated in the same college? 

First. Shall a girl receive a college education? The answer to this must depend 
on the character of the girl. Precisely so with the boy. What we should do with 
either depends on his or her pos8i1)ilities. Wise parents will not let either boy or 
girl enter life with any less preparations than the best they can receive. It is true 
that many college graduates, boys and girls alike, do not amount to much after the 
scliools have done the best they can with them. It is true, as I have elsewhere 
insisted, that "you can not fasten a $2,000 education to a 50-cent boy," nor to a 
50-cent girl, either. But there is also great truth in these words of Frederic Denni- 
son Maurice: " I know that uine-teuths of those the university sends out must be 
hewers of wood and drawers of water. But if we train the ten-tenths to be so, then 
the wood will be badly cut and the water will be spilt. Aim at something noble; 
make your system of education such that a great man may be formed by it, and 
there will be manhood in your little men of which you do not dream." 

1 6 is not alone the preparation of great men for great things. Higher education 
may prepare even little men for greater things than they would have otherwise found 
possible. And so it is with the education of women. The needs of tlie times are 
iniiierative. The noblest result of social evolution is the growth of the civilized 
home. Such a home only a wise, cultivated, and high-minded woman can make. 
To furnish such women is one of the noblest missions of higher education. No 
young women capable of becoming such should be condemned to a lower destiny. 
Even of those seemingly too dull or too vacillating to reach any high ideal of wis- 
dom, this may be said, that it does no harm to try. A few hundred dollars is not 
much to spend on an experiment of such moment. Four of the best years of one's 
life spent in the company of noble thoughts and high ideals can not fail to leave 
their impress. To be wise, and at the same time womanly, is to wield a tremendous 
influence, which may be felt for good in the lives of generations to come. It is not 
forms of government by which men are made or unmade. It is the character and 
influence of their mothers and wives. The higher education of women means more 
for the future than all conceivable legislative reforms. And its influence does not 
stop with the home. It means higher standards of manhood, greater thoroughness 
of training and the coming of better men. Therefore, let us educate our girls as 
well as our boys. A generous education should be the birthright of every daughter 
of the Kepublic as well as of every son. 

Second. Shall we give our girls the same education as our boys? Yes and no. If 
we mean by the same an equal degree of breadth and thoroughness, an equal fitness 
for high thinking and wise acting, yes, let it be the same. If we mean to reach this 
end by exactly the same course of studies, then my answer must be no. For the 
same course of study will not yield the same results with different persons. The 
ordinary "college course" which has been handed down from generation to genera 
tion is purely conventional. It is a result of a series of compromises in trying to 
lit the traditional education of clergymen and gentlemen to the needs of men of a 
different social era. The old college course met the special needs of nobody, and 
therefore was adapted to all alike. Tbe great educational awakening of the last 
twenty years in America has come from breaking the bonds of this old system. The 
essence of the new education is individualism. Its purpose is to give to each young 
man that training which will make a man of him. Not the training which a cen- 
tury or two ago helped to civilize the masses of boys of that time, but that which 
will civilize this particular boy. One reason why the college students of 1895 are 
ten to one in number as compared with those of 1875, is that the college training now 
given is valuable to ten times as many men as could be reached or helped by the 
narrow courses of tweuty years ago. 

In the university of to-day the largest liberty of choice in study is given to the 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1281 

student. The professor advises, the student chooses, and the llexibility of the 
courses makes it possible for every form of talent to receive proper culture. Because 
the college, of to-day helps ten times as many men as that of yesterday could hope 
to reach, it is ten times as valuable. The ditterence lies in the development of special 
lines of work and in the growth of the elective system. The power of choice car- 
ries the duty of choosing rightly. The ability to choose has made a man out of the 
college boy, an<l transferred college work from an alternation of tasks and play to 
its proper relation to the business of life. Meanwhile, the old ideals have not risen 
in value. If our colleges Averc to go back to threshing the cut straw of mediajval- 
ism — in other words, to their work of twenty years a^o — -their professors would speak 
to empty benches. In those colleges which still cling to those traditions these 
benches are empty to day or filled only with idlers. This to a college is a fate worse 
than death. 

The best education for a young woman is surely not that which has proved unfit 
for the young man. She is an individual as well as he, and her work gains as much 
as his l>y relating it to her life. But an institution broad enough to meet the varied 
needs of varied men can also meet the varied needs of the varied woman. Intellec- 
tual training is the prime function of the college. The intellectual needs of men 
and women are not different in many important respects. The special or profes- 
sional needs so far as they are different will bring their own siitisfaction. Those 
who have had to do with the higher training of women know that the severest 
demands can be met by them as well as by men. There is no demand for easy or 
" goody-goody" courses of study for women except as this demand has been made 
or encouraged by men. 

There are, of course, certain average differences between men and women as stu- 
dents. Women have often greater sympathy, greater readiness of memory or appre- 
hension, greater fondness for technique. In the languages and literature, often in 
mathematics and history, women are found to excel. They lack, on the whole, origi- 
nality. They are not attracted by unsolved problems, and in the inductive or "inex- 
act" sciences they seldom take the lead. In the traditional courses of study, tradi- 
tional for men, they are often very successful. Not that these courses have a special 
fitness for women, but that women are more docile and less critical as to the purposes 
of education. And to all these statements there are many exceptions. In this, how- 
ever, those who have taught both men and women must agree. The training of 
women is j ust as serious and j ust as important as the training of men, and no training 
i-i adequate for either which falls short of the best. 

Third. Shall women be taught in the same classes as men ? This is, it seems to me, 
not a fundamental question, but rather a matter of taste. It does no harm whatever 
to either men or women to meet those of the other sex in the same class rooms. But 
if they prefer not to do so, let them do otherwise. Considerable lias been said for and 
against the union in one institution of technical schools and schools of liberal arts. 
The technical character of scientific work is emphasized by its separation from gen- 
eral culture. But I believe better men are made wbere the two are not separated. 
The devotees of culture studies gain from the feeling reality and utility cultivated 
by technical work. The technical students gain from association with men and 
influences whose aggregate tendency is toward greater breadth of sympathy and a 
higher point of view. 

A woman's college is more or less distinctly a technical scbool. In most cases its 
purpose is distinctly stated to be such. It is a school for training for the profession 
of womanhood. It encourages womanliness of thought as something more or less 
dift'erent from the jilain thinking which is often called manly. 

The brightest work in women's colleges is often accompanied by a nervous strain as 
though the students or teachers were fearful of falling short of some expected stand- 
ard. They are often working toward ideals set by others. The best work of men 
is natural and unconscious, the normal product of the contact of the mind with the 
problem in question. On the whole, calmness and strength in woman's work are 
best reached through coeducation. 

At the jjresent time the demand for the higher education of women is met in three 
ditt'erent ways: 

1. In separate colleges for women, with courses of study more or less parallel with 
those given in colleges for men. In some of these the teachers are all women, in 
some mostly men, and in others a more or less equal division obtains. In nearly all 
of these institutions the old traditions of education and discipline are more prevalent 
than in colleges for men. Nearly all of them retain some trace of religious or denom- 
inational control. In all of them the Zeitgeist is producing more or less commotion, 
and the changes in their evolution are running parallel with those in colleges for 
men. 

2. In women's annexes to colleges for men. In these, part of the instruction given 
to the men is repeated to the women, in different classes or rooms, and there is more 

ED 95 41 



1282 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

or less opportunity to use tlic same libraries and museums. In some other institu- 
tions the relations are closer, the privileges of study being similar, the difiE'erences 
being mainly in the rules of conduct by which the young women are hedged in, the 
young men making their own regulations. 

It seems to mo that the annex system can not bo a permanent one. The annex stu- 
dent does not got the best of the institution, and the best is none too good for her. 
Sooner or later she will demand it, or go where the best can be found. The best stu- 
dents will cease to go to the annex. The institution must then admit women on 
equal terms or not admit them at all. There is certainly no educational reason why 
women shoixld prefer the annex of one institution if another institution equally good 
throws its doors wide open for her. 

3. The third system is that of coeducation. In this relation young men and young 
women are admitted to the same classes, subjected to the same requirements, and 
governed by the same rules. This system is now fully established in the State insti- 
tutions of the North and West, and in most other colleges of the same region. Its 
effectiveness has long since passed beyond question among those familiar with its 
operation. Other things being equal, the young men are more earnest, better in 
manners and morals, and in all ways more civilized than under monastic conditions. 
The women do their work in a more natural way, with better perspective and with 
saner incentives than when isolated from the influence and society of men. There is 
less of silliness and folly when a man ceases to be a novelty. There is less attraction 
exerted by idle and frivolous girls when young men meet also girls industrious and 
serious. In coeducational institutions of high standards frivolous conduct or scan- 
dals of any form are unknown. The responsibility for decorum is thrown from the 
school to the woman, and the woman rises to the responsibility. Many professors 
have entered Western colleges with strong prejudices against coeducation. These 
prejudices have in no case endured the test of experience. What is well done has a 
tonic effect on the mind and character. The college girl has long since ceased to 
expect any particular leniency because she is a girl. She stands or falls with the 
character of her work. 

It is not true that the standard of college work has been in any way lowered by 
coeducation. The reverse is decidedly the case. It is true, however, that untimely 
zeal of one sort or another has tilled our Western States with a host of so-called col- 
leges. It is true that most of these are weak, and doing poor work in poor ways. It 
is true that most of these are coeducational. It is also true that the great majority 
of their students are not of college grade at all. In such schools often low standards 
prevail, both as to scholarships and as to manners. The student fresh from the coun- 
try, Avith no preparatory training, will bring the manners of his home. These are 
not alwaj^s good manners, as manners are judged in society. But none of these 
defects are derived from coeducation, nor are any of these conditions in any way made 
worse by it. 

A final question: Does not coeducation lead to marriage? Most certainly it does, 
and this fact need not be and can not be denied. _ But such marriages are not usually 
premature. And it is certainly true that no better marriages can bo made than those 
founded on common interests and intellectual friendships. 

A college man who has known college women is not drawn to women of lower ideals 
and inferior training. He is likely to bo strongly drawn toward the best he has 
known. A college woman is not led by mere propinquity to accej)t the attentions of 
inferior men. Among some thirty college professors educated in coeducational col- 
leges, as Cornell, Wisconsin, Michigan, California, whose records are before me, t^Yo- 
thirds have married college friends. Most of the others have married women from 
other colleges, and a few chosen women from their own colleges, but not contempo- 
rary with themselves. In all cases the college man has chosen a college womau, and 
in all cases both man and woman are thoroughly happy with the outcome of coedu- 
cation. It is part of the legitimate function of higher education to i^repare women 
as well as men for happy and successful lives. 

CONNECTICUT. 

THE TENDENCY OF MEN TO LIVE IN CITIES. 

[Address of President Kingsbiu-y, of tlie American Social Science Association. Head September 2, 

1895.] 

Tavo or three years since I wrote this title as a memorandum for a paper which I 
wished to prepare when I should find time suificieut to make some necessary inves- 
tigations, statistical and otherwise. I knew of nothing, or almost uothiug, written 
on the subject, except by way of occasional allusion. I made many inquiries in 
various directions, personally and by letter, of those who would, I thought, be likely 
to give me iuformation ; I examined libraries and catalogues — and all this with very 
triSiug results. To-day, when I again take up the theme, so much has been written 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1283 

on tlio subject that tlio questiou has almost passed from tlic stage of generalization 
to that of spe<-ialization and detail. 

In the April nnmber of the Atlantic Magazine of the present year an article com- 
menting on Dr. Albert Shaw's recent work, entitled "Municipal government in 
Great Britain," says: 

"The great fact in the social development of the white race at the close of the 
nineteenth century is the tendency all over the world to concentrate in great cities." 

Doubtless this is true; but it is not a new, or even a modern tendency, although, 
as we shall see, there is much in modern civilization which tends to increase and 
accentuate it. Still, when the earliest dawn of authentic history sheds its pale light 
on the impenetrable darkness which lies beyond, it shows us cities as large, as mag- 
uiflccnt, as luxurious, as wicked, and apparently as old as any tluit the world has 
since known. The books speak of Babylon as the largest city the world has ever 
seen; but it was by no means the first, and may not have been the greatest even 
then. Nineveh, its great rival, Memphis, Thebes, Damascus, claiming to bo the 
oldest of them all, Eome, in a later time, with its two or three millions of inhabi- 
tants, are but representatives of other cities by the thousands, perhaps larger and 
older than the largest and oldest here named, and are certainly sufticient to show 
th:it a tendency in men to live congregated together in largo numbers is as old as 
anything that wo know about the human race. 

in our earliest literature, too, we find, apparently well fixed, some of the same 
prejudices against the city as a i)lace for men to dwell in that now exist. These 
prejudices must have been already existing for a long time, and their influence jnust 
have been the subject of observation before even the possibly somewhat prejudiced 
people who did not live in cities should have arrived at such firmly settled con- 
clusions in regard to their deleterious inlluence. Curiously enough, the prejudice 
appears in one of our earliest writings. Tliese is no doubt that the writer of the 
Book of Genesis had what might bo called an unfriendly feeling toAvard Cain. He 
gives him a bad character in every respect. He holds him up to the universal con- 
tempt of mankind, and visits him with the severest judgments of God. And, after 
he has said about him nearly every bad thing that he can think of, he adds as a 
climax to his enormities, "Aud Cain builded a city." Now, Avhether he meant to be 
understood that cities, having been first built by such an infamous scoundrel, had 
turned out to be very much what you might expect, or whether, the general char- 
acter of cities having been already settled in his mind, it was adding one more black 
mark to Cain to mention this fact, is by no means clear; but this much is certain, 
that the writer was no admirer of cities, and that neither Cain nor cities were 
intended to derive any credit from his statement. From that day to this they have 
had their severe critics. They have been regarded as the breeding places of vice 
and the refuge of crime. Our own Jefferson — that is, Thomas, not Joseph — is said 
to have called tliem "ulcers on the body politic." Dr. Andrew D. White, in his 
address as president of this association delivered in 1891, says, "Our cities are the 
rotten spots in our body politic, from which, if we are not careful, decay is to spread 
throughout our whole country; for cities make and spread opinions, fashions, 
ideals." The poet Cowley says, " God the first garden made, and the first city Cain." 
And other writers with the same feelings have used language of a similar import, 
dictated by the warmth of their temperament, the range of their vocabulary, and 
the power of their rhetoric. 

Prof. Max Nordau, who has lately shown us in a large octavo of 650 pages how 
we are all hastening on to certain destruction — a conclusion which I am not dis- 
posed to combat — or perhaps I might more modestly say, as the late President Wool- 
sey is reported to have said to Daniel A. Pratt, the great American traveler, when 
ho laid before him some rather startling propositions, that I would rather give him 
a dollar than to attemi^t to point out the fallacy in his argument — Mr. Nordau, after 
quoting high authority to show how the human race is poisoning itself with alcohol, 
tobacco, opium, hasheesh, arsenic, and tainted food, says : 

"To these noxious influences, however, one more may be added, which Morel [the 
authority he has just quoted] has not known or has not taken into consideration; 
namely, residence in large towns. The inhabitant of a largo town, even the richest, 
who is surrounded by the greatest luxury, is continually exposed to unfavorable 
influences which diminish his vital powers far more than Avhat is inevitable. He 
breathes an atmosphere charged with organic detritus; he eats stale, contaminated, 
adulterated food ; he feels himself in a state of constant uervous excitement, aud 
one can compare him withoi;t exaggeration to the inhabitant of a marshy district. 
The effect of a large town ou the human organism offers the closest analogy to that 
of the Maremma, aud its jiopulation falls victim to the same fatality of degeneracy 
and destruction as the victims of malaria. The death rate in a largo town is more 
than a quarter greater than the average for the entire population. It is double that 
of the open country, though in reality it ought to bo less, since in a large town the 
most vigorous ages predominate, during which the mortality is lower than in infancy 



1284 EDUCATION REPORT, 

and old age. And the children of large towns who are not carried off at an early- 
age suffer from the peculiar arrested development which Morel has ascertained in 
the population of fever districts. They develop more or less normally until they are 
14 or 15 years of age, are up to that time alert, sometimes brilliantly endowed, and 
give the highest promise. Then suddenly there is a standstill. The mind loses its 
facility of comprehension; and the boy, who only yesterday was a model scholar, 
becomes an obtuse, clumsy dunce, who can only be steered with the greatest diffi- 
culty through his examinations. With these mental changes bodily modifications 
go hand in hand. The growth of the long bones is extremely slow or ceases entirely, 
the legs remain short, the pelvis retains a feminine form, certain other organs cease 
to develop, and the entire being presents a strange and repulsive mixture of uncom- 
pleteness and decay. Now, we know how in the last generation the number of 
inhabitants of great towns increased to an extraoi'diuary degree. At the present 
time an incomparably larger portion of the whole population is subjected to the 
destructive influences of large towns than was the case fifty years ago. Hence 
the number of victims is proportionately more striking, and continually becomes 
more remarkable. Parallel with growth of large towns is the increase in the number 
of the degenerate of all kinds, criminals, lunatics, and the higher degenerates of 
Magnau; and it is natural that these last should play an ever more prominent part 
in endeavoring to introduce an ever greater element of insanity into art and litera- 
ture." 

Many people think Nordan like the patient in the asylum. He thinks everybody 
crazy except himself. But Dr. Walter B. Piatt, in a paper read before this associa- 
tion in 1887, points out certain dangers to the constitution to which every dweller 
in cities is of necessity exposed from physical causes, specially mentioning disuse of 
the upper extremities, the exposure to incessant noise and its cumulative effect on 
the whole nervous system, the jarring of the brain and spinal cord by a continual 
treading upon unyielding pavements. And he adds that good authorities assert 
that there are very few families now living in London who with their predecessors 
have resided there continuously for three generations; but he excepts from the 
operations of these deleterious influences those whose circumstances are such as to 
enable them to spend a considerable portion of each year in the country. 

Dr. Grace Peckham, in a paper read before this association in 1885, says: ''How- 
ever it was arrived at, the census of 1880 shows that the infant mortality of cities in 
this country is twice as great as that of the rural districts." 

Everyone who has taken an interest in Mr. Charles Loring Brace's great work in 
the city of New York knows that his firm belief was that the salvation of the city 
poor depended on getting the surplus into country homes; and few men have been 
more competent to judge or more ready to look at all sides of a case than he. The 
literature of the slums is full of every human horror; and it would seem as if any 
change must be for the better. 

Dr. Josiah Strong, in that vigorous presentation of the dangers of our American 
civilization entitled Our Country, says: "The city has become a serious menace to 
our civilization, because in it each of our dangers is enhanced and all are localized. 
It has a peculiar attraction for the immigrant. In 1880 our fifty principal cities 
contained 39.3 per cent of our German population and 45.8 per cent of our Irish. 
Not only does the proportion of the poor increase with the growth of the city, but 
their condition becomes more wretched. Dives and Lazarus are brought face to face." 
Speaking of Dives and Lazarus, has Dives had what you might call quite fair play? 
Even Judas has had his apologists, but I do not remember ever to have seen any 
speculation as to what would have become of Lazarus if he had not been fed from 
Dives's table. Doubtless he preferred that to the poorhouse or even to tramping; 
and from all accounts, he was not exactly the sort of person you would choose for a 
parlor boarder. This, however, is a mere passing comment, and, I trust, will not 
involve me in any theologic discussion ; but I do like to see even the devil have his 
due. 

The feature of cities which is perhaps at present attracting more attention than 
any other is their misgovernment. Dr. Strong begins a paragraph thus : ''The gov- 
ernment of the city is by a 'boss' who is skilled in the manipulation of the 'machine,' 
and who holds no political principles except ' for revenue only.'" If a foreigner were 
to read that sentence he would infer that "boss" was the English for the chief mag- 
istrate of a city, but we know so well just what it means that it scarcely attracts our 
attention. * » * 

One would think after reading all this about the evils of cities froto the time of 
Cain to the last New York election, or, rather, let us say, to the last but one — and 
especially when we must admit that we know everything that is said to be true, and 
that even then not the half nor the tenth part has been told, and we are almost driven 
to the conclusion that nothing short of the treatment applied to Sodom and Gomorrah 
will meet the necessities of the case — that every sane man and woman should flee 
without stopping for the open country; and the women especially should be careful 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVEKAL STATES. 1285 

how they look behind them, and be sure to remember Lot's Avife, and nothing should 
induce them to turn their faces cityward again. 

Now, in spite of all this precisely the reverse is true, and, while there has always 
been a strong tendency in humanity cityward, this nineteenth century sees it intensi- 
fied beyond all former experience. Statistics do not make interesting public reading, 
but from Dr. Strong's valuable work, where there are many, we take a few in support 
of our position : 

"The population of this country as divided between city and country was, in 1790, 
omitting fractions, country 97 per cent, city 3 per cent; in 1840, country 91 per cent, 
city 9 per cent ; in 1890, country 71 per cent, city 29 per cent ; and the rate of increase 
is itself all the while increasing." 

In 1856 Chicago had a population of 90,000. In 1895 it is supposed to have 1,500,000, 
with several outlying districts not yet heard from. In this classification, which is 
taken from the United States censiis, towns of 8,000 and over rank as cities, while the 
rest is country. Of course a lino must bo drawn somewhere for the purpose of sta- 
tistics, but many think it might more properly have been drawn at 5,000, which would 
largely increase the citj^ percentage. Dr. Strong also quotes this statement : That in 
the rural districts of Wayne County, N. Y., there are 400 unoccupied houses, and much 
other valuable statistical information of a similar character. Professor Nordau also 
has many statistics of various European countries, all to the same purport. But the 
general fact of the enormous increase of the city at the expense of the country is so 
notorious that it needs no proof. Let us consider some of its canses. 

It is well to notice, and perhaps here as well as anywhere, that, while in all coun- 
tries the influence of the city has been great, it has not been equally gnat in all. 
Eome was the Eoman Empire. Carthage was Phoenicia. Paris to-day is France. 
But Loudon, big as it is, is not England; Madrid is not Spain, and, certainly, Berlin 
is not Germany. In all these cases there is a power and a i>ublic opinion, a consensus 
of thought, a moral, political, and social influence in the country as a whole, which 
does not look to nor depend upon the city as its maker, leader, and guide. It is easier 
to see and feel this fact than to analj'ze and explain it. Probably the same reasons 
or kinds of reasons do not apply in every case, but each has its own, some of which are 
easy to find and others too deep and elusive to be discovered. Accidents of early his- 
tory, geographical relations, the temper and idiosyncrasies of a people, and other 
influences, some broader and some more subtle, all combine to fix the relative posi- 
tion and importance of the great city and the country or the lesser town. Speaking 
of Constantinople, Mr. Frederic Harrison says : 

'■There is but one city of the world of which it can be said that for fifteen centu- 
ries and a half it has been the continuous seat of empire under all the changes of 
race, institutions, customs, and religions. And this may be ultimately traced to its 
incomparable physical and geographical capabilities." 

In England more than in any other country, as it seems to me, country life is 
regarded as the normal condition of a fully developed man; and even then it is only 
those who keep themselves polished by frequent attrition with city life that accom- 
plish much for themselves or their fellow-men. But probably the lesson to be drawn 
is that a life where both the city and country have a part develops the highest form 
of manhood and is the end to be striven for. 

Ancient cities owed their existence to a variety of causes. Probably safety and 
convenience were, at the bottom, the reasons for aggregating the population; but 
any special city frequently owed its existence, so far as appears, to the mere caprice of 
a ruler as a passing fancy — though he may have had his reasons — sometimes, doubtless, 
to military considerations, and sometimes perhaps to accident, or to migration, or the 
results of natural causes, geographical or commercial. It was not until the Middle 
Ages that the industrial town was evolved. But the modern town seems wholly indus- 
trial in its raison d'etre ; it is therefore governed by the laws which govern industrial 
progress. 

Buckle says: "Formerly the richest countries were those in which nature was 
most bountiful. Now the richest countries are those in which man is most active." 
(He also adds, although perhaps it has no special significance in this connection, that 
"it is evident that the more men congregate in great cities the more thej' will become 
accustomed to draw their material of thought from the business of human life and 
the less attention they will pay to those proclivities of nature which are a fatal 
source of superstition.") 

Aside I'rom all questions of mutual defense and protection and mutual helpfulness 
in various ways and industrial convenience, doubtless one of the very strongest of 
forces in the building of the city is the human instinct of gregariousness. This under- 
lies ancient as well as modern, military as well as industrially founded aggregations, 
and the hamlet or the village as well as the city. But there is always a craving to 
get where there are more i^eople. The countryman, boy or girl, longs for the village, 
the villager for the larger town, and the dweller in the larger town for the great city ; 
and, having once gone, they are seldom satisfied to return to a place of less size, 



1286 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1894-95. 

In short, Y^^hatover man may have been or may be in his prognathous or troglodyte 
condition, ever since we have known much about him he has been highly gregarious, 
even under unfavorable conditions. 

As long ago as 1870 Mr. Frederick Law Olmsted, in a paper read before this asso- 
ciation, said, " There can be no doubt that in all oar modern civilization, as in that 
of the ancients, there is a strong drift townward;" and he quotes the language of 
an intelligent woman whoso early life had been spent in one of the most agreeable 
and convenient farming countries in the United States: "If I were offered a deed of 
the best farm I ever saw, on condition of going back to the country to live, I would 
not take it. I Avould rather face starvation in town." 

The life of the great city would seem to bear hardest of all on the very poor, and 
the country, or at least suburban, life to present the strongest attraction, by con- 
trast, to this class. Pure air, plenty of water, room for children to play, milk on 
which to feed them, room to sleep, wholesome food for adults — these things, almost 
impossible to the poor in the city, are nearly all of easy attainment in the country; 
yet the overmastering desire for a city life seems to be stronger with this class than 
with any other. Perhaps you are familiar with the story of the kind lady who found 
a widow with a great family of children living in the depths of poverty and dirt in 
the city, and moved them all to a comfortable country home where, with a moderate 
amount of exertion, they were sure of a living. At the end of six weeks her country 
agent reported that the family had suddenly disappeared, no one knew where. Going 
back to the neighborhood of their old haunts, she found them all reestablished there 
in the same circumstances of dirt and destitution as of old. "Why did you leave 
that comfortable home and come back here?" was her astonished inquiry. "Folks 
is more comjiany nor sthoomps, anyhow," was the answer. Poor food, and little of 
it, dirt and discomfort, heat and cold — all count as nothing in competition with this 
passion of gregariousness and desire for human society, even where that means more 
or less of a constant tight as the popular form of social intercourse. 

Doubtless one of the most potent factors in the modern growth of cities has been 
the immense improvement in the facilities for travel, which has been such a marked 
characteristic of the last half century. But, after all, what is this but saying that 
it has been made easier for people to go where they wished to be? Facilities for 
travel malie it as easy to get from city to country as from country to city; but the 
tide, except for temporary purposes, all sets one way. Nevertheless, there is no 
question that this ease of locomotion has been availed of to a surprising extent in 
transporting each year in the summer season a very large portion, not of the rich 
alone, but of neariy every class, not only from our great cities but from our mod- 
eratcljr large towns, to the woods and lakes and seashore for a time. The class of 
people who, fifty years since, lived in the same house the year round, without thought 
of change, now deem a six or twelve weeks' residence in the country a vital neces- 
sity; and this fact is a great alleviation and antidote to some of the unfavorable 
influences of city life. 

All modern industrial life tends to concentration as a matter of economy. It has 
long been remarked that the best place to establish or carry on any kind of business 
is where that business is already being done. For that reason we see different kinds 
of manufactures grouping themselves together — textiles in one place, metals in 
another; and, of the textiles, cottons in one place, woollens in another; and of the 
metals, iron in one place, cop]3er in another, and so on. The reason of this is obvious. 
In a community where a certain kind of business is carried on the whole population 
unconsciously become, to a certain extent, experts. They know a vast deal more of 
it than people who have had no such experience. Every man, woman, and child in 
a fishing village is much superior in his or her knowledge of tish, bait, boats, wind, 
and weather to the inhabitants of inland towns. This is true of all the arts, so that, 
besides the trained hands which may bo drawn upon when needed, there is a whole 
population of half-trained ones ready to be drawn upon to fill their places. Then, 
every kind of business is partly dependent on several other kinds. There must be 
machine makers, blacksmiths, millwrights, and dealers in supplies of all sorts. 
AVhere there is a large business of any kind these subsidiary trades that are sup- 
ported by it naturally flock around it; whereas in an isolated situation the central 
establishment must support all these trades itself or go a considerable distance when 
it needs their assistance. Fifty or sixty years ago small manufacturing establish- 
ments in isolated situations and on small streams were scattered all through the 
Eastern States. The condition of trade at that time rendered this possible. Now 
they have almost wholly disappeared, driven out by economic necessity; and their 
successors are in the cities and large towns. 

If you will examine any city newspaper of fifty or sixty years ago, you will find 
frequent advertisements for boys as clerks in stores; and almost always they read 
"one from the country preferred." Now you never see this. Why is it? I think 
mainly because the class of boys which these advertisements were expected to 
attract from the country are no longer there. This was really a call for the 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1287 

well-educated, boys of tlio -well-to-do farmers of native stock, wlio thoiiglit they could 
"better tlieinselves by going to a city. They went, and did better themselves; and 
those who stayed behind fell behind. The country people deteriorated, and the 
country boy was no longer for business purposes the equal of the boy who liad been 
trained in city ways. Country boys still go to the city; but they are not advertised 
for, and have to find their own way. 

Our great civil war compelled us to find out some way in which to replace the pro- 
ductive power of a million men sent into the field and suddenly changed from pro- 
ducers into consumers. Their i^laces had to be tilled in the lines of agriculture and 
of all the mechanic arts, in the counting room, in the pulpit, at the bar, and every- 
where else where a soldier was to be found. A hundred thousand of these places, 
more or less, iu shojis, in mechanic industries, in counting rooms, in the medical pro- 
fession, even at the pulpit and the bar, were filled with women ; and the deficit left 
by the remainder of the million was supplied by newly invented machinery to do 
their work. Tlie result was that when the war was over a million of men, or as uiauy 
as came back, found their places filled. They were no longer needed. In all rural 
occupations this was especially the case; and, being driven out the country by want 
of Avork, they flocked to the city as the most likely place to find it. The disturbing 
influence in financial, economic, and industrial matters of this sudden change of a 
million men from producers to consumers and back again to producers, followed as it 
was soon after by the disturbing influences of the Franco-Prussian war, have never 
been given their due weight by students of sociology. 

"Wo must remember, too, that cities as ^ilaces of human habitation have vastly 
improved within half a century. About fifty years ago neither New York nor Boston 
had iiublic water, and A^ery few of our cities had either water or gas, and horse rail- 
roads had not been thought of. When we stop to thiuk what this really means in 
sanitary matters, it seems to me that the increase of cities is no longer a matter of 
surprise. 

A few years since the great improvement of the lift or elevator added probably 10 
per cent actually, and much more than that theoretically, to the possibilities of 
population on a given amount of ground; and now within a very recent period three 
new factors have been suddenly developed which promise to exert a powerful influ- 
ence on the problems of city and country life. These are the trolley, the bicycle, 
and the telephone. It is imjiossible at present to foresee just what their influence 
is to be on the question of the distribution of population ; but this much is certain, 
that it adds from 5 to 15 miles to the radius of every large towu, briugiug all this 
additional area into new relations to business centers. Places 5 or 10 miles apart 
and all the intervening distances are rendered accessible and communicable for all 
the purposes of life as if they were in the next street. Already the bicycle has done 
more toward directing attention and eflort to the improvement of ordinary highways 
than all that has been done before since the days of Indian j^aths. It is affecting 
the legislation of the country on the subject of roads. When we think of what 
this minimizing of distance means we can not help seeing that its influence must 
be immense, but just what no man can foretell. It is by such apparently unimpor- 
tant, trifling, and inconspicuous forces that civilization is swayed and molded in 
its evolutions and no man can foresee them or say whither they lead. 

Cities, as desirable places of human habitation, seem to have touched low-water 
mark — as did almost everything else — in that miserable period of comparative cessa- 
tion in human progress known to us in European history as the "Dark" or ''Middle 
Ages." Babylon had its gardens and its perennial streams of pure water running 
through its streets ; Damascus, its wonderful groves and gardens. Old Homo had its 
mighty aqueducts traversing the country like lines of pillared temples and bringing 
the full flow of the mountain streams into the heart of the city, where i t irrigated the 
great gardens aud pleasure grounds of tlie wealthy nobles, and sported in fountains 
for everybody, and furnished baths for the benefit of the mass of the people. And 
many other large cities on both shores of the Mediterranean were but a duj)licate of 
Eome. But, Avhen the people had in some way lost their grip, either through luxurj' 
or gluttony or the idleness which came of having no great wars on hand, or whatever 
it may have been, their waterworks fell out of repair, their baths went to ruin, the 
Goths came aud finished iip the job, and the last state of that people was Averse, 
very much Avorse, than the first. Londou, Avhich had its rise and great growth in 
these days of ignorance and darkness, was a great straggling village, Avithout a 
vestige of sanitary appliances, without decent roads, infested by robbers, and alto- 
gether such a place as pestilence deligkts iu and only fire can purify. Mr. Frederic 
Harrison is so impressed with this that he seems to think the Christianity of those 
days largely responsible for the increase of dirt that was contemporaneous Avith its 
early growth, and that, iu its stern repression of luxurious living aud care for the 
body, it affords a very unfaA'orablo contrast to the cleanlier and more sanitary ways 
of the earlier time. Probably this is not Avithoiit much truth; but there Avere other 
forces at work att'ecting alike both snints and sinners. Yet iu these mediaival cities, 



1288 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

miserable places as many of them often were for human dwellings, there were cer- 
tain forces at work which have done as much for humanity, and for modern civiliza- 
tion as any that can be named. Cities have alwajs been nurseries of freemen. 

Tho Rev. Dr. James W. Cooper, in a recent address, says : 

" It is a significant fact that in the development of society productive industry 
and political liberty have always gone together. There has been no manufacturing 
or trading ^leople known to history, from the ancient Tyrians to the mediaeval Flor- 
entines and the modern English, which has not also been a free people. Business 
enterprise demands freedom and developos it. Men must have liberty if they are to 
combine in business ventures, and through such combinations they learn also to 
unite their interests in other than mere business ways for the common weal. There 
is a close connection between the private fortune of each and the property of all, if 
it can only be discerned; and practical, pushing men are ordinarily the first to dis- 
cern it." 

"If you go back to the fourteenth or fifteenth century, yon will find the seeds of 
modern civilization in the little towns and free cities which were just then beginning 
to develop an independent life all over England and on the Continent. * * * With 
the introduction of manufactures came the town, and with the town there came 
insistence on personal rights, a self-respecting, self-governing, compact community 
was developed, the castle was defied, the old feudal system of the Middle Ages gave 
way before the new civilization, and the modern era was ushered in. This was 
accomplished by the towns. It is the habit just now to praise the country and decry 
the town. We quote Cowper, and say, 'God made tho country, man made the town.' 
I suppose this is true. But God also made man who made the town, * * * and, 
while the begiuning of things was a garden in the j)aradise of Eden, the end of 
things, as prophesied in the Book of Revelation, is a city, magnificent and popu- 
lous, the new Jerusalem." 

In a paper read before this association in 1885 on city and country schools, Mr. 
W. M. Beckner says: "Cities have played a noble part in the struggle for light and 
progress. In Europe they were the first to rebel against the feudal system. In 
England, London always led the fight against tyranny." Indeed there is plenty of 
historical proof of this fact. "The ordering of secular matters appertaiueth not to 
the Pope," said the burghers of London in the year 1215, a time when the Pope him- 
self and a great many other people thought that the ordering of everything thafc was 
worth ordering appertained to him. I find also the following in a book of parlia- 
mautary usages : "At the first meeting of a new Parliament the members for the city 
of Londou, in court dress or uniform, take seats on the treasury bench, which are 
afterwards vacated for the ministers of the day. This privilege is accorded to them 
in commemoration of the part taken by the city in 1642 in defense of the privilege 
of Parliament and the protection given to the five members who took refuge in 
the city when their arrest had been attempted by King Charles. This usage was 
observed," it says, "at the meeting of Parliament in April, 1880." London and 
Bristol were the sympathizers and stanch friends of America in our own Revolution. 

It is remarked, too, 1 think, by Mr. J. R. Green, that the important part in all public 
matters played by the trade guilds, which wore only found in cities, and their influ- 
ence as a Avhole toward freedom, although at times despotic within themselves, is too 
well known to need any lengthy reference. 

Prof. George Burton Adams, in his History of Mediaeval Civilization, says : "It is in 
Italy, however, that tlie most revolutionary changes which mark the new age are to 
bo seen. There Frederick found himself opposed by an entirely new and most deter- 
mined energy — the cities." 

And in the history of freedom the very names of Utrecht, Dort, Haarlem, Leyden, 
Magdeburg, Hamburg, Bruges, Wittenberg, Eisenach, and Worms, of Padua, Bologna, 
and Florence, of Warsaw, Prague, and Buda-Pesth, to which maybe added London, 
Bristol, and Boston, ring with tho story of popular rights and human liberty. 

Frederic Harrison says: "The life that men live in the city gives the type and 
measure of their civilization. The word ' civilization' means the manner of life of 
the civilized part of the community — that is, of the city men, not of the countrymen, 
who are called rustics, and were once called pagans (pagani), or the heathen of the 
villages." And another says: "A great and beautiful city surely draws to her the 
observant and thoughtful souls from every district, and, if she does not keep tliem, 
sends them home refined and transmuted." 

Some modern woman is quoted as saying that, if one has to run the gauntlet of 
two or three hundred pair of sharply scrutinizing eyes, the consciousness of a Paris 
dress is worth any amount of moral principle. And Sappho, who sang six or seven 
hundred years before the Christian era, says : 

What conntry maiden charms thee, 

However fair her face, 
Who knows not how to gather 

Her dress with artless grao6 ? 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1289 

If they "(licln't know everything down in Judee," it is clear that in Lesbos they 
knew two or three. 

In contrast with the statements of Kordau and of others in regard to the unfavor- 
able sanitary conditions of city life, it must be noticed that it is always in cities 
that those who can aftord it get the best food ; and, if you are living in the country, 
you are largely dependent on the city for your supply. The summer seashore visitor 
usually finds, if he takes the trouble to investigate, that his fresh fish comes from 
the nearest great city, also his meat, and quite likely his butter and eggs, and nearly 
everything except perhaps his milk. To bo sure, they came from the country first in 
many cases; but they seek the best market, and are to be best found at it. 

It IS also only in great cities, as a rule, that the best medical skill can be obtained. 
There we all go or send to have our most serious diseases treated and our most criti- 
cal surgical operations performed. It is almost wholly owing to the unsanitary 
condition among the children of the very poor that the city death rate is so high. 

Mr. C. F. Wingate, in a paper read here in 1885, quotes Dr. Sargent as saying that 
"life in towns is, on the whole, more healthful than in the country ; " also Sir Charles 
Dilke, in speaking of recent sanitary improvements iu England, as saying that "the 
exceptions are mostly found in the rural districts." This apparent discrepancy 
between these statements and some of the others is doubtless to be accounted for by 
the fact that the former had in mind the very jioor, while the latter doubtless referred 
to the better conditioned. 

I have been fairly familiar with the streets of New York and Boston for the last 
fifty years, and there is no fact in that connection with which I have been more 
impressed than the physical improvement which has taken place in both men and 
women during that period. The men are more robust and more erect, the women 
have greatly improved both iu feature and carriage; and in the care and condition 
of the teeth in both sexes a surprising change has taken place. In Boston streets 
and street cars it seems to me that you see a hundred good-looking women where 
you formerly saw one. Whether this would hold good in the slums and low parts 
of the town may be doubted, but there of course one looks for the refuse and cast-oflF 
material of society. 

A few years since I stood by the grave of a prominent man in one of our rural 
towns. By my side stood a man who had achieved a reputation both in literature 
and law. He said to me, ' 'Who is that man opposite ? " calling my attention to a tall, 
fine-looking man. ''That," I replied, "is General H." "Ah !" said my friend, with 
accents of enthusiasm, "one needs to come into the rural districts to see the finest 
specimens of manhood." I said, "Look about, and see if you find any more." He 
did not find them. Then I said, "You have jncked out the one man here who is in 
no sense a rural product. It is true this is his home, but his life is metropolitan or 
cosmopolitan ; and those prematurely old, bowed, rheumatic, decrepid, and uninter- 
esting people who make up most of the gathering are the true representatives of our 
rural population." I think I shattered an ideal, but the logic of facts was too strong 
to be resisted. 

Perhaps this is as good a place as any to remark that when any occupation or 
calling in life or in a community becomes relatively less remunerative than the aver- 
age, there begins at once, by natural selection, a process of personal deterioration 
of those engaged in it. In other words, success is the stepping stone to improvement. 
And in the rural districts of the Eastern States this deterioration has been going on 
now for fifty years. 

Rev. Dr. Greer has recently said, speaking of clerical work iu city and country: 

"I think I should say that the difSculties in the country are greater than tliose in 
the city. There is more, I think, iu common village life to lower and degrade and 
demoralize than in the city. Take the matter of amusements in the city. There are 
good ones, and we can make a choice. In the country one can not make a choice. If 
a theatrical company comes to a village, it is a poor company. If a concert is given, 
it is a poor concert. The entertainment is of a poor character. Then, again, there is 
a loneliness, an isolation in the country life; and this tends to lower and depreciate 
that life. I believe statistics show that a large contingent of the insane in our asy- 
lums come from the farms. That hard drudgery of struggle with the clod and the 
soil from early morning to evening twilight is a lonely and bitter struggle. There 
is a want of idealism." 

I think it is Dr. Strong who says: "When population decreases and roads deterio- 
rate, there is an increasing isolation, with which comes a tendency toward demoral- 
ization and degeneration. The mountain whites of the South afford an illustration 
of the results of such a tendency operating through several generations. Their 
heathenish degradation is not due to their antecedents, but primarily to tlieir isola- 
tion." He also mentions communities in New England where like causes have pro- 
duced a similar result. I think isolated rural life, where people seldom come in 
contact with dwellers in large towns, always tends to barbarism. I believe that 

ED 95 41* 



1290 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

poorer people in our cities, if planted in isolated situations in the country, would 
deteriorate and grow barbaric in habit and thought, even though they might be 
physically in better condition. What very unattractive i^eople most of our rural 
population are ! 

It is to be noted that the attrition and constant opportunity for comparison which 
city life makes possible, and even compulsory, tend to make all the people who are 
subjected to its influence alike. They do and see and hear and smell and eat the 
same things. They wear similar clothes, they read the same books, and their minds 
are occupied with the same objects of thought. In the end they even come to look 
alike, as married people are sometimes said to do, so that they are at once recognized 
when they are seen in some other place; while i^eoi^le who live isolated lives think 
their own thoughts, pursue different objects, and are compelled to depend upon their 
own judgments and wills for the conduct of their daily lives. The consequence is 
that they develop and increase peculiarities of character and conduct to the verge 
of eccentricity, if not beyond it, and present all that variety and freshness of type 
which we call originality or individuality. They are much more dramatic, pictur- 
esque, and interesting in literature, perhaps not always iu real life. I mention this 
in passing, without any attempt to estimate fully the value of either development. 
Doubtless something is lost and something gained in either case, and probably much 
could be said in favor of each. Many persons have a great desire to get, as they say, 
''back to nature," while others prefer mankind iu the improved state, even with some 
sameness. 

The ideal life, time out of mind, for all who could aiford it, has been the city for 
action, the country for repose, tranquillity, recuperation, rest. When Joab, the 
mighty captain of Judea, quarreled with King David, ho retired to his country seat, 
in what was called the "Wilderness." When Cicero tired of the excitement of 
EomO; he found rest and quiet in Tusculum. When things went badly with Cardinal 
Wolsey, he sought refuge and repose in the Abbey of Leicester. Prince Bismarck 
retires from the frown of young Kaiser Wilhelm to Friedrichsruhe. The country is 
a good place to rest in, especially if one can control his surroundings. The quiet, 
the calm, the peace, the pleasant color, the idyllic sights and sounds, all tend to allay 
nervous irritation, to tranquilize the soul, to repress the intellectual, and to invig- 
orate the animal functions in a very remarkable degree. Bux this is not rustic life; 
it is only the country life of the city resident. But the tranquil appearance of a 
country town, the apparent simplicity and serenity of rural life, the sweet idyllic 
harmony of rural surroundings are, as everyone must know who has much experi- 
ence, very deceptive. I remember in one of Dickens's stories a man Avho lives the 
life of a traveling showman, one Dr. Marigold, says, in substance, that temper is bad 
enough anywhere, but temper in a cart is beyond all endurance. The small jealousies 
and rivalries, the ambitions, the bickerings and strifes of a small rural community, 
are greatly intensified by the circumscribed area in which they find their vent, and 
compared with the same human frailties in a larger sphere have all the drawbacks 
of temper in a cart. 

Mr. (Lacon) Colton says: ''If you would be known and not know, vegetate in a 
village. If you would know and not be known, live in a city." But to this it may 
bo added that those who are known in a city are very much more widely known 
than they can be in the country. A happy fitness betv/een the size of the person and 
the size of the place is doubtless j)roductive of the most desirable results. 

Mr. Shaw says : 

'•'I am not willing to deduce any pessimistic conclusions from this general tend- 
ency, whether exhibited in England, in Germany, or in America. I do not for a 
moment believe that modern cities are hastening on to bankruptcy, that they are 
becoming dangerously socialistic in the range of their municipal activities, or that 
the highland even higJicr rates of local taxation thus far inclicate anything detri- 
mental to the general welfare. It all means simply that the great towns are remak- 
ing themselves physically, and providing themselves with the appointments of 
civilization, because they have made the great discovery that their new masses of 
population are to remain permanently. They have iu practice rejected the old view 
that the evils of city life were inevitable, and have begun to remedy them and to 
prove that city life can be made not tolerable only for workingmen and their fam- 
ilies, but positively wholesome and desirable." 

It would seem then (1) that for economic reasons a large part of the work of the 
world must be done in cities, and the people who do that work must live in cities. 
(2) That almost everything that is best in life can be better had in the city than 
elsewhere, and that, with those who can command the means, physical comforts and 
favorable sanitary conditions are better obtained there. (3) That a certain amount 
of change from city to country is desirable, and is also very universally attainable 
to those who desire it, and is constantly growing more so. (4) That the city is grow- 
ing a better place to live in year by year; that in regard to the degenerate i)ortion 
of mankind, the very poor, the very wicked, or the very indiflerent, it is a question 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1291 

■wliether they are better off iu the country ; but, -whether they are or not, their gre- 
garious insuiiicts will lead them to the city, aud they must be dealt with there as 
part of the problem. (5) That efforts to relievo the congested couditions of the city 
poor by deportation of children to the country are good and praiseworthy, but only 
touch the surface of things, and that city degeneration must mainly be fought on its 
own cround. 

Perhaps, too, the country needs some of our sympathy and care. It appears clear 
that hero is a constant iirocess of deterioration. Deserted farms aud schools aud 
churches mark the j)rogress of ignorance and debasement, aud threaten to again 
mahe the villagers pagani, as they were in the days of old. Aud improvement here 
is not the hopeless thing it juight seem; but it must be on economic, and not on 
sentimental, lines. 

Tlio problems here discussed have but recently attracted general attention, and 
doubtless much is yet to be learned, but the progress already made is by no means 
small and all the signs are signs of promise, 

GEORGIA. 

[Address delivered October 31, 1893, by Hon. J. L. M. Curry, general agent of the Pcabody and 
Slater funds, in response to an invitation of the general assembly of Georgia.] 

Mr. President, Mr. Spealcer, Gentlemen of the Senate and House of Beprcscntatircs of tlie 

(jcneral Assembly of Georgia: 

I appreciate, I trust properly, the distinguished complimeut of being invited to 
speak to you upon what the president of the senate has well characterized as the 
parauiount subject of your deliberations. I count myself happy in appearing, also, 
in this magnificent hall of this maguiticent capitol, which has, I understand, the 
rather exceptional merit of having been completed within the original appropriation, 
and of having lieen completed without stain or smirch resting upon anyone connected 
with it. I have the honor of appearing before men of distinguished ability, engaged 
in the most responsible work of lawmaking. Lawmaking is the attribute of sover- 
eignty, and it is of the highest human honor and responsibility to be invested with 
this attribute. It would be carrying coals to Newcastle for me to say in this presence 
that the proper fulfilment of this function demands intelligence, patriotism, integrity, 
general acquaintance with law, political economy, and a thorough knowledge, not 
so much of what j)eople desire or clamor for, as of what maybe best for the people's 
needs aud welfare. Divine law is the expression of omniscience and omnipotence; 
human law is the condition of civilization. Under the provocation of atrocious 
crimes, communities, aroused to indignation, have sometimes violated law. Some- 
times, under the exjicriences of the law's delay and cheated justice, and burning 
with a desire to take vengeance upon odious malefactors, they have summarily, and 
sometimes with savage ferocity, deprived a suspected or guilty person of his life 
under the process of what is known as "lynch law." In pioneer and frontier life, 
communities have sometimes been compelled, forself-protection, to organize vigilance 
committees and take the law into their own hands. Such an extreme exigency does 
not exist at the South, nor excuse the illegal proceedings with which the papers are 
too often too full. The race of these criminals has not the possession of the govern- 
ment and is not charged with any of its functions. The white people, the race 
wronged and outraged, are in power, and control the legislative, executive, aud judi- 
cial departments. As they are the judges, jurors, and executioners there is not the 
remotest possibility of one of these criminals, under just operation of law, going 
unwhipped of justice. A mob is a sudden revolution. It is enthroned anarchy. It 
is passion dominant, regnant. It usurps all the functions of government. It con- 
centrates in itself all the rights and duties of lawmaker, judge, jury, counsel, and 
sheriff. A mob does not reason, has no conscience, is irresponsible, and its violence 
is iinrestrained, whether it burns down an Ursuline convent, as in Massachusetts, or 
tortures a ruffian iu Paris, Tex. A mob of infuriated men, or of hungry, enraged 
women, will violate all law, human and divine, and will be guilty of torturiug, of 
quartering, of burning, of nuirder — enormities hardly siirpassed b^' the most atrocious 
crimes. Life, property, person, character, perish as stubble before the flame, in the 
presence of a conscienceless, unthinking, aroused multitude. A rape is an individual 
crime, affecting disastrously, incurably, the person or the family; a mob saps the 
very foundations of society, uproots all government, regards not God nor man, is 
fructiferous of evil. The i^rogress of mankind is to be found only along the lines of 
the higher organization of society. Our free institutions can not survive except on 
the condition of the union of enlightened liberty and stable law. Lawlessness and 
violi'uce are the antipodes of liberty and social order. Obedience to the constituted 
authorities, to law, is of the essence of true freedom, of self-control, of civilization, 
of happiness, of masterful development. There probably is not a neighborhood in 
the United States which would uot have summarily arrested aud executed, without 



1292 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

a day's waiting, the fieud of Paris. But that infliction of merited punisliment, 
coupled with vengeance, is not defensible, but is fruitful of manifold evils. To its 
disregard of law may be traced whitecapism in the West and South, in which self- 
constituted bands mercilessly execute their unauthorized judgments as to martial 
rights and obligations, political economy, personal duties, etc. It is a very grave 
error that democracy means the right of the people anywhere and everywhere, and 
in any way, to execute their passionate will. Ours is a representative government. 
Our representatives are not chosen because the people can not assemble en masse to 
legislate, adjudicate, and execute; but because the people ought not to assemble en 
masse to execute these functions of a complex government. I can fortify myself 
before a Georgia audience by quoting the expression of the Chief Justice of the 
Supreme Court, who said before the bar association of this State : " The people have 
no hands for unlawful work. Justice is in the hands of the people only when it is 
in the hands of their organized tribunals." 

I think it but a natural transition from these preliminary remarks to say that there 
is a wrong estimate of the power and effects of legislation. Too much is often 
expected of the general assemblies, as if the legislature were a sort of second-hand 
providence; and I suspect that not a few of you heard when you were candidates, 
or when you were about to leaA^e for Atlanta, such inquiries as "What are you going 
to do for us ? What will you do for us when you get to Atlanta ?" I heard this very 
often when I was in public life. The world is governed too much. Some political 
thinker has said that the best government is that which governs the least. I 
would not altogether subscribe to the "let alone" theory, because it may be j)ushed 
to extremes. There are two great factors of modern, progressive, civilized life. 
They are wise social organizations and proper individual development. Bearing 
these two factors in mind, I think you will not fail to see the relativity of my intro- 
ductory remarks to what will follow. In cases of commercial distress, agricultural 
depression, financial crisis, national bankruptcy, we are too prone to seek for legis- 
lative cures and political nostrums, but all the legislation that you could pass from 
now until next Christmas would not increase one iota the real returns of agriculture. 
There are some knaves — not in Georgia, I hope — more demagogues, and a good many 
fools, who are trying to find a short cut to national and individual prosperity by 
treating wealth as if it were a thing that could be created by statute without the 
intervention of labor, forgetting that the products of labor represent all that there 
is of wealth in a country. Now, there are some universally established truths in 
political and legislative economy. Great changes, new systems of finance and trade, 
are not to be ordered as if you were to order a new suit of clothes according to a 
certain pattern. History condemns South Sea bubbles, John Law schemes of finance, 
shin-plaster, and fiat currency. Building Chinese walls around your country and 
erecting barriers against foreign trade never made a nation prosperous any more than 
the absurd notion, revived in recent times, that what makes one nation rich impov- 
erishes the other, what one gains another loses. Now, we have serious agricultural 
depression in Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and in all the Southern States. The 
abolition of slavery was a gigantic revolution. Did it ever occur to you that there 
is not in the annals of history anything comparable to it in its unprecedented mag- 
nitude and suddenness ? This, with other effects of the war, paralyzed Southern 
industries and produced individual and general impoverishment. 

African slavery was a great economic curse. I am not speaking of it politically, 
socially, or morally, but it brought upon the South the curse of ignorant, compulsory, 
uninventive labor, undiversified products of agriculture, and sparse population. It 
was an interdict eifectual upon invention, thrift, development of varied resources, 
diversity of employments, large and profitable use of machinery, improvement of 
soil, construction of good country roads, establishment of free public schools. These 
were the results of African slavery as an economic force. Curse as it was, it suggests 
a remedy for its evils. What are we to do ? We must increase and make more val- 
uable and diversified our products, and we must improve our country roads. What- 
ever facilitates exchange of products is a blessing. It will not be worth while to 
produce unless we can exchange what is beyond our own consumption. What do 
you need in Georgia? You need intelligent, skilled labor. Many of your laborers 
are ignorant, stupidly so, of every element of art and science. I spoke to a ne^ro 
the other day at a railway station about his future. His reply was characteristic : 
"I ain't got nothing, and I don't want nothing." What is the worth of a system 
which produces such men? What you want is an alliance of brains and hands, with 
habits of thrift and cleanliness, and increased capacity of production. 

Now, Mr. President, I affirm that no ignorant people were ever prosperous or happy. 
You may measure the growth, the progress, develoj)ment, and the prosperity of a 
people by their advance in culture, in intelligence, in skill; and you can measure 
the decline of a people by their decline in culture, intelligence, and skill. In the 
United States there are twenty millions of horsepower at work, lowering the cost of 
production, cheapening the necessaries of life, giving to toil a larger reward. Much 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1293 

of what handiwork did has been displaced by labor-saving machinery. Guiding the 
plow witli the hand, mowing grass with the scythe, cutting grain with the cradle — 
this is fast disappearing from enlightened communities. The steam harvester and 
thrasher have rendered the work of saving the grain crops more rapid and less 
arduous. Science has found practical application, and ceases to be mere theory ; it 
has allied itself with the useful arts. Machinery has released thousands from a 
weary struggle for supply of mere animal wants, and has permitted them to take up 
other pursuits, such as mining, manufactures, mechanical arts, gardening, fruit rais- 
ing, etc., but this wealth-creating industry demands intelligence, thrift, and saving. 
Industry has thus received great benefit; the j)eople have gained hope, inspiration, 
and life from the applications of the principles of science, have gained, finally, com- 
mand of all of the resources of nature and have had opened for themselves the 
highest rewards of intelligent industry. 

It needs to be repeated and emphasized that national wealth is not the result of 
chance, or fraud, or legislative hocus-i)ocus, or stockjobbing manipulations or adroit 
dealing in futures. It is the result of honest, intelligent labor. The elements of 
wealth exist in nature in manifold forms, but must be fitted for human wants by 
labor. Through all transitions from natural condition to finished and useful artifi- 
cial state, each successive process adds to the value. To utilize the powers of nature, 
the elements of property and wealth, is, in beneficent results, proportionate to the 
intelligence employed. The value created is almost in the direct ratio of the skill 
of the worker. Labor is not spontaneous nor self-willed, but must have behind it 
an intelligent control. Stupid labor is confined to a narrow routine, to a few, simple 
products. Unskilled labor is degraded necessarily to coarser emijloyments. What 
makes work honorable, productive, remunerative, what elevates a man above a brute, 
is work directed by intelligence. The best method of applying power might be 
illustrated by such common processes as turning a grindstone, shoveling manure, 
harnessing a horse, driving a nail. Among the aristocracy of the old Avorld and the 
Bourbons of the new is a current theory that it is best for the lower classes, the mud- 
sills of society, the common laborers, to remain in ignorance. I liave no patience 
with men who say that education for the ordinary occupations of life is a wasted 
investment, or who deny the utility or the feasibleness of furnishing to wage earners 
and breadwinners an education suited to the industries of real life. Will our 
impoverished people never see that ignorant labor is terribly expensive, that it is a 
tax, indirect but enormous, bringing injiiry to the material worked, to the tools or 
implements employed, wasting force and lessening and making less valuable what is 
produced? 

The president has declared what was intended as the burden of my address. 
While there are local interests and concerns that may interest you, there is one 
question, overtopping all others, that goes into the very household, that concerns 
every individual, that is allied to every interest; and that is how to furnish cheaper 
and more efficient means of education for the boys and girls of the State. W^hen I 
speak of this being the paramount subject of legislation, I mean to say that the 
duty of the legislator is not only to look after education in Clarke County, in Cobb 
County, but to have the nieans of education carried to every child, black and white, 
to every citizen within the limits of the State. I mean universal education; free 
education; the best education; without money and without price. The great mis- 
take in legislators and people is that, while they profess to be friends of education, 
and satisfy themselves that they are, they are talking and thinking of the public 
schools as poor schools for poor children, and not as good schools, the best schools, 
for the education of all. Here is field and scope for the exercise of the highest 
powers of statesmanship. This univei^sal education is the basis of civilization, the 
one vital condition of prosperity, the support of free institutions. All civilized 
governments support and maintain schools. In semicivilized countries there is no 
recognition of the right to improvement, nor of the duty of the government to sup- 
port universal education. William Ewart Gladstone is the greatest statesman of 
this century. Financier, scholar, orator, with marvellous administrative capacity, 
even to the minutest details of departmental and governmental work, and shows 
his appreciation of education by giving to the vice-president of the council of edu- 
cation a seat in his cabinet, and he is the only British prime minister who has so 
honored education. Last year I was reading brief biographical sketches of the 
candidates of the Republican and Democratic parties of Massachusetts for the 
various State offices — governor, attorney-general, etc. — and every one of them, with 
one exception, had been trained in the common schools of the State, and, therefore, 
when in office, they would understand what people were talking about when they 
advocated common schools, and would feel as Emerson said, that if Massachusetts 
had no beautiful scenery, no mountains abounding in minerals, yet she had an inex- 
haustible wealth in the children of the Commonwealth. None of you, perhaps, were 
educated in the public schools. How many times do you visit the public schools? 
How many times in the last year have you gone into a public school and sat down 



1294 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

on tLo rear boucli and watched tlie toaclicr teaching:, in order to know what is being 
done in these great civilizing agencies of the State? 

A few years ago the King of Prussia, througli Bismarck, issued a call for an edu- 
cational conference, and he took part with educators and scholars in the discussions. 
In my journeys through the South, pleading for the children, I have found one gov- 
ernor from whom I never fail to receive a sympathetic response to every demand or 
argument that I may jiresent for higher or general education. In days that are to 
come, when you shall record what Rabun did, what Troup, what Clarke, what Mc- 
Donald, what Johnson, what Gilmer, what Jenkins, what Brown, what Gordon, what 
Stei^hens, and what other governors of Georgia have done, there will bo no brighter 
page, none more luminous with patriotism, broad-minded, honest, intelligent, benefi- 
cent patriotism, devotion to the highest interests of the State, than that which 
shall record the fact that the great school governor of the South was WillJam J. 
Northen. [Great applause.] 

The most Interesting and profitable changes that have been made in the ends of 
modern education is the incorporation of manual training in the curriculum, so as to 
bring education into contact with the i^ursuits of every day. The three r's, reading, 
'riting, and 'rithmetic, used to be the standard. We should add the three li's, and 
develop, pari passu with the three r's, the hand, head, and heart, so that we may 
develop the child intellectually, physicallj"-, and morally, and so have the completest 
manhood and womanhood. Oh! it is a sad spectacle to see the ordinary graduate 
from one of our colleges, with an armful of diplomas, standing on the platform 
receiving bouquets, and ready to step across the threshhold and enter the arena of 
active life. You congratulate him because he has acquired knowledge in the school- 
room. But what can he do? What can he produce? What wealth can ho create? 
What aid can he render civilization ? He may be a lawyer. Alawyer never yet made 
two blades of grass grow where only one grew before. [Laughter.] Now, you show 
that you agree with what I am saying. [Laughter.] I have no sympathy, however, 
allow me to say it, with the vulgar, ignorant, stui^id prejudice that some j)eoi)le have 
against lawyers. None in the" world. [Applause.] You may trace the history of 
free government in all the struggles for right and liberty, you may study with pro- 
foundest admiration the constitutions, the embodiments of political wisdom, and 
every page of that history you will find illuminated by the wisdom of lawyers. But 
I say of lawyers what I say of doctors. Doctors do not add one cent to the wealth 
of the community. Neither do preachers. They are valuable; you can not do with- 
out them. But the lawyer, the doctor, the preacher, the editor, do not add one cent 
to the assessed value of the property in Georgia. Wealth comes from productive 
labor, and wealth is in proportion to the skill of the labor. It is the mechanic, the 
farmer, the miner, the manufacturer, the fruit grower, who add wealth to the com- 
munity and to the country. The others are indispensable in the distribution of the 
products of labor, in the transactions of business between man and man, and in a 
thousand ways, but they do not create Avealth. 

Let me come back to what I was saying, that the graduate of your college is 
educated to be a clerk, doctor, lawyer, preacher. You may turn him out of college 
and he will tramp the streets of your cities, of Atlanta, Augusta, Savannah, to find 
some idace in the bank, or some jilace in a doctor's or lawyer's olfice. He has been 
educated away from business, from ordinary productive pursuits, and has a distaste 
for labor. If his natural bent had been followed, if he had been taught the aj)plica- 
tion of science to l)usinoss, made familiar with tools and constructive machinery, ho 
would have turned out, in very many cases, something more useful than ho will bo 
after having entered one of the learned professions. 

I wish some of you would stop over some time on your way to New York at Wash- 
ington or Philadelphia and go through the public schools. You would see that from 
the kindergarten to the high school there is no schoolroom where the puj)i]s can not 
be taught the application "of scientific principles to everyday life, and from which 
they can not come with a knowledge of the common tools and their uses. England 
learned that in order to hold the markets of the world she had to teach her children 
, in industrial schools. She discovered that her trade was slipping away from her 
' because of the lack of industrial training on the part of her working people. France 
gives manual training to both sexes. 

Saxony, a manufacturing country, had in 1889 115 trade or industrial schools, it 
being discovered that ''a thorough professional education alone can aid the trades- 
manin his struggle for life." Statistics show a constant improvement of economic 
conditions. The flourishing orchards, with their world-renowned wealth of fruit, 
in Austria-, Hungary, Bavaria, and Oldenburg, are directly traceable to the intro- 
duction of practical instruction in the school gardens. Prussia has introduced into 
the normal schools instruction in the culture of fruit and forest trees, and "the 
admirably managed forests and vast orchards of Prussia owe their existence and 
excellent yield in no small degree to the unostentatious influence of the country school- 
master who teaches his pupils in school and the adult villagers in agricultural clubs." 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1295 

As mucli as vro may boast of our free iustitutious wc arc far Leliind tlic rest of the 
world iu industrial education, iu the application of ecieutific principles to dailj-life. 
We abuse Eussia, but Russia Las 1,200 technological schools; Belgium has 25,000 
pupils in her trade schools; Denmark, 6,000; Italy, 16,000. Georgia has no trade 
school for white children. She has, fortunately, one noble technological school, 
which I commend to your support and your encouragement. The other day I went 
to Newi^ort News, which, as you know, is at the mouth of .James River, on Hampton 
Bay, in the State of Virginia. The largest shipbuilding works and the largest dry 
dock in the United States arc at Newport News. They recently received contracts 
for the construction of United States vessels, and are prepared to do all such work 
in the best possible manner. I went through the works. I had an old Confederate 
soldier to pilot me. When I asked about the improvements iu the place his heart 
rejoiced. I was there when the dinner hour arrived. From the shops and works 
men came in great numbers, until it seemed there must have been 1,000. I said to 
my friend, ''Where do these men come from?" lie rej)lied that they came from 
varioiis parts of the world. ''Are there any from the South?" said I. "Oh, yes," 
said he. "What do you jiay these men?" I asked. "From one dollar a day np to 
eight or ten." "Do any of these old Confederates get the eight or ten?" With a 
deep sigh and with a tear iu his eye, he said: "No; no Confedenite among them. 
The Confederate soldiers," he continued, "and the negroes get a dollar a daj ; the 
Northern and Euroiiean laborers get the six or ten dollars a day." "Why is this?" 
I asked. "Because," said he, "they have had industrial training .at home. They 
come from their shops and from their training schools, and they put intelligence into 
their work, and they get for it the best wages." 

And yet, when I stand here and appeal to Georgians for manual-labor schools, you 
say that man is a theorizer ; he is taking up the time of the legislature, which should 
be passing an act to declare Goose Creek a highway, or to build a road across Possum 
Swamji, or a bridge over Terrapin Hollow ! [Laughter.] 

Last year, Mr. President, I was in Asia Minor. If any of you have read The 
Prince of India you will remember some acconnt of the town of Brusa, southeast of 
Constantinople. I saw there hundreds of donkeys and women with loads of mul- 
berry leaves. A few years ago tlie silk trade seemed likely to become extinct, because 
of an insect that was destroying the mulberry trees and attacking the cocoons. 
Thousands of trees were cut doAvn. The i^eople are now replanting the mulberry 
trees, and trade is springing up again. It is because Pasteur, the great curer of 
hydrophobia, subjected the cocoons to a microscopic examination, discovered the 
insect and applied a remedy. He applied scientilic knowledge to the Avork of saving 
the silk trade. A school of sericulture has been established, the mulberry trees are 
being planted, and the people are groAving prosperous again. 

When you came here you took the oath to support the Cou.stitution, and it says 
that there shall be a thorough system of common schools, free to all children, for 
education in the elementary branches of an English education. This mandate 
requires general, or State, and local supervision, neat and healthy houses, grading 
and < lassifyiug of the pupils, adequate local and State revenues. A valued friend 
said to me last night that Georgia is spending too much money for jiublic schools. 
Let us see Iioaa' this is. Agricultural dei^ression is more serious and more harmful iu 
Mississippi than iu any other State, because it is so exclusiA-ely agricultural, having 
fcAv manufacturing interests, little commerce, and no big cities. And yet Mississijipi 
pays lor her public schools $7.80 on cA'ery thousand dollars of the taxable value of 
property; Illinois pays $14. 10; Texas, $4.80; Nebraska, $18.70; Massachusetts, $3.80; 
New York, $4.50. Georgia's educational tax proxjer for the support of the iiublic 
schools is $1.40 on the thousand dollars ! What do you say to that? Can you expect 
to equal other States iu school adA'antages unless you increase the reA^enues going to 
the ])ublic schools ? Let it be borne in mind that outside the cities, the local or extra- 
State revenues are very meager. The Southern States raise on an average about 36 
cents per cainta of population. 

But you need not only to increase the rcA'enues supporting the common schools — 
you need promj^tly and properly j)aid teachers. The Avorst thing that I ha\-e CA^er 
heard about my native State, Georgia, is that she has permitted the teachers in her 
public schools — poorly paid as they are — to go month after month without receiA'iug 
the pittance of their hard-earned salaries! [Applause.] If I Avere the legislature I 
would not let the sun go doAvn before I wiped away this crime against the teachers 
of the State. I only echo what you Avill find in the goA^eruor's message, in the report 
of Captain Bradwell, and in the lamentations of the teachers. 

The training of the teachers is implicitly contained in the compulsory establish- 
ment of schools. By making education an integral part of the government you afe 
under strongest obligation to provide good schools. The teacher is the school. You 
can not haA^e a thorough system of common schools without good teachers. You can 
not have good teachers Avithout paying them promptly their salaries and Avithout 
training them to teach. Unfortunately our normal schools are handicapped by the 



1296 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

iinpreparedness of tlie pupils to be taught liow to teach. Thorough general training 
sliould precede professional training, and is its best preparation for it. Take a 
school of medicine or of law and combine it with elementary education. It would 
be absurd. lb is none the less absurd to combine elementary instruction with pro- 
fessional training for teaching. Teachers should know the history of education and 
of educational methods, and practical and deiinite application of the principles of 
education; and these things should not be dead rules. The teacher goes from the 
concrete to the abstract ; from special to general ; from known to unknown ; from 
idea to the word; from thought to clear expression; and these should be applied 
habitually, unconsciously, and govern spontaneously every act and element in teach- 
ing. Students can become habituated to best methods by being kej)t in the true 
path, under the guidance of those familiar with the right methods and principles, 

I went to Milledgeville the other day to see and inspect the Normal and Industrial 
College. It is a most remarkable school. It has been in existence only three years, 
and has 322 girls ; 121 engaged in preparing themselves for teaching school. Although 
in its infancy, it has sent out 100 teachers to teach in Georgia. I went into the differ- 
ent departments. I wish you could see Professor Branson's teaching in the normal 
department; it would do you good. You could not do a better thing than to spend 
a day in going through the school and seeing what they teach there. If you do not 
go yourselves, send your committees and let them see how the thing is done. 

Here is a map, which is an object lesson. It shows the normal schools in the 
United States. It is not accurate in all its details ; yet the general facts are correctly 
stated. In the States that are most wealthy and most advanced there are the greater 
number of these black dots, which represent normal schools. The person who made 
the map did not recognize the fact that in Georgia you have an excellent normal 
school at Milledgeville. It is industrial and normal, and the work done is excellent. 
The Peabody fund gave $1,800 last year to this school. I wish I could persuade you 
to establish coeducation of the sexes at MilledgeviUe. In the name of patriotism, 
why do not you teach the boys as well as the girls how to teach school? 

Teaching- — good teaching, I ou.ght to say — has much of the persuasive power of 
oratory. It is a glorious sight to see a live teacher — not one of these old moss-back 
teachers, who has not learned anything since the flood, but a live teacher, who 
appreciates his vocation — standing before his classes! How it arouses enthusiasm, 
fortifies the will, inspires the soul; and what a criminal waste of time and money 
and labor and energy it is to put an incompetent teacher before a class of boys and 
girls ! We see sometimes a picture of Herod murdering the innocents. How -we 
grieve over it ! I went into a school the other day in the mountains. There sat the 
teacher, ignorant, stolid, indifferent, incapable, Avitli the boys and girls gathered 
around him, studying the a-b, ab; b-a, ba, k-e-r, ker, baker; and I thought then, 
Mr. President, that we ought to have another painter to draw another j)icture of the 
murder of the innocents. It is not the teachers who ought to be painted in that 
picture; it is the legislatures "who are murdering the innocents, when they refuse to 
establish normal schools lor the proper training of teachers. How does the old hymn 
go? " How tedious and tasteless the hour" — some of you have sung it. How unvit- 
terably tedious are the hours spent in such schools, poring over lessons day after day. 
Some are mechanics when they ought to be artists, for these teachers have no plan 
nor method, no inspiration nor striving to teach and stimulate all the many sides of 
a child's nature to higher attainments, higher thoughts and more vigorous action. 
Time does not permit me to speak of secondary schools, of rural schools, of six-months 
schools. Some one in writing about me in the paper said that I was growing old. 
That may be true as to years, but not in thought, not in patriotism, not in loyalty 
to the South, not in loyalty to the Union, not in loyalty to this country of ours, and 
to the Stars and Stripes. I am not growing old in my interest in the cause of educa- 
tion. And yet when I hear that your people are about to celebrate the semicenten- 
nial of Atlanta, it recalls to mind the time when I used to pass this place and there 
was no city here, nothing but old Whitehall Tavern, That was in 1841-42. During 
that period a town was started which was called Marthasville. I used to ride through 
this section of the country, by Decatur and Stone Mountain, on my way from my 
home in Alabama to the college at Athens. It then took me five days to make the 
journey. Now I can go the distance in six hours. What a mighty change ! From 
Marthasville in 1842 to Atlanta in 1893 ! Five days of travel cut down to six hours ; 
five days on horseback or in stage coach to six hours in a Pullman palace car ! Steam 
has revolutionized the business and travel of the world. We have gone from the 
stage coach to the steam car, and the sails of the old ships have been superseded by 
the ocean steamships. The telegraph and telephone and steam have brought the 
continents into one neighborhood and given solidarity to the business of the world. 
The merchant can telegraph to China or to Japan for a bill of goods; and before he 
goes to bed to-night word comes from the other end of the world that the goods have 
been delivered to the ship and they will leave in the morning. What a revolution 
has been wrought in our methods of business. Improved machinery of transportation 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1297 

has reduced freight expenses from 2| cents per ton per mile to about one-half cent 
per ton per mile. Civilization creates new kinds of property. In Africa the inhab- 
itants know nothing about bills of exchange, promissory notes, choses inaction — 
nothing about the modern methods of business. Just in proportion iis you grow in 
civilization, and advance in the scale of education and intelligence, you have more 
kinds of property. It is because of diffused education, because of the work of intel- 
ligence, because the forces of nature have been harnessed to the business of life. 
Science and religion are both evangels of democracy. Wherever these go shackles 
fall off, tyranny ceases, and the great masses are lifted up to the recognition of their 
rights and their privileges. Prerogative of mental development is no longer confined 
to the few, but is conceded to all who bear the image of the Son of Man. 

Only one more remark. I said awhile ago that I was a Georgia boy. I am a native 
of Lincoln County — the dark corner of Lincoln. I graduated from the University 
of Georgia, growing up in my collegr days with such men as Tom Cobb, Linton 
Stephens, Ben Hill, Jud Glenn, and others. In my political life I associated on 
terms of intimacy with such men as Stephens, Toombs, Hill, and Cobb. I come to 
you as a Georgian, appealing for the interests of the children of Georgia, and appeal- 
ing to the reiire-sentatives of the Statt-. How inspiring it is to deeds of noble states- 
manship to read the names of the counties you represent. Some of them recall iu 
imperishable words the names of founders of the State, of nun who stood for her 
rights, of men who bore the brunt of the Eevolutionary struggle, such as Oglethorpe, 
Richmond, Burke, Chatham, Wilkes, and Camden; Jefferson, Madison, Frjuiklin, 
Carroll, Sumter, Putnam, Jasper, Greene, the German De Kalb, Hancock, Lincoln; 
to them add the names of the men of the days succeeding the Revolution, Calhoun, 
Webster, Clay, Lowndes, Polk, Pierce, Douglas, Randolph, Taylor, and Quitman — 
men from other States, but allied to you in close sympathy. Not these only, for 
your own gi'eat men have their names linked with the destinies of your counties. 
What an inspiration it must be to represent the county of Berrien, or Bartow, or 
Cobb, or Clayton, or Dawson, or Dooly, or Dougherty, or Forsyth, or Gilmer, or 
Hall, or Jackson, or .Johnson, or Lumpkin, or McDufBe, or Miller, or Meriwether, or 
Murray, or Troup, or Walton. I think that if I were a representative from such a 
county, with such a name, I should be inspired with patriotism to do something 
high and useful, and to help the State I lived in to bear worthily the name of the 
"Empire State of the South." [Applause.] I appeal to youfor the common schools 
of Georgia, for the future men and women of the State The women of the State 
toTich my heart A'ery deeply. My grandmother, mother, daughter-in-law, grand- 
daughter, Georgia born, names suggestive of holiest affection and tenderest memo- 
ries, which make me, not less than my nativity, a (ieorgian. In all of wonumkiucl, 
whether or not history has recorded or romance described or poesy sung Ler virtues, 
there has been no type of female excellence, no example of purity or loveliness or 
heroism more exalted and noble than that furnished by Georgia mother or wife, fit 
representatives of the unsurpassed southern matron. In their names I plead. 

Mr. President, a friend told me of a girl in the nortliern part of the State, not 
prince-begotten nor palace-cradled, growing up in glad joyousness and innocency, 
amid the rich, virgin growth of wild trees, who was seen plowing an ox on rolling 
hillside to earn subsistence for an invalid father, a bed-ridden Confederate soldier, 
who lay helpless in an adjacent log cabin. Touched by such heroism and filial 
fidelity, a gentleman sent her to school, and last year at the examination one thou- 
sand people, who had come from the mountains to show their interest iu the educa- 
tion of the children, saw that girl, who had labored for the support of herself and 
her bed-ridden father, stand on the platform and take the prize offered for the best 
essay. Refusing to abandon her old father during vacation, she went back to her 
mountain home and to labor, but she is now teaching in the school which brought 
to light her latent powers. There are thousands of Georgia boys, in the wire-grass 
and middle Georgia and in the mountains, who, if educated, would, like Stephens, 
be patriotic and honored servants of the State. There are thousands of young maid- 
ens, who, like our heroiue, require but the helping hand of the State and the warmth 
of generoiis culture to emerge from humble homes of obscurity and poverty to places 
of usefulness and honor. [Long applause.] 

LOUISIANA. 

THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM IN LOUISIANA. 

[Paper prepared for Louisiana Educational Association, by John K.. Ficklen, professor of history in 

Tulane University.] 

" If I had as many sons ae Priam, I would send tliem all to the public schools." — Daniel Webxter. 

Mr. President, ladies, and gentlemen : It seems eminently wise that the Louis- 
iana Educational Association at this period of its honored career should devote a por- 
tion of its time and attention to the origin and development of the public-school 



1298 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

system within tlic borclors of tiiis State; for we arc now entering ui^on a new era in 
the liistory of our schools, and we need, in particular at such a time, to study both the 
present and the prohabilities of the future in the light of the past. As student and 
teacher I have always laid great stress upon this study of the historical development 
of our institutions as one of prime importance. We do not thoroughly understand 
the present until Ave know how and why it has become what it is. Moreover, from 
the accumulated experience of those who have gone before tis we may learn to avoid 
a thousand errors; where they garnered only '^barren regrets," we may reap a boun- 
tiful harvest of good results. 

As the individual must live over in miniature the life of the whole human race, so 
those who would reform institutions must investigate the history of those institu- 
tions and understand the causes that led to failure or to success. Without this 
knowledge their labors will be short sighted and unfruitful, and to their hands no 
wide powers should be intrusted. 

Let us trace, then, as briefly as possible, the origin and development of our public- 
school system. From such a study I hope something profitable and something inter- 
esting may be gleaned together. Clearness of treatment will be promoted if we 
divide the whole subject into three periods. 

I. From the beginning of this century to the framing of the second constitution 
in 1845. 

II. From 1845 to the civil war. 

III. From the civil war to the present time (1894). 



Before the opening of the nineteenth century, as you doubtless know, public free 
schools did not exist in Louisiana. The Ursuline Nuns, ever since they were brought 
over by Bienville, had devoted themselves to the education of young women, and 
there were some private schools in New Orleans, but the policy of the Government 
had provided no system of public instruction. The tru.th is that monarchical gov- 
ernments in that day were iinfavorable to the education of the masses. Knowledge 
is power, and it was not considered desirable that the people should have much 
power. 

In the year 1803, however, the great Territory of Louisiana, Jefferson's fine pur- 
chase, was formally transferred to the commissioners of the American Union. As 
you know, Louisiana then embraced a vast tract of country, from which many rich 
and prosperous States have since been carved. For nine years the southern portion 
was called the Territory of Orleans ; but, finally, in 1812, much to the delight of its 
60,000 inhabitants, it was erected into the State of Louisiana — one of the fairest 
sovereignties that go to constitute the American Union. 

During the early period of its territorial government, there are to be found fre- 
quent references to the subject of public education. But many years were to elapse 
before educational views crystallized into any kind of system of free schools. _ Nor 
was this tardy recognition of the value of common schools peculiar to Louisiana. 
It was equally the case in the early history of all the Southern and most of the 
Northern States. It would be interestiug to trace the development of public schools 
in the United States at large ; to show how the enduring system established in Massa- 
chusetts by the old Puritans of the seventeenth century was modeled after the sys- 
tem of schools which they had learned to know during their sojourn in Holland— a 
system in which Holland at that time led the world. It would be interesting to 
showthat the main object of the Puritans was to keep out ''that old deluder, Satan," 
by teaching all the children to read the Bible, thus preparing them to exorcise the 
evil spirits that ever torment the ignorant. It would be still more interesting to 
show why that old royalist, Governor Berkeley, feared the rise of i^nblic (I liad 
almost said republican) schools, and devoutly thanked God that there were none in 
Virginia. Such themes, however, while they would be fruitful of suggestions as to 
the progress of our American civilization, would occupy far more time than has 
been allotted to this whole paper. I can not forbear, however, mentioning one fact 
which may make our Louisiana teachers rejoice that they live in this day and gen- 
eration rather than in the New England of the seventeenth century. In an old New 
England town book (date 1661) the duties of the schoolmaster are laid down as 
follows: (1) To act as court messenger; (2) to serve summonses; (3) to conduct 
certain ceremonial services of the church; (4) to lead the Sunday choir; (5) to dig 
the graves; (6) to take charge of the school; (7) to ring the bell for public worship; 
(8) to perform other occasional duties. With these manifold functions to discharge, 
it is easy to understand the importance attached, in early New England, to the office 
of sclioolmaster. 

But to return to Louisiana. No sooner had the United States taken possession of 
Louisiana than the enlightened policy of our first American governor, W. C. C. 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1299 

Claihorne, spoke out in no luiccrtain acceuts on the subject of public education. 
I quote from bis address to the territorial council in 1804, just ninety years ago: "In 
adverting to your primary duties," he says, "I have yet to suggest one than •which 
none can be more important or interesting. I mean some general provision for the 
education of youth. If we revere science for her own sake or for the innumeralde 
benefits she confers upon society, if we love our children and cherish the laudable 
ambition of being respected by posterity, let not this great duty be overlooked. 
Permit me to hope, then, that under your patronage, seminaries of learning will 
prosper, and means of acquiring informatiou bo placed within the reach of each 
growing family. Let exertions be made to rear up our children in the paths of 
science and virtue, and impress upon their tender hearts a love of civil and religious 
liberty. My advice, therefore, is that your system of education be extensive and 
liberally sujiported." 

These were Jioble sentiments, but if we may judge by the words of the same gov- 
ernor some years later, they found as yet only a feeble echo in the lieaits of the people. 
For iu 1809 wo find Claiborne lamenting the general ''abaudoument of education in 
Louisiana." It is true that iu 1805 the College of Orleans was established — a college 
iu which the honored historian of Louisiana, Charles Gayarre, was a pupil; but 
though it lingered on till 1826, it was never in a nourishing condition, and the legis- 
lature fiually concluded to abolish it and appropriate its funds to the establishment 
of one central and two primary schools. In the constitution of 1812, under which 
Louisiana was admitted to the Union, there is no mention of a system of public 
education; it was perhaps intended that the whole matter should be left to legisla- 
tive action. During the ensuing war of 1812-15 with England, in which Louisiana 
bore so glorious a part, the people wei'e too much absorbed iu the defense of their 
soil to make any provision for education. 

According to the annual message of Governor A. B. Eoman (in 1831), it was the 
year 1818, just one hundred years after the founding of New Orleans, that witnessed 
the enactment of the first law concerning a system of public schools. The governor 
doubtless means the first effective law; for ten years previously (1808), an act was 
passed to establish public schools, but it was rendered nugatory by the proviso that 
the school tax should be collected only from those who were Avilling to pay it. Begin- 
ning iu 1818, however, the legislature made comparatively liberal appropriations for 
educational purjioses, the amounts increasing from $13,000 in 1820 to $27,000 in 1824. 
Little attention was paid to elementary instruction, but it was proposed to establish 
an academy or a college in every parish in the State. Lottery schemes — not peculiar 
to Louisiana, but used freely for educational institutions at this period, both in the 
North and in the West — were set on foot to raise funds for the College of Orleans 
and for an academy recently established in Eajjides Parish. In a<ldition, one-fourth 
of the tax paid by the gaming houses of New Orleans was presumably sanctified by 
its appropriation to the cause of education. 

In spite, however, of all these efforts the message of Governor Eoman in 1831 
makes patent the fact that the system of jiublic instruction in Louisiana has been a 
failure. The main cause of the failure was recognized by this enlightened Creole 
and he sets it forth in the clearest and strongest language. It may be summed up 
iu a few words. The schools had not been wholly free. In every academy estab- 
lished and in every primary school provision was made to receive without tuition 
fees a certain number of indigent pupils. In the two jirimary schools of Now Orleans, 
for instance, gratuitous instruction was given only to children between the ages of 
7 and 14, and preference was to be shown to at least 50 children from the poorer 
classes. Thus a certain number of poor children, marked with the badge of charity, 
Avere to be admitted to the schools and there associate with others that paid. Such 
a system of public schools could not bo successful. The pride of the poorer classes 
was hurt. One of the parishes refused to take the money appropriated for public 
schools, while in many others the parents, though living near the schoolhouses, 
would not send their children because it was repugnant to their feelings to have 
them educated gratuitously. 

In twelve years, declares Governor Eoman, the expenditure for public schools had 
amounted to $354,000, and it was doubtful whether 354 indigent students had 
derived from these schools the advantages which the legislature wished to extend 
to that class. In conclusion the governor uttered these significant words, words 
which should bo engraved over the portals of our legislative halls: "Louisiana will 
never reach the station to which she is entitled among her sister States until none 
of her electorg shall need the aid of his neighbor to prepare his ballot." 

Thus we see that the necessity of a new system was beginning to be felt — a system 
under which the schools should be absolutely free, under which the sons and daugh- 
ters of the rich and poor should sit side by side, and know no distinction except that 
which is created by superior abilities. Unless the schools could be raised to a 
higlier level iu i)ublic esteem, there was no hope of their success. 



1300 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

There were other causes of failure which perhaps did not escape Grovernor Roman, 
htit which he fails to mention. There was, lirst of all, the sparseness of the country- 
population, which in Louisiana, as elsewhere in the South, made the problem of 
educating the people a far different matter from what it was in Massachusetts. In 
the South large plantations and the absence of towns tended to make the progress 
of public schools slow and uncertain; while in Massachusetts the fact that the 
whole population was grouped first in settlements around the churches and then in 
regular townships, made the organization of public schools a comparatively easy 
task. In discussing the backwardness of the South in educational facilities, this 
important consideration is too often omitted. If, with the increase of the popula- 
tion at the present day, it has less significance, it certainly had a great deal before 
the war. 

In the second place, among the old Creoles of Louisiana, the education of young 
children was regarded as a matter that concerned not the State but the family. 
Exception must be made in favor of enlightened men like Governor Roman, but the 
fact remains that for many years the scheme of free public schools was looked upon 
as a useless innovation. As late as 1858, says De Bow's Review, every Louisiana 
planter had a school in his own house to educate his children. 

From other souffces we know that when children were ready for higher instruc- 
tion their parents, if they were prosperous, most often sent them to Northern colleges 
or to France. This feeling against the public schools arose partly from what Mr. 
Lafargue has called the aristocratic and somewhat feudal social system of that day, 
and partly from the force of custom — a custom that dates back to the eighteenth 
century-^when Etienne de Bore, the first successful sugar planter in Louisiana, 
received his education first in Canada and then in France. 

Last of all it has been claimed with some justice that slavery impeded the progress 
of the public schools, as that institution impeded the rise of the white laboring 
classes from whose ranks these schools have always drawn the largest number of 
jjupils. This was certainly true of the country parishes ; but to a far less extent 
of New Orleans where all classes of society were duly represented. 

All these causes were more or less operative to hinder the progress of the free 
school system until the civil war came and radically changed the conditions of 
Southern life. 

From 1835 to 1845 Louisiana continued to make generous appropriations for the 
cause of education, but instead of establishing what was especially needed for the 
mass of the people, a good system of elementary instruction, the public funds were 
expended in founding a number of pretentious academies and colleges. These were 
required to give free instruction to a small number of indigent j)upils, but how many 
such pupils were actually received it is impossible to say. 

The student who examines the early records of the State is amazed at the number 
of these transitory institutions, many of which hardly survived the generous dona- 
tions made for their support. As far as I know, the only ones now remaining of some 
twenty odd which were once scattered through the various i>arishes of the State are 
Centenary (once the College of Louisiana), now administered by the Methodists; 
Jefferson College, now under control of the Marist Fathers, and the Louisiana State 
University, which was once the Seminary of Learning in Alexandria. 

To illustrate the preference in that early period for these higher institutions, none 
of which gave free tviition excejit to a few indigent pupils, it will suffice to say that 
in 1838 the amount appropriated for public schools was $45,633, while during the 
same year the subsidies to colleges and seminaries were $126,000. During the period 
of which we are about to speak, however, far less was given for the support of these 
institutions. Many of them being found superfluous had doubtless already disap- 
peared. 

n. 

We now enter upon our second period, 1845-1860. During the year 1845 Loxiisiana 
received a new constitution. In it full expression was given to the democratic ten- 
dencies of the day. The Whigs had yielded to the Democrats, and the latter pro- 
ceeded to grant the people many privileges which had been previously denied. The 
privilege of choosing the governor from the two candidates receiving the highest 
number of votes was taken from the legislature, and the right to vote was no longer 
restricted to owners of property. But best of all its democratic measures this con- 
stitution provided for a system of public schools under the care and supervision of 
a superintendent of education, to be appointed by the governor, and of parish super- 
intendents, to be elected by the people. The importance of this departure can not 
be exaggerated. Up to this time such schools as had existed in the State had been 
under the care of the secretary of state, whose other official duties were too numerous 
for this additional burden. From this time on we are to see a superintendent of 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1301 

education devoting his time and energies to the establisbnient of an extensive sys- 
tem of public free schools and making regular reports to the general assembly. i 

The constitution of 1845, and the laws passed by the legislature to carry out its 
provisions, created a new era in the historj' of education in Louisiana. Up to 1845, 
although large sums in proportion to the edncable population had been expended, 
the system had been a failure, and the secretary of state had declared it should be 
consigned to "an unhonored grave." Let us see what were the provisions for the 
organization and support of the new system. In the first place thp schools were to 
be absolutely free to all white children. Of course, as it was one of the corollaries 
of the institution of slavery that it was dangerous to educate the slaves, no provision 
w^as made for the education of the negro until he had been emancipated. 

For the support of the new system, the constitution declared that the proceeds of 
all lands granted by the United States Government for the use of public schools, and 
of all estates of deceased persons falling to the State, should be held by the State as 
a loan, and should be a perpetual fund, on which annual interest at 6 per cent should 
be paid for public schools, and that this appropriation should remain inviolable. 
The lands referred to were the public lands which the Federal Government had 
retained when Louisiana was made a State, and which that Government was now 
granting to the State for educational and other jjurposes. In 1847 these land grants 
amounted to 800,000 acres, and in many instances proved to be very valuable. More- 
over, there are many references in these old acts of the legislature to the location of 
the sixteenth sections in townships for school purposes and to the sale of these sec- 
tions. For the further support of the schools it was now provided by an act of the 
legislature that every free male white over 21 years of age should pay a poll tax of 
$1, and that a tax of 1 mill should be levied on all taxable property. As early as 
1842 the iiolice jurors- were authorized to levy a tax for schools not to exceed one- 
half the annual State tax. Provision was now made that whenever a parish raised 
not less than $200 tlie governor should authorize the State treasurer to pay over to 
said parish double the amount so assessed. 

Certainly no happier choice for State superintendent of education could have been 
made throughout the extent of Louisiana than was made in 1847 by Governor Isaac 
Johnson . The man he chose was a ripe scholar. He had been trained in all the learn- 
ing of that day. First under a private tutor and then in Georgetown College he had 
saturated his mind with all that was best in classical literature, and he had caught 
an inspiration which made him one of the great teachers of his time. A brilliant orator, 
he spoke and wrote with convincing eloquence whenever the sacred cause of education 
was at stake. Such a man was Alexander Dimitry, the first superintendent of educa- 
tion, whom Louisiana honors and reveres as the organizer of her system of public 
schools. 

Both the reports of Mr. Dimitry, which are generally supposed to be lost, are to be 
seen in the Fisk Library of New Orleans. The hrst was rendered in 1848 and the 
second in 1850. To the student of our educational progress both are interesting and 
instructive. 

The first describes how the 47 parishes had been divided into school districts by 
the police jurors, assisted by the parish superintendents. The services of these super- 
intendents, who w^ere elected at a salary of $300 a year, were very efficient, but the 
schools in the parishes were not generally welcomed, and Mr. Dimitry declared that 
he viewed them rather in the light of an experiment. It was only natural that he 
should hold this opinion; for when the free schools were first established in New 
Orleans, during the years 1841 and 1842, the announcement, says Mr. Dimitry, was 
received by some with doubt, and by others with ridicule, if not hostility. "When 
the schools in the second municipality were opened personal appeals and earnest exhor- 
tations were made to parents, and yet such were the prejudices to be overcome that 
out of a minor population of 3,000 only 13 pupils appeared upon the benches." For- 
tunately, public sentiment in the city gradually changed, and in 1848 Mr. Dimitry 
was able to declare that thousands were blessing the existence of the city schools, for 
in 1849, out of an edncable population of 14,248, the number attending the free schools 
■was 6,710, or nearly 50 per cent. In the country parishes his labors were soon rewarded 
with more than anticipated success, for out of an edncable population in 37 parishes 
of 28,941 the number attending in 1849 was 16,217, or more than 50 per cent. 

In his last report Mr. Dimitry complained of the opposition shown by many to the 
new system, and especially to a portion of the law which prescribed the levying of a 
district tax for the schools. But he had reason to congratulate himself on having 

■ Mr. R. M. Lusher, formerly State superintendent of education, and a noWe worker in that office, 
wrote a sketch of the public school system in Louisiana. In this sketch he makes the curious error 
of stating that all the reports of the Stnte suporiiiteudents frum 1847 to 1860 were burned during the 
war. In the Fisk Library of New Orleans may be found nearly every one of the reports which he 
supposed to be destroyed, beginning with that of Alex. Dimitry in 1848. 

'' County oflicers in Louisiana. 



13C2 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

created a sentiment in favor of the free scliools and in obtaining an attendance of 
more tlian 50 per cent of the educahle j)opulation — a per cent, it is to be remembered, 
far higher than that of the year 1894, when 70 pex cent of our educable population 
are not receiving any instruction either in public or private schools. (Estimate 
made by the Times-Democrat.) 

Throughout this period (1848-1850) moreover, the State was prosperous, and the 
sums appropriated to the public schools in 1849 amounted to nearly one-third of a 
milliou dollars, a higher ratio per educable youth than at the present day. Such 
was the condition of the public schools during Dimitry's able administration. By 
annual visits to the different j)arishe8, he kept himself in touch with his superin- 
tendents, and inspired the State at largo with much of his own zeal and enthusiasm. 

In the years 1851 and 1852 important changes were made in the administration of 
the schools. First of all, the State superintendent was no longer to be appointed by 
the governor, he must be elected by the people. Then followed an act of the legis- 
lature Avhich proved to be extremely unwise. That body in a fit of economy abol- 
ished the office of parish superintendent and substituted iu each parish a board of 
district directors who were to receive no salary. Moreover, the salary of the State 
superintendent was reduced to $1,500 a year, and he was relieved from the duty of 
an annual visit to each parish. The effect of these changes upon the schools iu the 
country parishes is abundantly shown in the reports of the State superintendents, 
Robert C. Nicholas, iu 1853, Dr. Samuel Bard, in 1858, and Henry Avery, iu 1861. 
They all declare that the system outside of New Orleans had been seriously crijipled ; 
that the district directors took no interest in their work, and that often it was 
impossible to find out who were directors in a parish. Loud complaints, moreover, 
came from many of the parishes that the teachers appointed were not only incom- 
petent, but often drunkards and uuj»riucipled adventurers. It is not, therefore, sur- 
prising to learn that many parents demanded and actually obtained their children's 
quota of the public-school funds, which they used in part payment of the salaries of 
private tutors and governesses. Such a method of appropriating the public money, 
however, not only produced general demoralization, but worked great injustice to 
the poorer classes. 

In spite of complaints and appeals, the legislature failed to restore the parish super- 
intendents and to reform the abuses just mentioned. Hence a pessimistic writer in 
De Bow's Review for 1859, taking up an anijual report of the State superintendent, 
gives a gloomy account of education in Louisiana. Pie even goes so far as to conclude 
that the New England system of forcing education on the peojile was not adapted to 
Louisiana; that such a law was theoretical and void of practical results. He then 
continues in the following strain: "If a law were passed by the State of Louisiana 
ap]iropriating $300,000 a year to furnish every family with a loaf of bread more than 
half the families would not accept it. The report of the superintendent for 1859 
proves that more than half the families in Louisiana will not accept the mental food 
which the State offers their children. Some j)arishes will not receive any of it. 
Tensas, for example, which is taxed $16,000 for the support of public schools has not 
a single school. The truth is the government does more harm than good by inter- 
fering with the domestic concerns of our people." 

This Jeremiah then proceeds to detract as much as possible from the merit of the 
public schools in New Orleans, though he admits that these schools were regarded as 
very successful. 

I have quoted the words of this critic quite fully because, while they contain some 
grains of truth, I believe they also contain a great deal of error. Luckily the reports 
from 1856 to 1861, from which he forms his conclusions, are still in existence, and 
they do not justify his statement that at this period the jjeople were opposed to the 
jiublic schools because "they did not wish to accept the mental food offered them by 
the State." O21 the contrary, here is an extract from the report of 1859 which throws 
much light on the condition of affairs in many of the parishes : "Under the present 
law nearly every wealthy planter has a school at his house and draws the pro rata 
share out of the x^nblic treasury. The poor children have not the benefit of these 
schools, and in this parish, which pays about $14,000 in school tax, there is conse- 
quently not enough in the treasury to pay the expense of a single school at the parish 
seat, where it ought to be." 

This extract shows what pernicious custom lay at the root of the failure. The 
money was misappropriated in favor of the private schools ; so that where public 
schools were established, cheaj) and worthless teachers had to be employed, who 
soon brought their schools into disrepute. The inefficiency of the school directors 
followed as a matter of course. Seeing that the rich planters were satisfied, the 
legislature simply did nothing but appropriate ample funds, which often never 
reached the schools for which they were destined. Under these circumstances it is 
even remarkable that in 1858, according to Dr. Bard's report, the number of pupils 
attending public schools in the country parishes was 23,000 out of an educable popu- 
lation in'tho whole State of 60,500. 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1303 

Let us torn to New Orleans. During this period tlio city was divided into four 
vscliool districts, witli a board of directors and a superintendent for each district. 
This arrangement insured most efficient management. The attendance in 1858 was 
20,000— nearly as many as in all the country parishes— and Dr. Samuel IJard, after an 
examination of the city schools during this year, reported to the general assembly 
thr.t "the discijiline was admirable, the attainments of the scholars unexpectedly 
extensive, and the teachers of rare ability." Hon. William O. Kogers, who did 
splendid work for the schools at this period, and who later became city superintend- 
ent, has often in my presence corroborated the testimony of Dr. Bard. 

It was at this very time, also, that an important advance was made in educational 
methods. As early as 1853 Superintendent Nicholas had recommended the establish- 
ment of a normal school, declaring, hoAvever, that there was none in the United 
States and only one in Canada. Finalljr in 1858, largely through the exertions of 
Mr. Eogers, a normal school, the Urst in Louisiana, was opened in New Orleans. 
Unfortunately its cai-eer of usefulness was soon cut short by the rapidly approaching 
civil war. 

Mankind has often been accused of viewing the past through a roseate haze, which, 
while it lends a new charm to that which was already beautiful, also clothes with 
its own light even that which was dark and unbeautiful. It will not be wise, there- 
fore, in looking back over the i>6riod of lifty-six years which wo have just reviewed 
to speak too favorably of the system of public schools in Louisiana. Certainly, 
however, the State in 'i860 had great reason to congratulate herself on the advance 
that had been made over the ]ieriod previous to 18-15. Up to that date, as we have 
seen, the school system was not organized at all; for the schools were not under 
proper supervision and outside of New Orleans they were not free except to a small 
class of indigent pupils. With the new constitution and the advent of Alexander 
Dimitry, Louisiana entered upon a new era of educational progress, especially in 
New Orleans. In the country iiarishes down to 1860 it must be admitted that the 
success of the system was only partial — a result that was due to the size of the 
plantations, the too conservative character of the old planters, the abolition in 
1852 of the office of parish superintendent, and especiallj' to the appropriation of 
public funds for the benefit of private schools. 

III. 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS DURING AXD SINCE THE WAI?. 

During the great civil war it was but natural that the public schools of IjOuisiana, 
especially in tiie country parishes, should languish, for men were engaged in a strug- 
gle which left little time for the consideration of the educational problem. In most 
of the parishes the schools for several years were entirely closed. One of the school 
directors wrote that from his parish there Avere no reports to make except war reports. 
In New Orleans, however, and in the neighboring parishes, Avhicli were in the posses- 
sion of the Federal troops, many schools were kept open, and provision was made 
by the Freedmen's Bureau of Education to give instruction to the newly emancipated 
slaves. Under these new conditions there was a strong eft'ort to open schools in which 
the two races should be educated together. But tliis policy, so repulsive to Southern 
sentiments, ended in failure and it was abandoned. 

The history of our State after the war is too well known to need repetition here. In a 
few years the public debt ol Louisiana was increased by the sum of $40,000,000. More- 
over, in 1872, the Government sold at public auction the whole free-school fund, Avhich 
had been invested in State bonds, and which had been repeatedly declared a sacred 
and inviolable trust for the benefit of the public school. This fund, derived from the 
sale of public lands, amounted to more than $1,000,000. After it had been accom- 
plished there foUoAved a period of " storm and stress" — a tierce struggle for suprem- 
acy, which, during the year 1877, ended in the triumph of the more conservative 
elements of the State, under tlie leadership of Francis T. Nicholls. 

Wo can point with x>ride to one of the first acts of the legislature under this new 
administration. It was as follows: 

"The education of all classes of the people being essential to the preservation of 
free institutions, we do declare our solemn purpose to maintain a system of public 
schools by an equal and uniform taxation upon property as provided in the consti- 
tution of the State, and which shall secure the education of the white and the col- 
ored citizens with eclual advantages. 

"Louis Bush, Speaker. 

"Louis A. Wiltz, Lieut. Governor . 

"FiiANCis T. Nicholls, Governor." 

It is to be noted here that the State assumed formal charge of the education of 
the freedman, pledging him the same advantages as the Avhites. This pledge has 
been faithfully kept; the number of colored p>ipils has gradually increased until 
there are now enrolled in the public schools of the State more than 60,000. 



1304 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1894-95. 

In Marcli, 1877, a few montlis before tlie act above qnoted, the geueral assembly 
had established a State board of education, consisting of the governor, the lieutenant- 
governor, the secretary of state, the attorney-general, the State suyjerintendent, and 
two citizens of the United States, residents for two years in Louisiana. 

As you know, this board was reorganized some years later, so as to contain one 
representative from each Congressional district — a change most wisely made.^ 

The most important step, however, in the reorganization of the public school sys- 
tem was taken in the constitution of 1879. This is the constitution iinder which we 
are now living, but which we all hope to see radically amended in the near future. 
It provided for the appointment of parish boards, and declared that these boards 
might appoint at a fixed salary a parish superintendent of public schools. 

Thus, after the lapse of twenty-seven years, Louisiana restored the office of parish 
superintendent — an office which under Alexander Dimitry was found to bo all impor- 
tant, and which since 1879 has proved essential to the very existence of public 
schools in Louisiana. May the parish superintendent, one of the strongest pillars of 
public education in our State, be a perpetual institution among us, and may his 
office in the future receive that meed of respect and remuneration which his zeal and 
devotion so richly deserve. 

While the constitution of 1879 is entitled to our gratitude for the reinstatement of 
the parish superintendents, one is forced to admit that it made no adequate ijrovi- 
sion fcp.' the support of the public schools. It is true that the free-school fund, the 
bonds of which were sold in 1872, was placed among the perpetiial debts of the State, 
but the interest to be paid was reduced from 6 to 4 per cent^ and it was further 
declared that this interest and the interest due on the seminary and the agricultural 
and the mechanical funds should be paid, not out of the general revenues of the State, 
but out of the tax collected for public education. This was a wholesale "robbing 
of Peter to j)ay Paul." 

Moreover, though provision was made for a supplementary tax to be levied for 
public schools by the police juries of each parish, even this was not obligatory, and 
if it were levied'it Avas to be kept within very narrow limits. 

These unwise articles of the constitution have received such repeated and such 
hearty condemnation from every superintendent of education that it is not necessary 
for me to add my own opinion. I would only remind you that when that constitu- 
tion was adopted in 1879 the State had just passed through the period of recon- 
struction, her finances were in a prostrate condition, and some constitutional 
limitation of taxation seemed absolutely necessary. Those conditions no longer 
exist, and it is to be hoiked that the amendments recently proj)osed by the board of 
education will be unanimously adopted. 

It may be added that the constitution of 1879 ended its provisions for the public 
schools 'with one article that has received universal approval and should be widely 
acted uj>on. It declares that women over 21 years of age shall be eligible to any 
office of control or management under the school laws of Louisiana. This is simply 
an act of justice to that sex which furnishes so large a proportion of our teachers 
throughout the State. 

The history of the public schools since 1879 is so well known that I can not pretend 
to any knowledge which this audience does not already possess. A simple outline, 
therefore, will suffice to refresh your memories. 

The first result of the insufficient support granted by the constitution, you will 
remember, seemed to be the ruin of the public school system. 

In spite of the splendid efforts of Hon. E. M. Lusher, a devoted and untiring worker 
in the cause of public education, the school receipts for 1882 allowed only 45 cents 
for each educable child in the State ; and the Louisiana Journal of Education for that 
year gloomily but forcibly declared that the public school system was as "dead as 
Hector." The teachers even in New Orleans were often unpaid, many schools had 
been closed, and the double obligation of educating both whites and blacks seemed 
too great a burden for the State to bear. But the exertions of Lusher, Easton, and 
Jack, together with the efficient aid received from the parish superintendents and 
the State board, were not without avail. Defeat was at last changed into victory, 
and the record of the past decade, illuminated by the labors of these men, is a most 
interesting chapter in the history of our educational progress. The school fund, 
especiallyin the country parishes, has been largely increased, and so has the attend- 
ance. Not only has public sentiment, without which laws avail naught, been brought 
over to the side of education, but the teachers themselves, though often receiving 
scanty remuneration, have shown greater ability and greater enthusiasm than ever 
before in the history of the State. This 1 attribute largely to the splendid work 
done in the Normal School of New Orleans under Mrs. Mary Stamps and in the State 
Normal of Natchitoches under President Boyd. I am sure you will believe that lack 

iln 1870 the Republicans had established a State board of education, consistino- of the State super- 
intendent and six "division superintendents." The State was divided into six districts under these 
"division superintendents." 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1305 

of space, and not lack of appreciation, has prevented my giving a detailed account 
of the valuable aid rendered to this normal work by the Peabody fund. A tribute 
to Dr. Curry's wise administration of this fund is certainly duo from anyone who 
writes the history of public education in Louisiana. Lack of space must also be 
my plea for omitting the history of the McDonogh fund, to which New Orleans owes 
its array of splendid school buildings. 

It may safely be declared, therefore, that the year 1894 records progress in every 
direction, but'l can not do moi'e than name some of the chief intiiicuces at work for 
the advancement of the public schools. They are the Association of Parish Super- 
intendents; the State Teachers' Association, with its reading circle and its official 
journal; the State and parish institutes for teachers, the Louisiana Chautauqua; 
and last, but not least, the Louisiana Educational Association. Surely this is a 
goodly list — one that any State might be proud of. 

In glancing over the incomplete sketch of public education in Louisiana, the 
progress of which I have traced through ninety years, I am struck with the fact that 
the State has followed what is called the general treud of education. This trend, 
as laid down by Dr. William T. Harris, is as follows: First, from private, endowed, 
and parochial schools there is a change to the assumption of education by the State. 
''When the State takes control, it first establishes colleges and universities; then 
elementary free schools, and then it adds supplementary institutions for the afflicted ; 
then institutions for teachers, together with libraries and other educational aids. 
In the meanwhile increasing attention is paid to supervision and methods. Schools 
are better graded. In class work there is more assimilation and less memorizing. 
Corporal punishment diminishes, and the educational idea advances toward a divine 
charity." Such, aiuid a thousand ditBculties and vicissitudes, has been the history 
of public education in Louisiana. I am persuaded that we are on the right path. 

The question still remains, however, Is Louisiana abreast of the other States of 
the Union in her provision for the education of her youth? The highest authorities 
declare that she is not. Let us for a moment examine the conditions as they exist. 

In 1848 the educable youth of the State numbered only 41, .500; in 1894, with the 
addition of the colored pupils, they nuuibered more than 378,000. Of these only 
115,000 attend any school, either public or private. What is the consequence? I 
answer that in seven of our prosperous parishes, out of 13,000 voters, it is stated that 
6,858 white voters, more than 50 per cent of the whole number, can not I'ead and 
write; and it is a well-known fact that Louisiana now leads all the Southern States . 
in illiteracy. What shall wo do to remove this lamentable condition of things? 

Evidently, though we now spend nearly $1,000,000 a year for our public schools, 
that sum, in view of the increased population, is grossly inadequate. AVe need 
higher salaries for our teachers, better remuneration for our parish superintendents, 
and longer sessions for our schools. The nuichinery of our public school system, as 
far as the officials and their relations to each other are concerned, is excellent. But 
what we require above everything is the privilege of local taxation beyond the pres- 
ent constitutional limitation. We have reached a point in Louisiana where local 
pride has been aroused. We are beginning to feel that however grateful we may be 
for the beneficent work of such funds as the Peabody, we must first of all help out- 
selves; we must demand our independence — the most glorious privilege granted to 
man. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Mary Hemenway. 

[At a meeting held by the Boston public school teachers at the Old South Meeting 
House May 2, 1894, in honor of the memory of Mrs. Mary Hemenway, warm and 
loving tribute was paid to her personal character and worth, her services in the 
cause of education were reviewed, and the reforms instituted by her recalled to 
remembrance by those who had beeu her associates and coworkers and who were 
specially qualified to represent the different phases of her activity. The addresses 
made upon this occasion were afterwards incorporated into a memorial volume, under 
the editorial supervision of Dr. Larkin Duuton, head master of the Boston Normal 
School. From this volume the following extracts have been made to illustrate her 
life and work. They are succeeded by a more detailed account of the Old South 
work from another source.] 

[From the introductory remarks by Dr. Dunton.] 

Mrs. Hemenway was born in the city of New York December 20, 1820, and died at 
her home in Boston March 6, 1894. She was the daughter of Thomas Tileston, from 
whom she seems to have inherited her remarkable business ability. She married 
Mr. Augustus Hemenway, a great shipping merchant. Several years before his death 
his health had so failed as to throw much of the oversight of his immense business 
upon Mrs. Hemenway. By this means was developed that remarkable talent for the 



1306 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1894-95. 

directing of affairs wliicli subsequently proved so useful in carrying on lier great 
benevolent enterprises. Slie certainly possessed business ability of a high, order. 

Her insight into tbe causes of suifering among the people, far and near, present 
and future, and into tlie remedies for this suffering, was wonderful. Pier breadth of 
view was only equalled by the warmth of her heart. It was the generosity of her 
nature that so endeared her to the teachers of Boston. They came to know her as a 
fellow-worker for the good of the people. Pride, haughtiness, and condescension, 
which too often accompany the x^ossession and even the distribution of wealth, were 
so conspicuously wanting in her nature that every teacher who was brought into con- 
tact with her in her benevolent work felt only the presence of a great heart beating 
in sympathy with all mankind. 

Her beneficent plans were never set on foot and then left to the management of 
others. She not only followed her woric with her thought and her kindly interest, 
but she stimulated and cheered her coworkers Avith her inspiring personality. It 
was her clear head, her warm heart, and her cheerful lu'eseuce that gained for her 
admiration and affection. 
[Eesolutious presented "by Eoljert Swan, master of tlie Winthrop School, and adopted by the meeting.] 

Whereas it is fitting, at the close of Mrs. Mary Hemenway's useful life, that the 
Boston public school teachers, assembled in the Old South Meeting House, which 
she loved so well and did so much to save, should place on record their profound 
appi'cciation of the noble work she has accomplished for the practical education of 
the children under their care, bj^ which the pupils, and through them the homes 
from Avhich many of them come, have been elevated both mentally and morally: 
Therefore bo it 

Ilesolved, That through her Vv^ise foresight and long perseverance in the introduc- 
tion of a systematic training in sewing, by which girls in the x^ublic schools are 
made jiroficient in needlework, the first step toward manual training, now acknowl- 
edged by all to be an essential part of our school programme, she exhibited an almost 
intuitive sense of the needs of the community, and enabled the children to relieve 
their mothers of many weary hours of labor. 

Resolved, That by the introduction of the kitchen garden and, later, the school 
kitchen — a long step in progress — she accomfdished by this wise provision of her 
studious care an inestimable benefit to the city, the children being thus taught not 
only to cook intelligently and economically, but also to buy understandingly the 
various articles required, by which the manner of living has been changed, health- 
ful food and proper service displacing uncomfortable and unhealthful methods. 

Resolved, That by the introduction of the Ling system of gymnastics, in which 
Mrs. Hemenway's liberality and care for the physical development of the children 
were the princiiial factors, the city is greatly indebted for another advance in 
education. 

Resolved, That by the establishment of the Normal School of Cooking and the 
Boston Normal School of Gymnastics, furnishing qualified teachers to inaugurate 
the work in other cities, by which the full advantage of Boston's experience is 
reaped, her beneficial influence has made instruction in these branches national 
instead of local. 

Resolved, That by her contribution in money and intelligent helpfulness in i)ro- 
motiug the Boston Teachers' Mutual Benefit Association in the days of its inception 
much was done to insure the success of the enterprise. 

Resolved, That by the purchase of Dr. John D. Philbrick's library and its i^resenta- 
tion to the Boston Normal School she has made easily accessible to the i)upils the 
choicest Avorks on educational siibjects, thus making the valuable information 
acquired a part of their equipment for their chosen j)rofessiou. 

Resolved, That by her prizes for essays on subjects connected with American his- 
tory, awarded to graduates of the Boston high schools on Washington's Birthday in 
the Old South Meeting House, she has caused a thorough research into our colonial 
and national life that can result only in inspiring patriotic ardor which must con- 
duce to the best citizenship. 

Resolved, That by these and many other acts which can not be eniimerated at this 
time her name is justly entitled to rank with the names of Pratt and Drexel, who 
have established institutes in Brooklyn and Philadelphia that will confer incalcula- 
ble benefits on the people of this country. 

Resolved. That Mrs. Ilemenway, in these varied interests, gave what is infinitely 
more imj)ortant than money — her constant sympathy in and enthusiasm for the work, 
which is an invaluable memory to all who were blessed with her assistance. 

Resolved, That in tendering these resolutions to the family of Mrs. Hemenway we 
desire to express our deej) sympathy in their bereavement. 

[Address by Edwin P. Seaver, superintendent of scliools.] 

How the Old South Meeting House was saved from threatened destruction is a 
well-known story that needs not now to bo repeated. Mrs. Hemenway's interest in 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVEEAL STATES. 1307 

that patriotic enterprise did not end witli her jjiviug^ a largo sliaro of the purchase 
money. That generous gift was but the beginning of a larger enterprise, the x>re- 
ludc to a nobler history. 

These ancient walls had been saved. AVhat should bo done ■with them? They 
might have been allowed to stand as mute witnesses to the events of a glorious past. 
They might have been used merely as a shelter for curious old relics, which anti- 
quarians love to study and passing visitors cast a glance upon. And so the old 
meeting house might have stood many years more — a monument to religion and free- 
dom, not unworthy, indeed, of its purpose, l)ut yet a silent monument. 

The plans of Mrs. ITemenway were larger and more vital. The old building should 
bo not only a relic and monumeut of the past, but a temple for present insjjiratiou 
and instruction. Tlie thoughts and tlio hopes that aforetime liad thrilled the hearts 
of men assembled in this house should live again in the words of eloquent teachers. 
Here should young people gather to learn lessons of virtue and patriotism from the 
lives of great men whose deeds have glorified our nation's annals. What has now 
become known throughout the country as "tlio Old South work" is the outgrowth 
of this fruitful idea. Let us brielly review the particulars of this ''Old Soutli work," 
keeping in mind as we do so its main purposes, Avhicli are first to interest young peo- 
ple iu American history, and then, through that interest, to inspire them Avitli a love 
of their country, and to instruct them wisely concerning the duties and privileges of 
citizenship under a free government. Can any instruction more vital to the public 
good be thought off 

First, wo may notice that Washington's Birthday has been appropriatelj^ celebrated 
in this house every year from 1879. Other national holidays have been celebrated 
likewise, or may hereafter be celebrated, for the idea is a growing one. 

Next should be noticed "the Old South lectures." As early as 1879, and in the two 
years following, courses of lectures on topics of American history were delivered in 
this house by Mr. John Fiske, who has since become so well known as a brilliant 
writer on historical subjects. That these lectures would bo intensely interesting to 
the adult portion of the audiences was naturally enough expected at the time, but 
it was hardly foreseen that the young people would be so thoroughly fascinated as 
they were with a lecturer who had been known chiefly as a Avriter on deep philo- 
sophical subjects. Mr. Fisko has been a frequent lecturer on this i^latform from 1879 
down to the present time. 

In 1883 "the Old South lectures," properly so called, were organized on a definite 
and permanent plan. p]ach year the work to be done is laid out in a sj'steinatic 
manner. A general tojjic is chosen, and particular topics under this are assigned to 
dift'erent speakers, who are invited because their special knowledge of the topics 
assigned them gives great interest or importance to what they may have to say. 
The great interest awakened by these lectures has led to the repetition of many of 
them in other cities. 

"The Old South leaflets" are an interesting auxiliary to the lectures, A practice 
was early adopted of providing iu j^rinted form the means of further studying the 
matters touched upon by the lecturer of the day. The leaflets so provided contained 
not meuely an outline of the lecture, but the texts of important historical docu- 
ments not otherwise easily accessible, and references to authorities with critical 
note ■. thereupon, and other interesting special matter. These leatlets have proved 
to bo so useful to teachers iu their school work that the directors of "the Old 
South Avork"have published a general series of them, which are to be continued, 
and are supplied to schools at the bare cost of paper and printing. 

Perhaps " the Old South essays " touch the Boston public schools more immediately 
than does any other part of "the Old South work." Every year, beginning with 
1881, have been offered to high school pu])ils soon to become graduates, and also to 
recent graduates, four prizes, two of $10 and two of $2o each, for the best essays on 
assigned topics of American history. The usual objection to the idan of encourag- 
ing study by the offer of prizes, that many strive and few Avin, so that the joy of 
victory iu the few is more than offset by the disappointment of failure iu the many, 
was met in the present case with characteristic wisdom and liberality; for every 
writer of an essay not winning a monej- prize has received a present of valuable 
books in recognition of his worthy eftbrt. The judges who make the awards of 
prizes state that crude essays, betraying a want of study and care on the part of the 
writers, are extremely rare. On the other hand, there are often so many essays of 
the highest general excellence that the task of making a just award is a difficult one. 

Some of these essays have been xirinted in the New England Magazine and iu 
other periodicals. Some have been published in pamphlet ibrm, and have received 
the favorable notice of historical scholars. It is now the custom to invito at least 
one of the prize essayists each year to deliver one of "the Old South lectures." 

Among the more distinguished of the essayists may be named Mr. Henry L. South- 
wick, a graduate of the Dorchester High School, whose prize essay of the year 1881, 
entitled "The policy of the early colonists of Massachusetts toward Quakers and 



1308 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1894-95. 

ciliers whom they regarded as intruders," attracted much attention; Mr. F. E. E. 
Hamilton, a graduate of the English High School, and since an alumnus of Harvard 
College: Mr. Robert M. Lovett, a graduate of the Boston Latin School, who led his 
class at Harvard College; Miss Caroline E. Stecker, who took prizes in two succes- 
sive ye:irs; and Mr. Leo R. Lewis, of the English High School, now a professor in 
Tufts College. Others there are who may be expected hereafter to distinguish them- 
selves in the line of work for which the writing of their essays was the beginning 
of a preparation. 

The whole number of Old South essayists is now over 100. About 20 of these 
have been or still are students in colleges, some proceeding thither in regular course 
from the Latin schools, but others in less easy ways, being impelled to the effort 
undoubtedly by a desire for higher education that had grown out of their historical 
studies for their essays. But among the essayists who have not become college stu- 
dents, the interest in historical studies has been no less abiding. The Old South 
Historical Society, formed about two years ago, is composed of persons who have 
written historical essays for the Old South prizes. Quarterly meetings are held for 
the reading of papers and for discussion on historical subjects. This society may 
well be regarded with peculiar interest by our teachers, because it represents the 
best historical scholarship of successive years in the high schools of Boston. It may 
soon become, if it be not already, one of the most importaiut learned societies in 
this city. 

But historical study and writing are not for the many, nor are they enough to 
satisfy the few. A broader influence may touch the hearts of all through music. 
Out of this thought has grown the society known as " The Old South Young People's 
Chorus." 

At many of "the Old South lectures" there has been singing of national patriotic 
hymns by large choruses of boys and girls from the public schools, three or four hun- 
dred often taking part. On the Washington's Birthday celebrations there has always 
been singing by the public-school children. These interesting exercises have led to 
a more permanent organization for the practice of patriotic music, which flourishes 
now under the name of "Young People's Chorus." 

Finally, let us note the extension of "the Old South work" to other cities, as Provi- 
d_ence, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Indianapolis, Chicago, Madison, Milwau- 
kee, and others. Everywhere the idea of bringing our national history home to the 
minds and hearts of young people through an awakened interest in monuments and 
memorials of the past has been enthusiastically received. Philadelphia, no less than 
Boston, has her shrines of freedom. There is no city or town in the land that does 
not possess something interesting as a memorial of past events — events which the 
national historian may regard as of no more than local importance, but which, by the 
very circumstance of being local, best show the child the stuff out of which the fabric 
of our national history is woven. Everywhere, therefore, the materials for "the Old 
South work" are at hand, and the plan of this work is so simple that it can be 
adopted eyerywhere. * * * 

[Prom the address by James A. Page, master of the Dwight School.] 

Of the public-spirited woman in whose honor we are met it may be said, in the 
language of Sydney Smith, that she was three women, not one woman. 

Practical as a business man, she was yet tender and generous to many different 
sorts of jjeople. Expecting always faithful and loyal service, she was considera,te 
of those carrying forward her great plans. She delighted to si5end money, as she was 
spending it, for lofty purposes. She had strength — the strength of opposite qualities, 
the strength that fits for public service. The city was fortunate that at such a time, 
or at any time, such service was to be had. 

The woman who gave this service saw very surely that any institution, to be last- 
ing, must be firmly founded; and her motto therefore in this, as in other things, was 
"Go slowly." We had had "systems" of gymnastics before, and they had vanished. 
We had had "fads" of this kind, and they had perished one by one. The thing to 
be done now was to secure a plan that should be workable, and yet should be based 
on Avell-ascertained physiological and psychological data. 

She gave her mind to this. In 1888 the cooperation of twenty-five teachers was 
secured, and the work was carried on for a considerable time in rooms at Boylston 
Place. After much experience had been gained and circumstances had seemed to 
justify it, larger rooms were obtained, and in 1889 the masters of the schools were 
invited to interest themselves in the movement and to take part in the exercises. 
They responded to the call without an exception, I believe, and the work took on a 
wider scope. It was in this year also (1889) that the Conference on Physical Train- 
ing took place under the auspices of this school, and the advocates of many different 
systems were invited to take part, and each to show by example and on the stage the 
special excellencies of his own school of work. The German pupils, those of the Chris- 
tian associations, of Delsarte, of the colleges, of the Swedish, and of some private 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1309 

scliools took the, stage snccessively, and had ample opportxunty to demoustiate tli"; 
value of their several systems. A brilliant reception was given in the evening. 

It was determined, I think, at this time by a very general consensus of opinion that 
for the public schools of this city as a whole, and wilh all their limitations, the Swedish 
system was the best adapted. 

' From this time, convinced it was on the right track, the Boston Normal School of 
Gymnastics has continned a constantly growing power and success. Under the same 
firm but fostering hand as at the beginning it outgrew its quarters in Park street, and 
since 1890 has been located in more commodious rooms at the Paine Memorial Build- 
ing. It has graduated th?'ee classes, that of 1891 consisting of 12 students, that of 
1892 also of 12, and that of 1893 consisting of 43 students, and this with a constantly 
advancing standard as to conditions of admission. In addition to these regular grad- 
uates 30 pupils have received one-year certificates, and some of them are now doing 
good work as teachers. 

The school has at its head Miss Amy Morris Homaus and in its stafl:" such men as 
Dr. Enebuske, the professor of philosophy at Harvard Univei-sity, the dean of the 
Harvard Medical School, and the professor of biology at the Massachusetts Institute 
of Technology. 

It is not strange, then, that the services of pupils trained in such a way should he 
in demand in all parts of the country. Two have gone to the Drexol Institute of 
Philadelphia ; 2 have gone to Smith College, Northampton ; 2 to Radclifte College, 
Cambridge; 1 to Bryn Mawr, Pa.; 4 to different State normal schools in Massachu- 
setts; 1 to Oshkosh, Wis.; 1 to Denver, Colo.;' 1 to the Normal College, Milledge- 
ville, Ga. ; and 1 each to Gloucester, Lynn, Lawrence, Dedham, Cambridge, and 
Paw tucket. 

The aggregate salaries paid to the young ladies of the three classes already grad- 
uated are not less than $50,000, the highest single salary reaching $1,800, and the 
average being slightly less than $1,000. 

These statements give but a faint idea of the work of the school — its fineness, its 
scope, its far-reaching quality. But we can see that the bread cast on the waters is 
beginning to return. These centers throughout the country are already established. 
Inuigine them, as the years go by, multiplied a thousand fold, making a better and 
happier, because a stronger, i)eople, and then bring the threads back to this place 
and connect them with the deed of one noble, public-spirited woman. 

The counterpart of this picture is the one of 60,000 children taking the Swedish 
exercises daily in our own city schools, under the direction of teachers acquainted 
with the system from actual contact with it, and under the supervision of an expert 
like Dr. Hartwell. Who that saw the exposition of it at the English High School 
on Saturday last can hesitate in his hearty Godspeed or forget the one whose initi- 
ative made it all possible? 

[From the address of Dr. Larkin Dunton, head master of the Boston Normal School.] 

If a man has wisdom and money, but no heart, he does nothing for his fellow-men. 
If his purse is full and his heart is warm, yet, if he lacks wisdom to guide his eftbrts, 
he is as likely to harm as to help. But happy is it for the world when wisdom, love, 
and wealth are the joint possession of one great soul. They then constitute an irre- 
sistible force. Mrs. Mary Hemenway possessed them all in largest measure. Let us 
note briefly the comprehensiveness of view and kindness of heart that are shown in 
the work of this grand woman. 

She was allowed to grow up, as she said, without learning to do things; and she 
noticed that girls who were efiicient workers were happy. She felt that she had 
been deprived of her birthright. This was her first inspiration lor teaching girls to 
sew; though she saw also the effect of a knowledge of this work in their future 
homes as well as in helpfulness to their mothers. Through her efibrts sewing was 
introduced into the schools of Boston. But she was too wise to allow this branch 
of instruction to depend upon tbe life of any one person. She began at once to inter- 
est the school committee and teachers in the work, to the end that it might be incor- 
porated into the regular programme of the schools, be given to all the girls, and, 
more than this, be made perjietual by being put under the fostering care of the 
immortal city. The example of Boston has been widely copied, so that the influence 
of the work thus unostentatiously begun, but so wisely managed, has extended and 
will extend to millions of children and millions of homes. 

A legitimate result of the introduction of this new branch of instruction has beeu 
the creation of a department of sewing in the Boston Normal School, so that here- 
after sewing is to be taught by women as able and as well educated as those who 
teach arithmetic or language, and is, therefore, to take its place as an educational 
force in the development of our girls. 

Through various experiments in vacation schools in summer Mrs. Hemenway came 
to see that it would be possible to raise the standard of cooking in the homes of the 
people by teaching the art to the children in the public schools. This, ahe thought, 



1310 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1894-95. 

would not only raise wp a stronger race of men and women, but would make their 
homes happier and more attractive, and so would lesson the temptation of fathers 
and sons to spend their evenings at the saloon. And thus good cooking came to 
stand in her mind as the handmaid of temperance. 

But she was Avise enough to see that the realization of her ideal, namely, the uni- 
versality and perpetuity of good cooking, depended upon two conditions — first, that 
the work must he under the care and support of an abiding power ; and second, that 
the instruction must be given by competent teachers. Hence she set herself to work 
to demonstrate the feasibility of the plan to the school authorities, to the end that 
they would undertake it for all the girls of the city. At the same time, seeing that 
there were no suitable teachers for this new branch of education, she established a 
normal school of cooking, which she has maintained to the present time. 

Tljis normal school has not only supplied the school kitchens of Boston with com- 
petent teachers, but has supplied other cities with teachers, so that other centers of 
like influence could be created. This institution has also shown the authorities here 
the necessity of training teachers for this kind of school work, and a department of 
cooking has been provided for in the city normal school. So the continuation and 
improvement of the work are secured. 

When Mrs. Hemenway's attention was called to ]5hysical training as a means of 
improving the health, physique, and graceful bearing of the young, she immediately 
began experimenting with various systems of gymnastics for the purpose of ascer- 
taining which was best adapted to tho needs of American children. 

She soon became so favorably impressed with the Swedish system that she iuA'ited 
25 Boston teachers to assist her in making her experiment with it. Their judgment 
of the result v.'as so favorable that she made anoifer to the school committee to train 
a hundred teachers in the system, on condition that they be allowed to use the exer- 
cises in their classes in case they chose to do so. The offer was accepted, and the 
result proved a success. 

Mrs. Hemenway saw at the outset that what she could do personally was but a 
trifle compared to what ought to be done, so she decided to start the work in such 
a way that it would become as broad as Boston and as lasting. Hence she began at 
once to share the responsibility with the city and to train the teachers for the work. 

She soon gained such a broad view of the possibilities of the system that she 
decided to make it more generally known. This led to tho great Conference on 
Physical Training in Boston in 1889, which did so much to arouse an interest in the 
subject and to create a demand for teachers specially trained for tho work. But it 
was not enough to create a demand for teachers; the demand mnst be met; so she 
established the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics for the education and training 
of teachers of gymnastics. 

Mere imitators would not do for this work. She believed the body to be the temple 
of God, and that it should be guarded and adorned by those who knew it so well as 
to believe in its possibilities and its sacredness. This school has done much to qualify 
the teachers of Boston for conducting the Swedish exercises, and it has sent its 
graduates into many other cities, which in turn have become centers of insi)iration 
and help along the same line. Mrs. Hemenway, through this school, will imx^rove 
the physical power, health, and morality of millions of our children. 

But she was not satisfied with all this. She saw that to make this work perpetual 
in Boston the education of teachers of gymnastics must be made perpetual: it must 
not depend upon one frail life; so she furnished the best equipped teacher that she 
could procure to give instruction in the theory and art of gymnastics in the Boston 
Normal School till a woman could be educated for the place. When this was done 
and the school committee had appointed a comjietent teacher, Mrs. Hemenway's 
influence was gradually withdrawn, so that now every graduate of our normal 
school goes out i)rej)ared to direct intelligently the work in gymnastics, and all is 
done that human foresight could devise to make instruct ioxi in this subject perpetual. 

Her work in connection with the Old South had tlje same general aim. It was to 
improve the morals of the people by teaching patriotism widely and perpetually. 
She once said: "I have just given $100,000 to save the Old South, yet I care nothing 
for tlie church or the corner lot; but if I live, such teaching shall be done in that 
old building and such an influence shall go out from it as shall make the children of 
future generations love their country so tenderly that there can never be another 
civil war in this country." This sentiment accorints for her support of Old South 
summer lectures and Old South jjrize essays for the development of patriotism in the 
young. 

Mrs. Hemenway spent $100,000 in building up the Tileston Normal School, in Wil- 
mington, N. C. When asked why she gave money to support schools in the South, 
she replied : " When my country called for her sous to defend the flag, I had none to 
give. Mine was but a lad of 12. I gave my money as a thank oifering that I was 
not called to suffer as other mothers who gaA'e their sons and lost them. I gave it 
that the children of this generation might bo tanght to love the flag their fathers 
tore down." 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1311 



THE OLD SOUTH WORK. 



[By Edwin D. Mead.'] 



* * ^ The extent of the obligation of Boston and of America to Mrs. Hemon- 
way for her devotion to the historical and political education of our young people 
is something which we only now begin to properly appreciate, when she has left us 
and we view her work as a whole. I do not think it is too much to say that she has 
dono more than any other single individual in the same time to promote pojjular 
interest in American history and to promote intelligent patriotism. 

Mary Hemenway was a woman whoso interests and sympathies were as broad as 
the world; but she was a great patriot — and she was preeminently that. She Avaa 
air enthusiastic lover of freedom and of democracy, and there was not a day of her 
life that she did not think of the great i)rice with which our own heritage of freedom 
had l)een purchased. Her patriotism was loyalty. She had a deep feeling of per- 
sonal gratitude to the founders of New England and the fathers of the Republic. 
She had a reverent pride in our position of leadership in the history and movement 
of modern democracy, and she had a consuming zeal to keep the nation strong and 
pure and worthy of its best traditions, and to kindle this zeal among the young 
peo]dc of the nation. With all her great enthusiasms, she was an amazingly prac- 
tical and definite woman. She wasted no time or strength in vague generalities, 
either of speech or action. Others might long for tbo time when the kingdom of 
God should cover the earth as the waters cover the sea — and she longed for it; but 
while others longed she devoted herself to doing what she could to bring that corner 
of Cod's world in which sho was set into conformity with the laws of God — and this 
by every means in her power, by teaching poor girls how to make better clothes and 
cook better dinners and make better homes, by teaching people to value health 
and respect and train their bodies, by inciting people to read better books and love 
better music and better pictures and be interested in more important things. Others 
might long for the parliament of man and the federation of the world — and so did she ; 
but while others longed she devoted herself to doing what she could to make this 
nation, for which she was ijarticularly responsible, fitter for the federation when it 
comes. The good patriot, to her thinking, was not the worse cosmopolite. The 
good state for Avhich she worked was a good Massachusetts, and her chief interest, 
while others talked municipal reform, Avas to make a better Boston. 

American historj', people used to say, .is not interesting; and they read about Ivry 
and Marathon and Zama, about Pym and Pepin and Pericles, the ephors,the t: ibuiu s, 
and the House of Lords. American history, said Mrs. Hemenway, is to us -the most 
interesting and the most important history in the world, if we would only (ipe]i our 
eyes to it and look at it in the right way — and I will help people to look at it in tbo 
right wa3\ Onr very archeology, she said, is of tbe highest interest; and through 
the researches of Mr. Gushing and Dr. Fewkes and others among the Zunis .-nul tbe 
Mo(|uis, sustained by her at the cost of thousands of dollars, she did an immense 
work to make interest in it general. Boston, the Puritan city — how proud sho was 
of its great line of heroic men, from Wiuthrop and Cotton and Eliot and Harvard to 
Sumner and Garrison and Parker and Phillips! How proud she Avas that Harry 
Vano once trod its soil and hero felt himself at home! How she loved Hancock and 
Otis and Warren and Revere and tJie great men of the Boston town meetings — above 
all, Samuel Adams, the very mention of whose name always thrilled her, and Avbose 
portrait was the only one saA^o AVashington's which hung on the oaken walls of her 
great dining room! The Boston historians, Prescott, Motley, Parkman ; the Boston 
poets, LongfelloAv, Lowell, P^merson — each Avord of every one she treasured. She 
would haA-e enjoyed and would haAo understood, as few others, that recent declara- 
tion of Charles Francis Adams, that the founding of Boston was fraught with conse- 
quences hardly less important than those of the founding of Rome. AH other Boston 
men aiulAvomeii must see Boston as she saw it — that washer high resolve; they must 
know and take to heart that they were citizens of no mean city ; they must be roused 
to the sacreduess of their inheritance, that so they might be roused to the nobility 
of their citizenship and the greatness of their duty. It was with this aim andAvith 
this spirit, not with the spirit of the mere antiquarian, that Mrs. Hemenway inaugu- 
rated the Old South work. History with her was for use — the history of Boston, the 
history of New England, the history of America. 

In tbe first place she saved the Old South Meeting House. She contributed 
$100,000 toward the fund necessary to prevent its destruction. It is hard for us to 
realize, so much deeper is the reverence for historic places which the great anniver- 
saries of these late years haA'e done so much to beget, that in our very centennial 
year, 187G, the Old South Meeting House, the most sacred and historic structure in 
i3oston, was in danger of destruction. The old Hancock house, for which, could it be 

' Repriuted from tlie Journal of Education, August 30-Septembcr 13, 1834. 



1312 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

restored, Boston would to-day pour out unlimited treasure, liad gone, witli but feeble 
protest, only a dozen years before ; and but for Mrs, Hemenway the Old Soutb Meet- 
in"- House would have gone in 1876. She saved it, and, having saved it, she deter- 
mi'iied that it should not stand an idle monument, the tomb of the great ghosts, but 
a living temple of patriotism. She knew the didactic power of great associations; 
and everyone who in these fifteen years has been in the habit of going to the lectures 
and celebrations at the Old South knows with what added force many a lesson has 
been taught within the walls which heard the tread of Washington, and which still 
echo the words of Samuel Adams and James Otis and Joseph Warren. 

The machinery of the Old South work has been the simijlest. That is why any 
city, if it has ijublic spirited people to sustain it, can easily carry on such work. 
That is why work like it, owing its parentage and impulse to it, has been undertaken 
in Providence and Brooklyn and Philadelphia and Indianapolis and Chicago and 
elsewhere. That is why men and women all over the country, organized in societies 
or not, who are really in earnest about good citizenship, can do much to promote 
similar Avork in the cities aud towns in Avhich they live. We have believed at the 
Old South Meeting House simply in the power of the spoken word and the printed 
page. We have liad lectures and we have circulated historical leaflets. 

What is an Old South lecture course like? That is what many of the teachers and 
many of the youug people who read the Journal of Education, and who are not con- 
versant with the work, will like to know. What kind of subjects do wo think will 
attract and instruct bright young people of 15 or 16, set them to reading in American 
history, make them more interested in their country, and make better citizens of 
them? That question can not, perhaps, be better answered than by giving the Old 
South programme for the present summer. This course is devoted to " The Founders 
of New England," and the eight lectures are as follows : "William Brewster, the elder 
of Plymouth," by Rev. Edward Everett Plale; "William Bradford, the governor of 
Plymouth," by Rev. William Elliot Griffis; "John Winthrop, the governor of Massa- 
chusetts," by Hon. Frederic T. Greenhalge; "John Harvard, and the founding of 
Harvard College," by Mr. William R. Thayer; "John Eliot, the apostle to the Indi- 
ans," by Rev. James de Normandie; "John Cotton, the minister of Boston," by Rev. 
John Cotton Brooks; "Roger Williams, the founder of Rhofle Island," by President 
E. Benjamin Andrews; "Thomas Hooker, the founder of Connecticut," by Rev. 
Joseph H. Twichell. 

It will be uoticed that the several subjects in this course are presented by repre- 
sentative men — men especially identified in one way or another with their special 
themes. Thus, Edward Everett Hale, who spoke on Elder Brewster, is certainly our 
greatest New England "elder" to-day. Dr. Griffls, whose book on "Brave Little 
Holland" is being read at this time by many of our young people, is an authority in 
Pilgrim history, having now in preparation a work on "The Pilgrim Fathers in Eng- 
land, Holland, and America." It was singularly fortunate that the present governor 
of Massachusetts could speak upon Governor Winthrop. Mr. Thayer is the editor 
of the Harvard Graduates' Magazine, and a special student of John Harvard's life 
and times. Mr. De Normandie is John Eliot's successor as minister of the old church 
in Roxbury. Rev. John Cotton Brooks, Phillips Brooks's brother, is a lineal descend- 
ant of John Cotton, and has preached in his pulpit in St. Botolph's church at old 
Boston, in England. President Andrews, of Brown University, is the very best per- 
son to come from Rhode Island to tell of that little State's great founder. _ Mr. 
Twichell, the eminent Hartford minister, was the chosen orator at the celebration of 
the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the founding of Connecticut, in 1889. 
With such a list of speakers as this, this course upon "The founding of New Eng- 
land" could not help being a strong, brilliant, and valuable course; and so it has 
proved. 

The Old South lectures— thanks to Mrs. Hemenway's generosity, still active by 
provision of her will — are entirely free to all young people. Tickets are sent to all 
persons under 20, applying in their own handwriting to the directors of the Old 
South studies, at the Old South Meeting House, and inclosing stamps. Older peo- 
ple can come if they wish to — and a great many do come — but these pay for their 
tickets; it is understood that the lectures are designed for the young people. We 
tell our lecturers to aim at the bright boy and girl of 15, and forget that there is 
anybody else in the audience. If the lecturer hits them, he is sure to interest every- 
body ; if he does not, he is a failure as an Old South lecturer. We tell them to be 
graphic aud picturesque— dullness, however learned, is the one thing which young 
people will not pardon; we tell them to speak without notes — if they do not always 
satisfy themselves quite so well, they please everybody else a great deal better; 
and we tell them never to speak over an hour — we pardon fifty-nine minutes, but 
we do not pardon sixty-one. Persons starting work like the Old South work in 
other cities would do well to remember these simple rules. Any persons looking in 
upon the great audience of young people which, on the Wednesday afternoons of 
Bummer, fills the Old South Meeting House, will quickly satisfy themselves whether 
American history taught by such lectures is interesting. 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1313 

For tho Old South lectures arc summer lectures — vacation lectures — given at 3 
o'clock on Wednesday afternoons. They begin when the graduation exercises and 
the Fourth of July are Avell lieLind, usually on the Wednesday nearest August 1. 
For one reason tvo lind this a little late— it cai-ries the last lecture or two beyond 
the opening of the schools in September; and such courses of lectures in vacation 
might well begin as early as the middle of July. 

Our lectures are not meant for idbrs; we do not aim to entertain a crowd of 
children for an hour in a desultory fashion; our lecturers do not talk baby talk. 
The Old South work is a serious educational work; its programmes are careful and 
sequential, making demands upon the hearers; it assumes that the young people 
who come are students, or want to be — and by consistently assuming it, it makes 
them so. Dr. Hale, who has addressed these Old South audiences oftener, perhaps, 
than anybody else, remarked at the opening of tbe present course upon the notable 
development in the character and carriage of the audiences in these years of the 
work; it is no longer safe, he said, to say 1603 at the Old South, when vou ought to 
say 1602. 

Last year, Avhen the people of the whole country were assembling at Chicago, the 
capital of the great West, the lectures were devoted to the subject of " The opening 
of the West." The subjects of the previous ten annual courses were as follows: 
" Early Massachusetts history,'' " Kepresentative men in Boston history," " The war 
for the Union," " J ho war for independence," " The birth of the nation," "The story 
of the centuries," ''America and France," " The American Indians," "The new birth 
of the world," " The discovery of America." 

The Old South Leaflets are prepared, primarily, for circulation among the young 
people attending the Old South lectures. The subjects of the leaflets are usually 
immediately related to the subjects of the lectures. They arc meant to supplement 
the lectures and stimulate reading and inquiry among the young people. They are 
made up, for the most part, from original papers of the periods treated in the lec- 
tures, in the hope to make the men and the life of those periods more clear and real. 
Careful historical notes and references to the best books on tbe subjects are added, 
the leaflets usually consisting of 16 or 20 pages. A single instance more will suffice 
to show the relation of the leatlets to the lectures. The year 1889 beiug the centen- 
nial both of the beginning of our own Federal Government and of the French revo- 
lution, the lectures for the year, under the general title of "America and France," 
were devoted entirely to subjects in which the history of America is related to that 
of France, as follows: "Champlain, the founder of Quebec," "La Salle and the 
French in the Great West," " The Jesuit missionaries in America," " Wolfe and 
Montcalm. Tlie struggle of England and France for tbe Continent," " Franklin in 
France," "The friendsbip of Wasliington and Lafayette," " Thomas Jefferson and the 
Louisiana purchase," " The year 1789." The corresponding leaflets were as follows: 
" Verrazzano's account of his voyage to America," " Marijuette's account of his dis- 
covery of the Mississippi," "Mr. Farkman's histories," "The capture of Quebec, 
from Farkman's ' Conspiracy of Pontiac ; ' " " Selections from Franklin's letters from 
France," "Letters of Washington and Lafayette," "The Declaration of Independ- 
ence," "The French declaration of tbe Rights of Man, 1789." 

The virtue of the Old South Leaflets is that they bring students into first baud, 
instead of second hand, touch with history. That, indeed, may describe the Old 
South work altogether. It lias been an effort to bring the young people of Boston 
and America iuto original relations with history; and it has been, we think, the 
foremost etfort of the kind in tbe country. This is why it has won the atten- 
tion and commendation, so gratifying to us, of tbe educators of the country. Our 
joy in tbe Old South work has been the joy of being pioneers, and the joy of know- 
inii- that we were pioneers in the right direction. Wo should have known this if 
others hc,d not known it; but we do not deny that the warm words of the histor- 
ical scholars and teachers of the country have been very grateful and very helpful 
to us. The Old South work is "in exactly the right direcrion," John Fiske has 
said. It is a pleasant thing to remember that it was at Mrs. Hemenway's instance 
and at her strong solicitation tliat Mr. Fiske first turned his ctforts to tbe field of 
American history ; and almost everything thathas appeared in his luagnificentseries 
of historical works was first given in the form of lectures at the Old South. In his 
new school history of the Uuited States, * * » the Old South Leaflets are con- 
stantly commended for use in connection. "The publication of these leaflets," he 
says, "is sure to have a most happy eft'ect in awakening general interest, on tbe part of 
young students, in original documents." To the same edect writes Mr. Montgomery, 
whoso text-books in history are so widely used in the schools. James MacAlister, 
the president of the Drexel Institute in Philadelphia, Avritcs: "I regard the Old 

ED 95 42 



1314 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. ' • 

South work as one of the most important educational movements ot recent times." 
Mr. Herbert Welsh, of Philadelphia, wrote a special tract about the Old South work 
and spread it broadcast in Philadelphia. He had been deeply impressed by the Old 
South work when he came to lecture for us a little Avhile before. " The secret of the 
success of the Old South jjlan," he said, "is that it teaches history from a living- and 
most iiractical standpoint. It is the application of the best that our past has given 
to the brain and heart of the youth of the present." ""Why should not this simple 
and effective plan be made use of in Philadelphia ? '"' he asked ; and last year Old South 
work was inaugurated in Philadelphia, the lectures to the young people being given in 
the old State hoiise, where the Declaration of Independence was signed and the Con- 
stitution framed. President Andrews, of Brown University, Prof. Herbert Adams, of 
Johns Hopkins, Professor Hart, of Harvard, Prof. Woodrow Wilson, Mr. Horace E. 
Scudder, and others have written in the same warm way. Mr. Tetlow, the master 
of the Boston Girls' High School, and masters all over the country, unite in welcom- 
ing the leaflets. "To teach history by the study of original documents," writes one, 
"has been the dream of the best instructors, but this dream may now be realized 
through the inexpensive form in which these originals are presented." " The edu- 
cational world," writes Miss Coman, the professor of history at Wellesley College, 
"is coming to recognize the value of teaching history, even to young people, from 
the original records, rather than from accounts at second or third hand. I rejoice 
thatthese documents have beenmade accessible to the children of our public schools." 
"Wo may talk about such documents all Ave please," says Mr. Huliug, the master of 
the Cambridge High School, "and little good will be done ; but when the pupil reads 
one of these for himself, he is indeed a dull fellow if ho docs not carry aAvay a definite 
impression of its place in history." "I wish," writes Mr. Belheld, the principal of 
the Chicago Manual Training School, who has done more than anybody else to pro- 
mote the Old South movement in the W'est, "that the series could be brought to the 
attention of every school superintenflent, high-school principal, and teacher of United 
States history in the country." "The Old South Leaflets," says Pi'ofessor Folwell, 
the professor of history in the University of Minnesota, "ought to be scattered by 
millions of copies all over our country." 

It is a satisfaction to be able to quote such words from such persons, for they are 
surely a great reenforcement of our commendation of this missionary work iji good 
citizenship to the attention of the country. For that is what the Old South work 
is — a missionary work iu good citizenship — and feeling it to be that, we " commend 
ourselves." We wish that societies of young men and women might be organized in 
a thousand places for historical and political studies, and that our little Old South 
Leaflets might prove of as much service to these as they are proving to our Old 
South audiences and to the schools. 

But the Old South work is not simplj^ a means of doing something for the young 
people of Boston ; it is also a means of getting something from them and settiug 
them to work for themselves. Every year prizes are offered to the gradiiates of the 
Boston high schools, graduates of the current year and the preceding year, for the 
best essays on subjects in American history. Two subjects are proposed each year, 
and two prizes are awarded for each subject, the first prize being $40 and the second 
$25. The subjects are announced in June, just as the schools close, and the essays 
must be submitted in the following January. The prizes are always announced at 
the Washington's birthday celebration, which is one of the events of the Old South 
year. The subjects proposed each year for the essays are always closely related to 
the general subject of the lectures for the year, our aim being to make the entire 
work for the year unified and articulate, each part of it helping the rest. The sub- 
jects for the essays for the present year, when the lectures are devoted to "The 
founders of Nev/ England," are (1) "The relations of the founders of New England 
to the universities of Cambridge and Oxford," (2) "The fundamental orders of Con- 
necticut and their place in the history of written constitutions." 

I think that some of your readers would be surprised at the thoroughness and gen- 
eral excellence of many of these essays written by pupils just out of our high schools. 
The first-i)rize essay for 1881, on "The policy of the early colonists of Massachusetts 
toward Quakers and others whom they regarded as intruders," by Henry L. South- 
wick, and one of the first-prize essays for"l889, on "Washington's interest in educa- 
tion," by Miss Caroline C. Stecker, have been printed, and can be procured at the 
Old South Meeting Hoiise. Another of the prize essays, on "Washington's interest 
in education," by Miss Julia K. Ordway, was published in the New England Maga- 
zine for May, 1890; one of the first-prize essays for 1890, on "Philip, Pontiac, and 
Tecumseh," by Miss Caroline C. Stecker, appeared in the New England Magazine for 
September, 1891; and one of the first-prize essays for 1891, on "Marco Polo's explo- 
rations in Asia and their influence upon Columbus," by Miss Helen P. Margesson, in 
the New England Magazine for August, 1892. The New England Magazine, which is 
devoted preeminently to matters relating to American history and good citizenship, 
has from the time of its founding, five years ago. made itself an organ of the Old 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1315 

Soutli work, publishing many of tlio Old Soutli essays and lectures, and always uotic- 
iu^- in its editor's table everything relating to the progress of the movement. 

The young people who have competed for these Old South prizes are naturally the 
hest students of history in their successive years in the Boston high echools. They 
now number more than 100, and they have recently formed themselves into an Old 
South Historical Society. Many of the Old South essayists have, of course, gone on 
into college, and many are now scattered over the country; but more than half of 
their number, not a few of them teachers in the schools, are to-day within sound of 
the Old South bell, and the quarterly meetings of the little society, which by and by 
will be a big society, are very interesting. There is always some careful historical 
jiaper read by one of the members, and then there is a discussion. We have the 
beginning of a very good library in tlie essayists' room at the Old South, and this we 
hope will grow and that the society's headquarters will by and by become a real 
Beiiiinary. The society is rapidlj' becoming an etiicieut factor in the general Old 
South work. It has recently formed three activi? committees — a lecture committee, 
an e?say committee, and an outlook committee — and its leading spirits are ambitious 
for larger service. The members of the lecture committee assist in the distribution 
of tickets to the schools and in enlisting the interest of young people in the lectures. 
The members of the essay committee similarly devote themselves to enlisting the 
interest of the high schools in the essays. They will also read the essays submitted 
each year, not for the sake of adjudging the award of prizes — that is in other hands — 
but that there may always be in the society scholarly members thoroughly cognizant 
of the character of the work being done and of the varying capacity of the new 
members entering the society. The office of the outlook committee is to keep itself 
informed and to kee^j the society informed of all important eiibrts at home and 
abroad for the historical and political education of young people. It will watch the 
newspapers; it will watch the magazines; it will Avatch the schools. It will report 
anything it linds said about the Old South work and about its extension anywhere. 
At the next meeting I suppose it will tell the society about Mr. Fiske's new school 
history and about any now text-books in civil government which have appeared. I 
hope it will tell how much better most of the series of historical readers published 
in England for the use of the schools are than the similar books which we have in 
America. It is sure to say something about the remarkable growth of the Lyceum 
Leagues among oiir yoiing people lately, and it is sure to report the recent utterances 
of President Clark and other leaders of the Christian Endeavor movement upon the 
importance of rousing a more delinite interest in politics and greater devotion to the 
duties of citizenship among the young people in that great organization. Especially 
will it notice at this time the Historical rilgrimage, that interesting educational 
movesnent which suddenly appeared this summer, full grown — a movement which 
would have enlisted so warmly the sj-mpathies of Mrs. Hcmenway, who felt, as 
almost nobody else ever felt, the immense educational power of historical associa- 
tions. It will tell the society what Mr. Stead lias written aboiit historical pilgrim- 
ages in England, and Mr. Powell and Dr. Shaw in America; it will speak of the 
recent reception of the pilgrims at the Old South; and it may venture the inquiry 
whether the Old South Historical Society might not protitably make itself a center 
for organizing such local i^ilgrimages for the benefit of the young people of Boston — 
pilgrimages, one perhaps each year, to Plymouth and Salem and Lexington and Con- 
cord and old Eutland and Newport and Deerfield and a score of places. That thought, 
I know, is already working in the minds of some of the more enterprising members 
of the society. 

Many societies of young people all over the country might well take up such his- 
torical studies as those in which the Old South Historical Society interests itself. 
They should also interest themselves in studies more directly political and social. 
We have in Boston a Society for Promoting Good Citizenship. This is not a con- 
stituent part of the Old South work ; but it is a society in whose eiibrts some of us 
who have the Old South work at heart are deeply interested, and its lectures are 
given at the Old South Meeting House. Its lectures deal with such subjects as 
qualifications for citizenship, municipal reform, the refornf of the newspaper. Last 
season the lectures vrero upon "A more beautiful public life," the several subjects 
being: "The lessons of the white city," ''Boards of beauty," '-Municipal art," "Art 
in the public schools," "Art museums and the people," and "Boston, the City of 
God." These subjects, and such as these, young men and women might take up in 
their societies, with great benefit to themselves and to their communities. Our young 
people should train themselves also in the organization and procedure of our local 
and general government, as presented in the test-books on civil government, now 
happily becoming so common in the schools. The young men in one of our colleges 
have a House of Commons ; in another college — a young woman's college — they have a 
House of Representatives. Our Old South Historical Society has^talked of organizing 
a town meeting for the discussion of public questions and for scliooling in legislative 
methods. Why should not such town meetings bo common aaioug our young people ? 



1316 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

Why, toO; will not oiir youug people everywhere, as a part of their service for good 
citizenship, engage in a crnsade in behalf of better music? Good music is a great 
educator. Bad music is debilitating and debasing. That was a wise man Avhom old 
Fletcher quotes as saying : " Let me make the songs of a people and I care not Avho 
makes the laws." How many of the young men and women in the high schools have 
read what Plato says about strong, pure music in education, in his book on The 
Laws? Indeed, it is to be feared that not all the teachers have read it. I wish that 
a hundred clubs or classes of young people would read Plato's Laws nest winter, and 
his Republic the next, and then Aristotle's Politics. Do not think they are hard, 
dull books. They are fresh, fascinating books, and seem almost as modern, in all 
their discussions of socialism, education, and the rest, as the last magazine — only 
they are so much better and more fruitful than the magazine ! They make us ashamed 
of ourselves, these great Greek thinkers, their peaching is so much better than our 
practice; but it is a good thing to be made ashamed of ourselves sometimes, and we 
need it very much hero in America in the matter of music. We are suffering in our 
homes, in our schools, in our churches, our theaters, everywhere, from music of the 
trashiest and most Aailgax character. Let us go to school to Plato ; let us go to school 
to Germany and England. We aim to do something in behalf of this reform at the 
Old South. Our large choruses from the public schools at many of our celebrations 
have sung well; but we wish to do a real educational work, not only as touching 
patriotic music strictly, but as touching better music for the people generally. If 
in some future the ghosts of some of the great Greeks stroll into the Old South 
Meeting House we hope they may iind it the center of influences in behalf of pure 
and inspiring music, which shall be as gratifying to them as the devotion to the State 
which has been inculcated there in these years would surely be. 

THE OLD SOUTH LEAFLETS. 

The Old South Leaflets, which have been published during the last thirteen years, 
in connection with these annual courses of historical lectures at the Old South 
Meeting House, have attracted so much attention and proved of so much service, 
that the directors have entered upon the publication of the leaflets for general cir- 
culation, with the needs of schools, colleges, private clubs, and classes especially in 
mind. The leaflets are prepared by Mr. Edwin D. Mead. They are largely repro- 
ductions of important original papers, accompanied by useful historical and biblio- 
graphical notes. They consist, on an average, of 16 pages, and are sold at the low 
price of 5 cents a copy, or $4 per 100. The aim is to bring them within easy reach 
of everybody. The Old South work, founded by Mrs. Mary Hemenway, and still 
sustained by provision of her will, is a work for tlie education of the jseople, and 
especially the education of our young people, in American history and politics; and 
its promoters believe that few things can contribute better to this end than the wide 
circulation of such leaflets as those now undertaken. It is hoped that professors in 
our colleges and teachers every where will welcome them for use in their classes, and 
that they may meet the needs of the societies of young men and women now happily 
being organized in so many places for historical and political studies. Some idea of 
the character of these Old South Leaflets may be gained from the following list of 
the subjects of the first sixty-four numbers, which are now ready. It will bo 
noticed that many of the later numbers are the same as certain numbers in the 
annual series. Since 1890 they are essentially the same, and persons ordering the 
leaflets need simply observe the following numbers: 

No. 1. The Constitution of the United States. No. 2. The Articles of Confedera- 
tion. No. 3. The Declaration of Independence. No. 4. AVashington's Farewell 
Address. No. 5. Magna Charta. No. 6, Vane's "Healing Question." No. 7. Charter 
of Massachusetts Bay, 1629. No. 8. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, 1638. 
No. 9. Franklin's Plan of Union, 1754. No. 10. Washington's Inaugurals. No. 11. 
Lincoln's Inaugurals and Emancipation Proclamation. No. 12. The Federalist, Nos. 
1 and 2. No. 13. The Ordinance of 1787. No. 14. The Constitution of Ohio. No. 
15. Washington's Circular Letter to the Governors of the States, 1783. No. 16. 
Washington's Letter to Benjamin Harrison, 1784. No. 17. Verrazzano's Voyage, 
1524. No. 18. The Constitution of Switzerland. No. 19. The Bill of Rights, 1689. 
No. 20. Coronado's Letter to Mendoza, 1540. No. 21. Eliot's Brief Narrative of the 
Progress of the Gospel among the Indians, 1670. No. 22. Wheelock's Narrative of 
the Rise of the Indian School at Lebanon, Conn., 1762. No. 23. The Petition of 
Rights, 1628. No. 24. The Grand Remonstrance. No. 25. The Scottish National 
Covenants. No. 26. The Agreement of the People. No. 27. The Instrument of 
Government. No. 28. Cromwell's First Speech to his Parliament. No. 29. The Dis- 
covery of America, from the Life of Columbus by his Sou, Ferdinand Columbus. 
No. 30. Strabo's Introduction to Geography. No. 31. The Voyages to Vinland, from 
the Saga of Eric the Red, No. 32. Marco Polo's Account of Japan and Java. No. 33. 
Columbus's Letter to Gabriel Sanchez, describing the First A^oyage and Discovery. 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1317 

No. 34. Amerigo Vespucci's Account of liis First Voj'age. No. 35. Cortes's Account of 
the City of Mexico. No. 36. The Death of Do Soto, from the " Narrative of a Gentle- 
man of Elvas." No. 37. Early Notices of the Voyages of the Cabots. No. 38. Henry 
Lee's Funeral Oration on Washington. No. 39. De Vaca's Account of his .Journey 
to New Mexico, 1535. No. 40. Manassch Cutler's Description of Ohio, 1787. No. 41. 
Washington's Journal of his Tour to the Ohio, 1770. No. 42. (Jarfield's Address 
on the Northwest Territory and the Western Reserve. No. 43. George Rogers Clark's 
Account of the Capture of Vincenues, 1779. No. 44. Jefferson's Life of Captain Meri- 
wether Lewis. No. 45. Fremont's Account of his Ascent of Fremont's Peak. No. 
46. Father Marquette at Chicago, 1673. No. 47. Washington's Account of the Army 
at Cambridge^ 1775. No. 48. Bradford's Memoir of Elder Brewster. No. 49. Brad- 
ford's First Dialogue. No. 50. Winthrop's "Conclusions for the Plantation in New 
England." No. 51. "New England's First'Fruits," 1643. No.5"2. Jolm Eliot's "Indian 
Grammar Begun." No. 53. John Cotton's "God's Promise to his Plantation." No. 54. 
Letters of Roger Williams to Winthrop. No. 55. Thomas Hooker's "Way of the 
Churches of New England." No. 56. The Monroe Doctrine : President Monroe's Mes- 
sage of 1823. No. 57. Tlie English Bible, selections from the various versions. No, 
58. Hooper's Letters to Bullinger. No. 59. Sir John Eliot's "Apology for Socrates." 
No. 60. Ship-money Papers. No. 61. Py.m's Speech against Strafford. No. 62. Crom- 
well's Second Speech. No. 63. Milton's "A Free Commonwealth." No. 64. Sir Henry 
Vane's Defence, 

Title pages covering Nos. 1 to 25 (Vol. I) and 26 to 50 (Vol. II) will be furnished 
to any person buying the entire series and desiring to bind them in volumes. 
Address Directors of Old South Studies, Old South Meeting House, Bosttm. 

WOMi:X AND MEX — THE ASSAULT ON PRIVATE SCHOOLS. 
[Contributed by T. W. Iligginson to Harper's BazaP-T.] 

When Matthew Arnold, who had spent much of his life as an inspector of schools 
came to this country, he found with surprise that our public schools Avero not what 
he had supposed. He had thought them schools to which all classes sent their chil- 
dren; but he found it otherwise. In cities, he said, they seemed to be essentially 
class schools — tliat is, the more prosperous classes avoided them, sending their sons 
rarely to them, their daughters never. What then became of the talk of our orators 
in favor of these schools as the most democratic thing in the whole community? In 
the country it might bo so, but population Avas tending more aiid more to the cities, 
tending away, that is, from the public schools. All the alleged danger to our system 
from religious interference seemed to him trivial compared with this silent social 
interference, which was going on all the time. 

Matthew Arnold was in many ways, for a man so eminent, curiously narrow and 
even whimsical, but his perceptions on this one point were certainly acute. As one 
evidence of it we sec a movement brought forward in the newspapers, from several 
different quarters, to crush this particular evil, by one swefping measure, with the 
absolute prohibition of all private schools. Either abolish them all and force every 
child into the public schools, or else place all private schools under direct public 
supervision and allow at their head o'nly publicly trained teachers. There is little 
chance that any such measure will ever be seriously brought forward. The amount 
already invested in private or endowed schools and colleges — and the ])lan, to be 
consistent, must include colleges — is too immense to allow of its being verj^ strongly 
urged. But it presents some very interesting points and is worth considering. 

To begin with, it has the merit, unlike the attacks on merely denominational 
schools, of being at least logical. Those attacks in some jiarts of our land have 
needed almost no probing to show a hopeless want of logic. They always turned 
out to be aimed, not at denominational schools in themselves, but at some particular 
denomination. At the East this was naturally the Roman Catholic body, and to 
some extent the Episcopalian. In certain Western States it was the Roman Cath- 
olics and Lutherans. But these attempts to prohibit sectarian schools invarial)ly 
fell to pieces when it appeared that most of the opponents had not the slightest 
•ob;ection to denominational schools if they oul^' belonged to the right denomination — 
that is, their own — and only ol)jected to them in the hands of some other religions 
body. The crowning instance of this was when the late Rev. Dr. Miner, an excel- 
lent and leading clergyman of the Universalist order, appeared every winter before 
the Massachusetts legislature to urge the utter prohibition of parorhial schools; and 
yet s])ent one of the last days of his life in giving out diplomas at an academy of 
his own sect, and, moreover, provided for several similar schools in his will. 

Now no such inconsistency stands in the way of those who would prohibit, with- 
out distinction, all denominational and all private schools. Unwise they may be, 
but not illogical. Indeed, the step they propose is only following out consistently 
what the others urged inconsistently. If it is right to coerce one mother, who takes 



1318 EDUCATION EEPORT^ 1894-95. 

lier cliildren from the piiLlic school through anxiety for their souls, we should cer- 
tainly do the same for another, who -svithdraws hers for the sake of their bodies; 
or perhaps, after all, only out of regard for the welfare of their clothes. There are 
several prominent religious bodies which believe that religious education of their 
own Rtamj) is absolutely needful for children. Most of the early public schools in 
this country were on that basis, and began instruction with the New England Primer. 
We may say that this motive is now outgrown; but it is certainly as laudible as 
when a daughter is taken from one school and sent to another, that she may be 
among better- dressed children or make desirable acquaintances. 

Grant these reasons frivolous— and they are not wholly so — there are ample reasons 
why the entire prohibition of private schools would be a calamity to the educational 
world. The reason is that they afford what the public schools rarely can, a place 
where original methods may be tried and indi\idual modes of teaching developed. 
Private schools are the experimental stations for public schools. A great isublic 
school system is a vast machine, and has the merits and defects of machinery. It 
usually surpasses private institutions in method, order, punctuality, accuracy of 
training. It is very desirable that every teacher and every pupil should at some time 
share its training. In these respects it is the regular army besides militia. Butthis 
brings imitations. The French commissioner of education once boasted that in his 
office in Paris he knew with perfect precision just what lesson every class in every 
school in the remotest provinces of France was reciting. We do not reach this, but 
it is of necessity the ideal of every public system. It has great merit, but it kills 
originality. No teacher can ever try an experiment, for that might lose 1 per cent 
in the proi^ortion of the first class able to pass examination at the end of the year. ' 
The teacher is there to do a precise part; no less, no more. Under this disciijline 
great results are often achieved, but they are the results of drill, not of inspiration. 

Accordingly every edacational authority admits that the epoch-making experi- 
ments in education — the improvements of Pestalozzi, Fellenberg, Froebel — were 
made in private, not public schools. Like all other experiments, they were tried at 
the risk of the iuA^entor or his backers, and often to the impoverishment of all con- 
cerned. Mr. A. Bronson Alcott's school was starved out, in Boston, half a century 
ago, and he himself dismissed with pitying laughter. Yet there is no intelligent 
educator who does not now admit the value of his suggestions; and Dr. Harris, the 
national superintendent of education, is his admiring biographer. His first assist- 
ant. Miss Elizabeth Peabody — esteemed throughout her beneticent life a dreamer of 
the dreamers — yet forced upon American educators I'roebel's kindergarten. Ho 
began it with a few peasant children in Germany, and now every city in the United 
States is either adopting or discussing it. In many things the private school leads, 
the public school follows. Every one who writes a schoolbook involving some 
originality of method knows that the private schools will take it up first. If it suc- 
ceeds there, tlie public schools will follow. To abolish or impair these public schools 
would be a crime against the State ; to prohibit private schools an almost equal crime. 
It Avould belike saying that all observatories must be sustained by the State only, and 
that Mr. Percival Lowell should be absolutely prohibited from further cultivating 
his personal intimacy with the planet Mars. 

Humane Education. 

The objection of the American Humane Society, as stated by its president, Georgo 
T. Angeli, 19 Milk street, Boston, is ''to humanely educate the American people for 
the purpose of stopping every form of cruelty, both to human beings and the loAver 
animals." 

For the accomplishment of this worthy purpose it seeks to enlist the aid of public 
and private school teachers, the educational, religious, and secular press, and the 
clergy of all denominations, ^'in order to build up in our colleges, schools, and else- 
where a spirit of chivalry and humanity which shall in coming generations substi- 
tute ballots for bullets, prevent anarchy and crime, protect the defenseless, maintain 
the right, and hasten the coming of peace on earth and good will to every harmless 
living creature, both human and dumb." 

This work of this society should commend itself to all well-disposed persons. 

One phase of the society's activity is its pronounced opposition to the vivisection 
or the indiscriminate dissection of animals in the public schools. It is felt that such 
practices have an unfavorable eifect on young and undeveloped minds — tend to blunt 
the edge of their finer sensibilities. 

The agitation of this subject in Massachusetts led to the enactment of a law in 
1894 prohibiting the vivisection of animals in the public schools, or the exhibiting 
of any animal upon which vivisection had been practiced; also regulating the 
dissection of dead animals. 

The States of Maine and Washington require their teachers to spend at least ten 
minutes each week in teaching kindness to animals. 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1319 

MISSISSIPPI. 

WHY EDUCATE? WHAT IS THE nilLOSOPIlY OF EDUCATION? 

[An address delivered at the second annual oomniencomont of Millsaps College, Jackson, Miss., Juno 
12, 1894, by Hon. William H. Sims, of Mississippi.] 

Gentlemen of the Faculty and Student Body of Millsapa College, Ladies, and Gentlemen: 

My appreciation of tlie honor of occupying this place to-day, in an institution 
■wLose success is very near my heart, will not, I trust, be measured by the modest 
contribution of thought and learning which I am able to bring to this occasion, but 
rather, let me ask, by the willingness I have shown to obey the suuiuions of this 
faculty in coming a thousand miles to discharge a duty which the invitation of a 
Mississippi college imposes upon a Mississippian. 

. In appearing before you in this beautiful new home, the thought very naturally 
arises in my mind, AVhy was this building built? Of course, its dedicatiou to present 
uses aud the fame which has gone abroad concerning its origin would seem suffi- 
ciently to ansAver the in([uiry. And yet, it has occurred to me that it may be useful 
in presenting what I have to say to-day to endeavor to center your attention upon 
what the answer to that question involves. Why was this building built? Do you 
imagine that this inquiry will have more of interest to a beholder of this structure 
a few centuries hence, as perchance he may look upon its venerable walls, stained 
jby the mold and decay of time, when its architectural design may have become 
antiquated and obscured, amid the changeful fashions of later days; when its 
mission, then in jiart fultilled, its history or many of its chapters written, the good 
that it shall have accomplished then made manifest, the seed that shall have been 
winnowed within these walla and distributed to the sowers scattered across the face 
of the land, yielding a fruitage excellent and a harvest abundant? Aud, may I ask, 
is there no good to be gained from such presuppositions? Does the forecasting of the 
possible outcome of a great benefaction to mankind inspire thoughts less of interest 
and of protit than the looking back upon the good already accomplished? Is ib better 
to seek inspiration from the things of the past than from the hopes of the future? 
Is it Ijetter that our oyes bo turned to the setting than the rising sun ; to tho gold- 
crowned summit of Solomon's Temple; to tho land of promise which has been tra- 
versed, or to tho shining pinnacles of glory which gleam ahead beyond tho rugged 
hilltojis and invito to the sun-burst siilendor of the New Jerusalem? 

But think on this as wo may, I invite you back to the question suggested: Why 
was this building built? Did not its founder know before tho work was began why 
it was to be beguu? Did not an intelligent benevolence conceive the object of its 
erection before its foundations were laid? Would the noble benefactor of his day 
aud generation, whose name it bears and without whose munificent generosity its 
existence was not possible, have parted with his great endowment and led others to 
emulate his example without a definite object and what seemed to him a wise end in 
view, carefully and deliberately considered, which lay back of tho giving of tho gifts ? 
Those who know him well and tlioso who know the manner of men from whom largo 
charities habitually come will answer, nay — verily! 

What was that purpose? Why was this biiildiug bnilt? I answer: It was built for 
the noblest of human jiurposes; for the highest earthly object this side of heaven 
for which any building can be built. It was built for a schoolhouse; for a college 
to enlarge tho opportunities of Mississippi boys for high education, for sound, broad, 
conservative mental training, along the Hues of Christian ideals. 

And was this a wise investment of a great sum of money? Let us consider this: 

Why educate? AVhat is the philosophy of education? 

Around these suggestive inquiries I purpose to groui^ the facts and reflections 
which I have collected as ray opportunities permitted to present to you to-day. 

The student of nature and her wonderful methods is continually imi)res8ed by the 
wise adaptation of the means she employs to the ends designed. Throughout all 
th(> vast departments of creation, wherever scientific investigation has been rewarded 
with xlie discovery of what nature intended to eflect in any particular case, this 
perfect adaptation of method to design is to bo found. So certain is the intelligent 
mechanical inventor of tho correctness of nature's plans that when he has been able 
to employ one of her devices in constructing his machine he looks forward to its suc- 
cessful operation with unwavering confidence, because he knows that no better con- 
trivance is possible ; and it may be always assumed that where this law of adaptation 
is not apparent it is not because of its absence but because nature's true purpose has 
not been discovered. 

This prelude, I trust, will acquit me of seeming irreverence when I further say 
that no animal being on earth seems to have been less prepared for his natural envi- 
ronments, according to our knowledge of his introduction on this earth, than man. 



1320 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

From tlio very beginning of his existence on tliis mundane spLere lie lias commenced 
life the most dependent and the most helpless of all the animal kingdom. So far as 
AVG know, no other animal at birth is so poorly equipped for the life thrust upon 
him. The beasts of the field and the fowls of the air were furnished by nature 
with bodies suited to their environments, without need of artificial coverings, while 
man has needed bodily protection from the cradle of his being. All other animals 
except man were endowed at birth with natural instincts so perfectly adapted to 
their necessities that they correctly guided them in their selection and accumula- 
tion of food and the preparation of their several habitations with an exactness that 
left nothing to be desired for their well being. 

Primitive man, however, we are left to suppose, was not so ha^ipily conditioned. 
He was at birth given no unerring inward impulse to safely guide him in the early 
days of his being amid the perils which surrounded him, no instinct to meet the ani- 
mal necessities which soon beset him. Unlike other animals, he had no ready-made 
clothing for his vesture, no ready-made law for the government of his daily life, and 
like the Son of Man himself, when incarnated, "had not where to lay his head," 
though the foxes had holes and the birds of the air had nests. 

It would be a shallow thinker, however, Avho would argue from these premises 
that nature's plummet slipped when man was made and placed on earth amid condi- 
tions unadjusted to his necessities. On the contrary, I maintain that all the grand 
philosophy of man's creation and being turns on this pivotal point. While seem- 
ingly the most helpless and most dependent of mortal beings at the start, and with 
the smallest provision ready-made to supply his animal wants, man was, notwith- 
standing, invested with such potential powers as not only marked him as nature's 
favorite, but as the crowning work of "Nature's God." Other animals, while they 
were under the special guidance of nature's law of instinct, were yet the slaves of 
tiie very laws that guided them and which fixed their conditions as mere animals in 
appointed grooves as long as the species should last ; while man, endowed with mind 
and reason and soul like unto the spiritual image of God himself, possessed powers 
which, though feeble at first, were perforce of man's self-activity to be so developed 
by the friction of his environment and the free direction of his immortal personality 
as to make him the regnant king of all the kingdoms of nature, the Avatar of earth. 

Thus armed with reason and self-determining purpose, unfettered by his Creator, 
man entered upon his career with capacity " to grow in knowledge and Avisdom and 
holiness forever." His civilization is the measure'of his progress toward complete 
(IcA^elopment. His history is the record of his experience along the Avay of that 
progress. The lessons of that experience and the learning and Avisdom he has accu- 
mulated and left to us are man's great educational capital. "As heirs of all tlio ages," 
each is entitled to share in this capital. The business of teaching is to so distribute 
the inheritance to the young heirs who seek it that they may be helped along their 
several Avays of development and progress. The partiality and selfishness, however, 
Avith Avhicii this distribution has been made from remote eras by those Avhom power 
had set in authority is alike interesting and instructive, and the effort of bencA'o- 
lenco in recent times, whether of individuals or of goA^ernment, to ameliorate the 
condition of mankind and work out the problem of man's development has been 
most jirofitably directed to Avideniug the avenues to learning and instruction, so that 
all may seek the portals of their temple with such freedom of thought and action 
as the good of society permits. 

In contemplating the winding stream of educational de\'elopment through the 
long years of recorded history, it is interesting to observe its tortuous course, its 
unequal volume, and the restricted boundaries of its channel, influenced and con- 
trolled, as it has been, by those Avho sliaped the life and destiny of humanity. Sel- 
dom was it permitted to'dash along with the impulse of nature into the cascades 
and waterfalls that set in motion the mills that ground the mental pabulum of the 
poor and lowly ; rarer still to accumulate into great lakes and reservoirs of learning 
about which the multitude could congregate and slake their thirst for knowledge; 
and still rarer did it overflow the barriers made to confine it, and, like the generous 
Nile, spread its beneficent fertilization amid the desert about it, enriching and quick- 
ening the common mind. Its eddies were the whirljiools of fanatical ignorance 
maddened by Avrongs. Its lakes Avere stagnant lagoons of brutish superstition, 
where darkness brooded and the vampire made its home. Its overflows were the 
fiery billows of religious wars consuming the youth and virtue of the nations.^ And 
yet this educational stream even in the ante-Christian period, Avas not Avithout 
instances where it flowed through the untaught masses pure and strong and deep, 
like the Jordan through the body of the Dead Sea. 

Glancing at educational conditions in the Orient, we find that from time immemo- 
rial theyhaA^e been created and maintained by the government, or the ruling classes, 
for the narrowest and most selfish of purposes. It is to be noted, liowcA^er, that far 
back in the centuries, the Chinese Government enforced general education, but of a 
/igid and stereotyped character. Its fimdameutal purpose was obedience to the 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1321 

regnaut autbority ; ita ideal end, to the family. Profound reverence for parents and the 
aged, and a religions homage for the Emperor as the great father of all the families 
of the realm, were absolutely enforced. These, the precepts of their philosophers, 
Confucius and Mencius his "follower eujoined, and the price of disobedience was 
death. 

The Imperial Government was an aristocracy of scbolars, all of its officers, from 
the highest to the lowest, were selected by competitive examinations from among 
those whose minds had been saturated Avith such teachings of reverence and whose 
nieniories were found best stored with the maxims and phrases, to the very letter, of 
the infallible philosophy of their classics. In their Avritten examinations the betrayal 
of any thought of their own, or expression not based upon such authority, was fatal 
to the seeker of official trust. All independence of ideas was suppressed; all indi- 
viduality pruned away by these procrustean methods. And thus the oldest and most 
populous nation of earth for centuries stood in its wooden shoes upon the same 
intellectual dead level, yielding the humblest obeisance to the supreme authority 
of the Empire and to the absolutism of prescribed thought crystallized in the max- 
ims, laws, and standards handed down by their teachers of religion and philosophy. 
Is it wonderful that such education made hundreds of millions of intellectual dwarfs 
and automatons, who, though toilsome, sober, economical, peaceful, and skilled iu 
many arts, have for centuries dwelt in the supreme contentment that they had noth- 
ing more to learn, and that all change was treason to state and religions? 

Passing from China to ancient India, we leave popular education behind us, and 
high mental cultivation for the few and none for the many. Here the Brahmins, by 
a rigid religious tenure, monopolized all education. Impassable boundary lines 
divided society into the distinctive castes of Brahmin, and warrior, and merchant, 
or hand worker and slave. In these several castes they were born and lived and 
died. No interchange of the positions of the social strata was possible under the 
n ystic dominion over mind and soul exercised by the saci'ed Brahmins. As priests 
set apart by their subtle religious philosophy, they were alone permitted to read and 
teach and interpret the books of the Vedas, the fountains of knowledge from Avhich 
all their wisdom came. Hedged about with mystery and the profoundest reverence, 
their mental and moral sway was so absolute, that, although enjoying no official 
authority of state, their decisions of questions brought before them had the force 
and efiect of law. They were regarded so nearly infallible that they could commit 
no crime worthy of corporal punishment. Their exclusive possession of all the real 
learning of the nation invested them with such awe and unquestioned superiority 
as to make it possible for them to maintain their supremo iniluenco over all other 
classes. How this state of things was brought about it is dififlcult to trace; but 
undoubtedly the control of education perpetuated their power. 

For just experience tells in every soil 

That tlioso that think must govern those that toil. 

In Egypt as iu ancient India, the molding of the national education was in the 
hands of a sacerdotal order. The children of the people were the recipients from 
their fathers of crude instruction in reading and Avriting, but the priests, who, 
through their religious potencies, ruled the ruling powers of state, kept within their 
unyielding grasp all superior instruction and dispensed it for their own ends and 
purposes. No development of the masses was possible under such conditions and the 
mysterious sphinx, the sleeping mummy in its staid cerements, and the immobile 
pyramids are just symbols and types of their motionless national life. 

"While>.-the end of education in both ancient India and in Egypt was to subordinate 
the toiling millions to the absolute control and dominion of the priests, the educa- 
tional purpose of the ancient Persians was to make soldiers. The State drew to itself 
all individual life for that object. The boy was born and trained and died not to 
achieve his own destiny, not to advance his own status or that of his family, but 
that he might efficiently serve the government in its armies. In short, no account 
was taken of the individuality of the citizen, his rights, his preferences, his tastes, 
his talents. Ho was a mere atom, whose existence was merged into the army of a 
Xerxes for the benefit of his kingdom. This wo observe to be the operative principle 
underlyiug all oriental education. The tyranny of some power whether of caste 
among the Hindoos or of priests among the Egyptians and, wo may add, among the 
ancient .lews or of government among the Chinese and the Persians, so proscribed 
the intellectual development of the people that it was everywhere more than ignored ; 
it was repressed and molded by the ruling of the sacerdotal classes to their own 
ends and uses. 

In striking contrast to the foregoing, Sparta excepted, was the philosophical aim 
of education among the Greeks, among whom " we liud the most splendid types of 
intellectual culture the world has yetknown." The education of the Spartans, as 
of the Persians, was the education of the State, by the State, and for the State, to 
make the most perfect human lighting machines which breeding and selection and 

ED 95 42* 



1322 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

ligid discipline conld accomplisli with ii hand of iron. Perhaps the human animal was 
never before or since so systematically and perfectly developed in arace. The healthy 
child was taken, the weakling was cast to the wild Leasts of the forests. The chosen 
one Avas left in the care of the mother Avho gave her maternal service strictly to the 
purpose of this training. At 7 the boy went from her bosom to the bosom of the com- 
monwealth, to be the mother's boy no longer. He was put in charge of a special magis- 
trate as his trainer, by whom ho was schooled in hardships and developed in strength 
and cunning and courage through years of assiduous attention. His sinews became 
as steel, his limbs practiced to fatigue and endurance, his art with arms perfect, his 
will obedient to the discipline of war, his eye true, his spirit daring and audacious and 
unconquerable. Of such were the three hundred who died with Leonidas at Ther- 
moi)yhe, and these were only the types of eight thousand comrades in arms, every one 
of whom would have done the same thing. 

In another part of Greece, however, alongside of the Spartan, there grew up at 
Athens a system of education of broader scope and more ennobling purpose. With 
equal devotion to the supremacy of the state and her need for invincible soldiers, the 
Athenian conception was to so educate her free-born citizens by promoting and 
developing rather than by restraining and cramping their individuality of character 
that they might not only be soldiers, but far more. The aim was to accomplish 
them not only for war but for the civic pursuits of peace. Not by the authority of 
law, as at Sparta, but by the force of public opinion. Not for the sole use and 
benefit of the body politic, but for the development and exaltation of the citizen first 
and the glory of Athens afterwards. The fruits of this conceiitiou were educational 
results never before equaled and perhaps never since surpassed. The harmonious 
training of mind and body were supplemeuted by an aisthetic culture. Their ideals, 
though not heaven sent and though not inspired by the contemplation of the Son 
of Righteousness, were born of a reverent love of goodness and beauty Avith which 
they had invested the most perfect of their mythological deities. Their unfettered 
freedom of thought shone through the marble drapery of their statues, and the soul 
of immortal longings inspired their cauA^as, while grace and lofty daring sat upon 
their persons and declared a character that despised all that was mean and ignoble. 
The result of Grecian education and culture did not end with her citizens. It was 
embalmed in her literature, and whispers its lessons of truth and beauty to-day 
through the galleries and labyrinths of the mind of cA^ery student and scholar Avhom 
its language has reached. It has clung to the A^ery words of that language, audits airy 
grace has given it the Avings of the thistle down and disseminated it all over the 
earth. 

Further toward the setting sun, on shores AA-ashed by the same Mediterranean 
Sea that embraced the Peninsula of Hellas, arose a later ciAdlization under the 
dominion and influence of Rome. This ciA'ilization, by reason of a A'alor, nursed by 
a stern spirit of independence and a patriotism born of the robust A'irtues of her 
people in the eaidy days of the Republic had extended her empire across a populous 
region 3,000 miles in length by 2,000 in breadth. The genius of her people was con- 
quest and theit education was for that purpose, and to make the self-respecting 
freeman Avhose pi'oudest boast was that ho Avas a Roman citizen. Over his free 
spirit, however, the State exercised no educational coercion, but alike as at Athens, 
the sway of public opinion was the moulding factor of his culture, and the love 
of country the high incentive. His indomitable will did not expend its energies, as 
did the Greeks, in interpreting and subduing nature, but in conquering provinces; 
not in creating ideals after the gods of Olympus, but in marshaling legions on the 
field of Mars. War he considered the chief business of his life, and education in 
letters he ranked as a pastime. EA^en his language itself embodied this spirit of 
his liA'ing, since exercitus (the army) meant business, and Indus (the school) meant 
diversion. 

■ Unlike the Grecian, the real and the practical, rather than the speculatiA^e and the 
aesthetic employed his thoughts, .and while Rome was 8i:)eading her eagles of con- 
quest from the Thames to the Euphrates, her internal improA^ement in material pros- 
perity, her wealth, her institutions, her -laws, her public works, alike attested the 
greatness of her utilitarian education. And this continued her distinctive charac- 
teristic even after the cultured captives that returned with her A-ictorious columns 
from Grecian conquest, introduced into Rome the refinements and subtleties of the 
Athenian schools of thought, and filled her Forum with the discussions of sophists 
and philosophers. Thus leading uf» to and into the Christian era, the sturdy char- 
acter of Roman education in its trueness and depth and practical purpose resembled 
the modern Christian education. The Greeks formed intellectual and resthetic 
ideals and standards. The Romans formed physical or practical ideals and stand- 
ards. The Cliristians formed ethical or moral ideals and standards. 

In this partial though somewhat tedious rcAdew of the scope and purpose of educa- 
tion, as illustrated in the typical civilizations of history, it is perhaps more clearly 
revealed to us why the ancients did not educate than why they did educate. We 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1323 

liave seen that tlie personal and. individual development of the people was of small 
concern to the ruling powers and was seldom the end aimed at. Indeed, with the 
sinji'le exception of China, popular education, as we now use that term, had no 
national existence, nor did it prevail anywhere until modern times. Wo need not 
look far to discover a reason for this, especially when wo consider that for centuries 
as small account was taken of the right of the people to individual liberty as to 
individual education. Knowledge then, as in later days, was regarded as a i)ower, 
and it was truly conceived that the ignorant masses could he more easily kept in 
subjection to the rule of absolutism thau a body of intelligent citizens. Absolute 
governments had no place for educated subjects except in numbers limited to the 
necessities of enforcing authority. The province of the subject was to toil and 
to obey. Even in the case of general education in China, to which wo have referred, 
the system of education was so ingeniously guarded in its philosophical conception 
and application that it subserved rather than violated the principle of subjection; 
for, as remarked by that great scholar and philosopher. Dr. W. T. Harris, of oiu- 
National Bureau of Educatiou, concerning this Chinese system: ''It is one of the 
most interesting devices in the history of educatiou — a method of educating a peo- 
ple on such a plan that the more education the scholar gets the more conservative 
he becomes." 

The thought occurs here, would not such a system as the Chinese be serviceable 
to-day in the regulation of the now world-wide disturbers of social order, the 
anarchists, the socialists, and their kindred brood ? I answer, that only under Chinese 
conditions of liberty would such education be practicable, and under no conditions 
of liberty acceptable to modern civilized manhood could it possibly bo enforced. 
The world, in its ideas of freedom of thought and of action, has moved far away 
from such tyranny in governments. The divine right of kings or of oligarchies has 
no footing in Western civilization. It has cost hecatombs of human lives and seas 
of blood to reach our present estate of human freedom. But the socalist and 
anarcliist can not permanently harm American institutions and organized society. 
Those who have so apprehended have not carefully considered the basis of their 
fears. The nihilistic agitations in Europe will doubtless operate to sweep away 
some of the remains of the feudal fetters imposed on liberty of living, but this 
''goverment of the people, for the people, and by the people" has nothing to fear 
from such agitations. The social vagaries and economic delusions which are 
preached to the unemployed wage worker to ferment society will have local expres- 
sion in sporadic violence, but the disturbances can not, in our day and generation, 
mount up to the proportions of revolution. The anarchists submit no propositions 
which can engage such general local interests as to array State against State or 
section against section— as in the late civil war; and as long as State autonomy 
remaius to us, the State governments can take care of their internal disturbances, 
especially when backed by the power of the General Government. Until the great 
body of the people lose their balance and common sense, they may be safely trusted 
to adhere to the tradition that any government is better than no government at all. 

But even the sovereign authority of the people, with which the States and General 
Government have been invested, will not long have to contend with anarchistic ele- 
ments which have come to us from abroad under the false pretense of enjoying aud 
upholding our established institutions of freedom, if we so legislate as to stop the 
crevices in our naturalization laws, through which the wild, uutrained, fanatical 
representatives of European red republicanism tiud entrance into our body politic. 
And, again, we may hope to increase the volume of our now mighty current of ])opular 
education until every precinct in every county in every State shall have the full 
benefit of its quickening and enlightening inlluence, and until every child in all the 
land, native and foreign, white and black, Indian and Chinaman, shall be possessed 
of the modern trivium of education, "the three R's,"the three keys to knowledge, with 
which he can gain access to the immense treasury of learning which the centuries 
have piled up for us, and to which they have fallen heirs. This accomplished, and 
the ])lea of the anarchist will find few sympathizers among our people. It is not too 
much education that makes the vicious, but the lack of it. The anarchist here with 
us is not too much educated; as may be supposed, he is too badly educated or too 
wrongly trained and educated by the factors of the environment from which he came 
to us to be adjusted into any niche of American freedom. We may not be able to 
educate and assimilate into good citizenship all the Herr Mosts and vicious cranks 
that Europe can empty upon us, but we can restrain their coming and so educate 
the children of those already hero as to make them cohelpers in good government. 

We are told in the Greek reader that Aristotle, when asked in what way the edu- 
cated ditfered from the uneducated, replied, "As the living differ from the dead." 
Compare the lowest type of the barbarian with the highest type of the Greek in Aris- 
totle's day (and the comparison is just as good in ours) and you can appreciate the 
force of this remark. 

Carlyle, the great Scotchman, said: "An educated man stands as it were in the 



1324 - EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

f. 

midst of a boundless arsenal and magazine filled witli all the "weapons and engines 
Trhicb man's skill lias been able to devise from the earliest time, and bo works 
accordingly with the strength borrowed from all the ages. How different is his 
state who stands on the ontside of the storehouse and feels that its gates must bo 
stormed or remain forever shut against him? His means are the commonest; the 
work done is in no measure of his strength. A dwarf behind his steam engine may 
remove mountains, but no dwarf will hew them down with his pickaxe, and he must 
be a Titan that hurls them abroad with his arms." 

These illustrations from two great thinkers, who spoke more than two thousand 
years apart, each standing upon the very apex of culture of his day and time, do 
not contrast too strongly the conditions referred to. In both the wholly uneducated 
is set over against the fully educated man; the savage against the scientist and the 
scholar. The distance between them is measureless, and we can not say that the chasm 
will ever bo bridged. Leaving aside the consideration of racial inequalities, about 
which there is now little dispute, the natural mental inequalities of men must long 
postpone, if it overreaches this consummation. The leveling process must encoun- 
ter obstructions by this inequality which is one of natures unwritten laws. This 
inequality is the nnescapable consequences of action — the necessary predicate of 
human progress. In this progression the individual speed is unequal ; all can not be 
in the front line. Few can be abreast with NeAvton or Bacon or Gladstone. That 
education, however, under conditions seldom favorable, has raised the general aver- 
ago of mankind from century to century, the history of civilization attests, and this 
progress of civilization is but the progress of education. 

A learned English scholar recently wrote concerning the history of education : 
"It would comprehend the transforming of crude nature of the savage man, which 
chiefly concerns itself with mere animal wants and desires, into the higher nature 
of a being who looks behind to gather the fruits of experience; who looks before to 
utilize them for the boneiit of those who are to succeed him, who explores the 
remote and the distant as Avell as the near, who reflects and thinks Avith the A'ioAv to 
the general good of the commonwealth, and this, Avhile it is the problem of civiliza- 
tion, is also tho problem of education." 

But, let mo ask, what is the modern conception of education? What is education 
in its true intent and meaning — not in the widest amplitude with which it may be 
regarded, but in the sense it is accepted in tho schools? Considered in the light of 
its derivatiA'e Latin synonym, i^Zj^cerc, it means to lead forth, to unfold thei^owers 
of the miud. And while it ineaus this, it is obvious that it means far more than this. 
Tho unfolding of the powers of the mind, I conceive, might be accomplished by an 
artificial system of mental gymnastics, Avithout acquiring any useful knowledge and 
Avithout being provided with any of the instruments of self-teaching, the arts of 
reading and Avriting. Those instruments must in themselA'^es constitute the most 
important part of education, and, as we are told by a philosophic writer : '•' The child 
may learn to read and Avrite, and by it learn the experience of the race through 
countless ages of existence. He may by scientific books see the world through tho 
senses of myriads of trained specialists devoting Avhole lives to the inventory of 
nature. What is immensely more than this, he can think with their brains and 
assist his feeble powers of obserA^ation and reflection by the gigantic aggregate of 
the mental labors of tlie race." 

And so it is that education does not merely contemplate the unfolding of the 
mental powers, but demands moreover that such process of unfolding shall bring to 
the mind of the pupil the largest amount of important and useful knowledge. Just 
here however, let me say, that I do not rashly A'enture in this presence to assume the 
educator's task of suggesting hoAv to educe or unfold the powers of tho mind, or what 
material should be put before the mind in its progress toAvard deA^elopment, to enable 
it to reach the full measure of education. The first should be determined by the 
teacher, as he looks into the face, and studies the capacity of each pupil. Tho latter 
is appointed after wise consideration in the curriculum chosen by CA^ery school of high 
education. As all nature is a schoolhouse for him Avho seeks education, and all his- 
tory, Avith its " philosophy teaching by examples," is his text-book, so all thought is 
an educational factor. There are many roads to knowledge, but only one to educa- 
tion, and that is through the gateway of self-help, which the earnest seeker of edu- 
cation afibrds to his oavu mind. Indeed, it has been wisely said that there is no real 
education that is not self-education. Whatever of knowledge is assimilated and 
appropriated, becomes education. It is the exercise of man's self activity at last 
that sets in motion his powers of observation; the orderly classification of the 
things observed; the determination of the scientific principles underlying these 
classes, and the great philosophical unity that unites all tho sciences, and links man 
to The Great First Cause; this, I take it, to bo in its last analysis, the true philosophy 
of education. 

The greatest teacher can do little more than lift the latch and point the way. 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1325 
PENNSYLVANIA. 

THE PUBLIC EDUCATIOX ASSOCIATION OF rillLADELPniA. 

[From a paiiiiililet by Lewis K. Harley, Pli. U.] 

The dcsirfibility of improvine; the school system of Philadelphia has gircu rise to 
a iiniiiber of voluntary associations, which have been actively engaged for several 
years in urging reforms and iiromoting the development of the schools in various 
ways. Among the UKJSt active of these organizations has been the Public Education 
Association of Philadelphia, fouuded in 1881. 

This association, like some of its predecessors, grew out of charity work. Its source 
was the Committee on the Care and Education of Dependent Children of the Society 
for Organizing Charity. 

It is the object of this association to promote the efliciency and to perfect the sys- 
tem of public education in Philadelphia, by which term is meant all education 
emanating from, or in any way controlled by, the State. They purpose to acquaint 
themselves with the best results of experience and thought in education, and to 
render these familiar to the community and to their oilicial representatives, that 
these may be embodied in our own publ c-school system. They seek to become a 
center for work and a medium for the expression of opinion in all matters pertaining 
to education, as, for instance, the appointment of superintendents; the compilation 
of school laws; the kindergarten in connection with public education; manual 
instruction — how much is desirable, and what it is practicable to introduce into the 
public-school system; the hygiene of schools; the adequate pay and the better qual- 
ification of teachers; and, above all, to secure, as far as possible, universal educa- 
tion, by bringing under instruction that large class, numbering not less than 22,000 
children, who are now growing up in ignorance in this city. 

These objects the association hope to attain through appeals to the local authori- 
ties and to the legislature, and by such other means as may be deemed expedient. 

The officers of the association in 1895 were Edmund J. James, chairman; Miss E. 
W. Janney, treasurer; William W. Wiltbank, recording secretary. ; 

The Public Education Association has had a busy career of lifteen years. It has 
been a constructive period in educational work in I'hiladelphia, and the association 
has seen the following results accomplished: 

I. The institution of the department of superintendence, with the increase of 
force by which the efficiency of this department has been largely augmented and. 
thoroughly organized. 

II. The selection of a superintendent. 

III. The introduction of sewing into the curriculum of the Normal School, and 
its more recent introduction, based upon the success of the earlier experiment, into 
the lower grades of schools, by which 25,000 girls were, in 1887, receiving regular, 
systematic instruction in needlework. 

IV. The universal acknowledgment that the most complete and satisfactory exhi- 
bition of this work ever made in the country was the exhibit of the sewing done in 
the public schools of Philadelphia made in the spring of 1883, at the Industrial 
Exhibition at New York. 

V. The institution of the Manual Training School, 

VI. The reorganization of the schools under supervising principals. 

VII. The introduction of cooking classes in the Normal School. 

VIII. The exhibition of school work in Horticultural Hall. 

IX. The assumption by the board of education of the kindergarten schools, 

X. The establishment of the chair of pedagogy in the University of Pennsylvania. 
XL The lectures in pedagogy in the Summer School of the Extension Society. 

XII. The separation of the girls' high and normal schools and the material improve- 
ment of the courses in the former. 

XIII. The passage of the compulsory school law. 

The association encouraged and assisted all of these movements; it initiated and 
completed some of them. There arc still other tasks for the association. The new 
compulsory school law will render a school census necessary. The school accommo- 
dations of the city will be inadequate to meet the requirements of the law, and the 
enforcement of the law itself will depend upon public sentiment. In all these mat- 
ters the society can be of assistance. 

The department of education should be reorganized. The association has already 
made strenuous eti'orts to have the sectional boards abolished, and it seemed at 
times as if the measure would pass the legislature. The agitation should be con- 
tinued until the department of education is placed beyond the reach of politics. 
The administration of the city schools should be committed to a single body. These 
arc some of the subjects which should receive the attention of the association. The 



1326 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1894-95. 

"work of the Public Education Association is not completed. The educational wel- 
fare of so largo a municipality as Philadelphia "will require the continued aid of 
this influential organization, "which in the past has accomplished so much for the 
advancement of the schools. 

SOUTH CAEOLINA. 

I Address delivered December 13, 1891, by Hon. J. L. M. Curry, in response to an inYitation of the general 

assembly of South Carolina.'] 

Senators and Eepresentatives : It has been said that among the best gifts of 
Providence to a nation are great and good men, "who act as its leaders and guides, 
•who leave their mark upon their ago, "who give a new direction to affairs, who intro- 
duce a course of events which come down from generation to generation, pouring 
their blessings upon mankind. Public men are the character and conscience of a 
people. Respect for the worth of men and a\ omen is the measure of progress in 
civilization. On the 16th of November, 1894, passed away one of America's purest 
and noblest men, one of the last links which bound the present with the better days 
of the Republic. For South Carolina he cherished a great aifection, and sought to 
rekindle and keep alive the memories and fraternity of the Revolutionary period, 
when Massachusetts and South Carolina were struggling together for the establish- 
ment of our free institutions. Deeply touched and very grateful was he that South 
Carolina honored him so highly, by attaching his name in perpetuity to one of her 
most benelicent institutions of learning. The watchward of his life was the wor- 
ship of truth and devotion to the Union. He saw clearly that "whoever "O'ould 
work toward national unity must work on educational lines." Wo may well pause 
to drop a tear over the grave of author, orator, philanthropist, patriot, statesman. 
Christian gentleman. GoA^ernor Tillman said last May, at the laying of the corner 
stone of the college at Rock Hill: "On one thing the people of South Carolina are 
certainly agreed — in their love for Robert C. Winthrop and the new college that 
bears his name.^' 

I have said that he was a Christian statesman. Christianity and democracy have 
revolutionized the ideas and institutions of the world in reference to man^ his rights, 
l^rivileges, and duties. The arrival of democracy, says Benjamin Kid, is the fact 
of our time which overshadows all other facts, and this arrival is the result of the 
ethical moA^ement in which qualities and attributes find the completest expression 
ever reached in the history of the human race. Kings and clergy, as having superior 
access to God and command of the.Divine prerogatives, have been relegated to the 
background. Man's attainment to an enjoyment of privileges and possibilities 
depends on the development of latent, original, God-given powers. Families, 
churches, and States recognize and provide for the unfolding of these capacities. 
"Education, a debt due from present to future generations," was the idea and 
motive which permeated Mr. Peabody's munificence, and the sentiment is the legend 
for the official seal of the Peabody Education Fund. Free schools for the whole 
people should bo the motive and aim of every enlightened legislator. South Caro- 
lina incorporates the duty into her organic law. There can be no more legitimate 
tax on property than furnishing the means of universal education, for this involA^es 
self-preservation. The great mass of the people are doomed inevitably to ignorance, 
unless the State undertake their improvement. Our highest material, moral, and 
political interests need all the capabilities of all the citizens, and then there will bo 
none too much to meet life's responsibilities and duties. As the people are sovereign, 
free schools are needed for all of them. Wo recognize no such class as an elect few. 
It is desirable that citizens should read the laws they are to obey. A governor onco 
put his edicts above the heads of the people ; we sometimes, jiractically, do the same 
by keeping the people in ignorance. When all must make laws as well as obey, it 
is essential that they should be educated. The more generally diftused the educa- 
tion the better the laws; the better are they understood and the better obeyed. 
The highest civilization demands intelligent understanding of the laws and prompt, 
patriotic, cheerful obedience. 

1 Extract from the journal of the house of representatives of the State of South Carolina, Thursday, 
December 13,1894: 

JOINT ASSEMBLY. 

The senate attended in the house at 11 a. m. to hear the address of the Hon. J. L. M.' Curry. 

The president of the senate presented Senator Tillman, "who introduced the Hon. J. L. M. Cnrry, 
■who entertained the general assembly for some time in an eloquent and able address on education. 

Mr. Manning ofFered the following resolution : 

"Resolved, That the gener.il assembly of South Carolina has hoard "with pleasure and the deepest 
interest the eloquent and instructive address of the Hon. J . L. M. Cnrry, and the heartfelt thanks of 
this body are hereby extended to him for his address, and we wish to assure him that his -words on 
behalf of the advancement of the educational interests of tlie State have fallen on ears that are alive 
to those interests, and that "we hope for the best results upon the educational institutions of the 
State." 

Which was considered immediately and unanimously adopted. 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1327 

When scliools are established, what will pcriect them? Tho first iicod is snificieiit 
money, to bo attained thronch State and lot-al revenues. In no instance should this 
money bo appropriated for sectarian purposes. In England, since tho free education 
act, there has been a determined eilbrt to quarter denominational schools upon tho 
rates. In tho United States a persistent effort is made to subsidize from fjeneral 
revenues certain sectarian schools in States and among tho Indians. During tlio 
nine years — 1886-1894 — our Government gave for education of the Indians $4,277,910, 
and of this appropriation one church received $2,738,571. The remainder was dis- 
tributed among fifteen various schools and organizations. Another re(iuirenient is 
efficient local and State supervision, divorced from party politics, aud controlled by 
civil service principles. If education bo of universal aud vital concern, it needs for 
its administration tho highest capacity. Tho system of common schools reached its 
preeminent usefulness in Massachusetts under the administration of such remarka- 
ble men as Maun, Sears, and Dickinson. Pupils should be graded so as to economize 
time, utilize teaching talent, and secure systematic progress. At last, all depends on 
good teaching, and children, ivith all their possibilities, deserve tlie best. There is 
often a criminal waste of time, talent, opportuniti(^s, and money, because of incom- 
petent teachers. There is so.uetimes a distressingly small return for mony and labor 
expended upon schools. It is not well-organized school systems, nor excellent text- 
books, nor systematic courses of study, nor wise supervision, however important, 
that make the good school. It is tho teacher, not mechanical in method and the 
slave of some superficial notion of tho object and tho process of the work, but a 
thorough master of the profession, widely knowledged and cultured, able to interest 
the pupils, to develoj) the highest power and efiicieucy. A good teacher will make 
a good school in spite of a thousand hindrances. One able to awaken sluggisli intel- 
lect, give a mental impulse running through after life, who understands child nature, 
tho laws of mental acquisition and development, whose mind has been expanded 
and enriched by a liberal education, who has accurate scholarship and a lov(^ for 
sound learning, who can awaken enthusiasm, mould character, develop by healthful 
aspirations, inspire to do dutj' faithl'ully, will have a good school. Andrew D. White 
called Dr. Wayland tho greaiest man who over stood in tho college presidency, and 
such men as Mark Hopkins, j\I. 15. Anderson, Drs. McGuffey and Broadus show tho 
value of high qualiiications in teachers. In our public schools are thousands of 
men and women, doing heroic work, noiselessly and without ostentation, who deserve 
all tho praise which is lavislicd u])on less useful laborers in other departments. Aa 
tho State has undertaken tho work of education, it is under highest obligations to 
have tho best schools, which means tho best teachers. 

How shall South Carolina meet theso imperative obligations"? Your schools aver- 
age four and seventh-tenths months, but no school should have a terra shorter tlian 
eight months, and tho teachers, well paid, should be selected impartially, after 
thorough and honest examination. All should have unquestioned moral character, 
sobriety, aptitude for the work, desire and ability to improve. It has been suggested 
that if only one law were Avritten abovo tho door of every American schoolroom, it 
ought to be. No man or woman shall enter hero as teacher whoso life is not a good 
model for tho young to copy. Tho experience of most enlightened countries lias 
shown that theso teachers should be trained in normal schools; and by normal 
schools I do not mean an academy with deceptive name and catalogue, and the 
slightest infusion of pedagogic Avork. Teaching is an art, based on rationally 
determined principles. The child grows and runs up tho psychic scale in a certain 
order. The mind has laws, aud there is no true discipline except in conformity to 
and application of theso laws. Accjuaiutanco with and application of these laws 
come not by nature, not spontaneously, but by study and practice. The real teacher 
should be familiar with tho history, the philosophy, and the methods of education. 
He will best acquire and accomplish the technical and professional work if ho have 
a well-balanced mind, lino tastes, and "tho faculty of judgment, strengthened by 
tho mastery of principles, more than by the acquisition of information." We have 
professional schools for the lawyer, tho doctor, the engineer; why not for the 
teacher? His ability to teach should not be picked up at haphazard, by painful 
experience, and with the sacrifice of the children. A signboard near my residence 
reads, "Horses shod according to humane principles of equine nature." It conveys 
a. true principle and suggests that children should be instructed according to the true 
principles of mental science. 

- President Eliot, in one of his excellent papers, enunciates six essential constituents 
of all worthy education. 

(rt) Training tho organs of sense. Through accurate observation we get all kinds 
of knowledge aud experience. Tho child sees the forms of letters, hears the sound 
of letters and Avords, and discriminates between hot and cold, black and white, etc. 
All ordinary knowledge for practical purposes, and language as well, are derived 
mainly through tho senses. 

{h) Practice in comparing and grouping different sensatiousand drawing inferences. 



1328 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

(c) Accurate record in memory or iu written form. 

(fZ) Training the memory ;. and practice in holding in the mind the record of observa- 
tions, groupings, and comparisons, 

(e) Training iu the poAver of expression, in clear, concise exposition; logical set- 
ting forth of a process of reasoning. 

(/■) Inculcation of the supreme ideals through which the human race is uplifted 
and ennobled. Before the pupil should be put the loftiest ideals of beauty, honor, 
patriotism, duty, obedience, love. 

Teachers are greatly helped by teachers' institutes, when those who assemble get 
the wisdom and experience of many minds on the difficult problems of the profession. 
The work should bo practical, systematic, logical, continuous from year to year, and 
a course of professional reading should bo prescribed, so as to increase tlie intelli- 
gence and culture of the profession. 

Wo very often lose sight of the true end of education — it is, or should bo, eifective 
j)ower in action, doing what the uneducated can not do, putting acquisition into 
practice, developing and strengthening faculties for real everyday life. The only 
sure test is the ability to do more and better work than could bo done without it. 
The average man or woman Avith it should be stronger, more successful, more useful, 
than the average man or woman without it. Ifc is the human being with an increase 
of power which makes one more tlian equal to a mere man. It is not so much what 
is imparted, but what is inwrought; not what is put in, but what is got out. It is not 
so much w^hat we know as what wo are and can do for in-oductive ends. The object 
of Christianity is to make good men and good women hero on earth. The object of 
education is to make useful men and women, good citizens. And here comes in the 
need of manual training, which is not to fit for special trades, but to teach the rudi- 
ments of mechanics, those common principles which imderlio all work. The pujiil 
can acquire manual dexterity, familiarize himself with tools and materials, be 
instructed in the science Avithout a knowledge of which good work can not be done. 
The object of this industrial instruction is to develop the executive side of nature, 
so that the pupil shall do as well as think. This introduction of manual training 
into schools has been found to be very helpful to intellectual progress. Gentlemen 
need not reject it as something chimerical and Utopian ; it is not an innovation; the 
experiment is not doubtful; it has been tried repeatedly; it is comparatively inex- 
pensive, and has been and is now in very successful operation. It is not wise state- 
manship, nor even good common sense, to forego for many years what other peoples 
are now enjoying the advantages of. In a quarter of a century trade schools, techni- 
cal schools, manual training, the kindergarten, will have nearly universal adoption. 
Why, during this period, should a State rob her children of these immense benefits? 

As population increases the struggle to maintain wages becomes more scA'cre, the 
pressure being the hardest upon the unskilled, and less severe on each higher rank 
of laborers. Every possible facility for education, should be put Avithin the reach of 
laboring men, to increase their efficiency, to raise the standard of life, and to augment 
the proportion between the skilled and the unskilled. Dr. Harris, our wisest and 
most nhilosophical educator, says: "Education emancipates the laborer from the 
deadening effects of repetition and habit, the monotony of mere mechanical toil, and 
opens to him a Aista of now inventions and more useful combinations." Our indus- 
trial ago increases the demand for educated, directive power. Business combinations, 
companies for trade, transportation, iusurance, banking, manufacturing, and mining, 
demand, as essential conditions of success, intelligent clirectiAe power. Production 
is augmented by skill. An indispensable condition of economic prosperity is a large 
per capita production of wealth. Socialism, as taught by some extremists, Avonld 
sacrifice production to accomplish distribution, and means annihilation of private 
capital, management by the State of all industries, of production and distribution, 
Avhen GoA-ernment would be the solo farmer, common carrier, banker, manufacturer, 
storekeeper, and all these would be turned into civil serA'ants, and bo under the con- 
trol and in the pay of the State, or of a party. 

States may have ideals as Avell as indiA'iduals, and embody the noblest elements of 
advanced civilization. Agriculture, manufactures, mining, mechanical arts, give 
prosperity Avhen allied with and controlled by thrift, skill, intelligence, and honesty; 
but Avhat is imperishable is the growth and product of developed mind. Greece and 
Rome live in their buildings, statuary, history, orators, and poems. Pliny said : "To 
enlarge the bounds of Roman thought is nobler than to extend the limits of Roman 
poAvcr." The founders of the great English uniA^ersities centuries ago builded Aviser 
than they knew, and opened perennial fountains of knowledge and truth from which 
have unceasingly lloAved fructifying streams. All modern material improvements 
are the outgrowth of scientific principles applied to practical life. If you would 
legislate for the increased prosperity and glory of South Carolina, be sure not to 
forget that this is the outcome of the infinite capacities of children. Hamilton said 
there was nothing great iu the universe but man, and nothing great in man but 



EDUCATION IN THE SEVERAL STATES. 1329 

miud. "No serious thinker," says Dnimnioud, "cuu succeeil in lessening to liis own 
mind the infinite distance between the mind of man and ev('i\\ tiling in nature." Fisk 
says: " On eartli there will never he a higher creation than man." Evolutionists 
Kay that the series of animals comes to an end in man, that he is at once tho crown 
and master and the rationale of creation. What yon know and admire in South 
Carolina is what has hecn done by cultivated men and women. What other country 
can show such a roll of immortal worthies aa your Pinckneys and Rutledgos, your 
Marion, Sumter, and Pickens, your Harper, Johnson, O'Neill, your Fuller and Thorn- 
well, your McDuffie and Hayue, Legare and Petigru, and, towering above all contem- 
poraries, peerless in political wisdom, metaphysical subtlety, ignited logic, the great 
unrivaled American Aristotle, John C. Calhoun? 



CHAPTER XXXL 
EDUCATIOi^ OF THE COLORED RACE. 



Eeferenccs to preceding reports of the United States Bureau of Education, in wliicli 
this Riibje'jt has been treated : In annual reports — 1870^ pp. 61, 337-339; 1871, pp. 
6, 7, 61-70; 1872, pp. xvii, xviii; 1873, p. Ixvi; 1875, p. xxiii; 1876, p. xvi; 1877, 
pp. xxxiii-xxxviii; 1878, pp. xxviii-xxxiv; 1879, pp. xxxix-xiv; 1880, p. Iviii; 
1881, p. Ixxxii; 1882-83, pp. liv, xlviii-lvi, xlix, 85; 1883-84, p. liv; 1884-85, p. 
Ixvii; 1885-86, pp. 596, 650-656; 1886-87, pp. 790, 874-881; 1887-88; pp. 20, 21, 167, 
169,988-998; 1888-89, pp. 768, 1412-1439; 1889-90, pp.620, 621,624,634.1073-1102, 
1388-1392,1395-1485; 1890-91, pp. 620,624,792,808,91.5,861-980,1469; 1891-92, pp. 
8, 686, 688, 713. 861-867, 1002, 1234-1237; 1892-93, pp. 15, 442, 1551-1572, 1976; 
189.3-94, pp. 1019-1061. Also in Circulars of Information— No. 3, 188.3, p. 63; No. 
2,1886, pp. 123-133; No. 3, 1888, p. 122; No. 5, 1888, pp. 53,54,59,60,80-86; No. 1, 
1892, p. 71. Special Report on Distvict of Columbia for 1869, pp. 193, 300, 301-400. 
Special report, New Orleans Exposition, 1884-85, pp. 468-470, 775-781. 

This chapter and the one -which follows contain a largo amount of matter relating 
to the advancement of the colored race iu the United States. The very creditable 
exhibit made at the Atlanta Exposition in 1895 by the more progressive element 
among the negroes aroused new interest iu all parts of the country iu their educa- 
tional advancement. In response to the general demand for iuformatiou on this sub- 
ject a special effort was made bj^this Bureau to collect statistics from all the colored 
schools of the South. It was no easy task on account of the inditference manifested 
b\' many of those in charsje of private schools. Of the 162 schools of secondary and 
higher grade known to this ot3(ico fewer than half the number responded to the first 
request for information. Even after the fifth request had been sent out a few of the 
schools had failed to respond. Many of the reports received contained but meager 
iuformatiou. Such statistics as could be obtained will be given in detail iu succeed- 
ing pages of this chapter. 

The statistics of public common schools for the negroes are given in connection 
with the statistics of white schools in the beginning of the first volume of this 
annual report. On the next page is presented a table which contains iu condensed 
form the more important items of iuformatiou relating to the number and attend- 
ance of colored pupils iu the common schools of each of the former slave States. In 
these sixteen States and the District of Columbia the estimated number of persons 
5 to 18 years of age, the school population, was 8,297,160. Of this number 5,573,440 
■were white children and 2,723,720, or 32.9 per cent, colored. The total enrollment in 
the white schools was 3,845,414 and in the colored schools 1,441,282. The per cent 
of white school population enrolled was 69 and the jier cent of colored school popu- 
lation enrolled was 52.92. The whites had an average daily attendance of 2,510,907, 
or 65.30 per cent of their enrollment, while the average attendance of the blacks 
■was 856,312, or 59.41 per cent of their enrollment. There were 89,276 white teachers 
and 27,081 colored teachers in the public schools of the South in 1895. 

An accurate statement of the amounts of money expended by each of the Southern 
States for the education of the colored children can not be given for the reason that 
in only two or three of these States are separate accouuts kept of the moneys 
expended for colored schools. Since 1876 the Southern States have expended about 
$383,000,000 for public schools, aud it is fair to estimate that l^etweeu $75,000,000 and 
$80,000,000 of this sum must h;ive been expended for tlie education of colored chil- 
dren. In 1895 the eurollmeut of colored loupils was a little more than 27 per cent of 

1331 



1332 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1894-95. 



the public scliool enrollment in the Southern States. It is not claimed that they 
received the benefit of 27 per cent of the school fund and perhaps no one would say 
they received less than 20 per cent. It is a fact well known that almost the entire 
burden of educating the colored cJiildren of the South falls upon the white property 
owners of the former slave States. Of the more than $75,000,000 expended in the 
past twenty years for the instruction of the colored children in Southern public 
schools but a small per cent was contributed by the negroes themselves in the form 
of taxes. This vast sum has not been given grudgingly. The Avhite people of the 
South believe that the State should place a common-school education within the 
reach of every child, and they have done thus much to give all citizens, white and 
black, an even start in life. 

Common-school statistics classified hij race, 1S94-95. 



State. 



Alabama a 

Arkansas 

Delaware 6 

District of Columbia 

Floriilaa 

Georgia a 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

North Carolina a 

South Carolina 

Tennessee « 

Texas a 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

Total 



Estimated number 

of persons 5 to 18 

years of age. 



White. Colored. 



327, 400 
321, 100 
89, 850 
44, 300 
84, 230 
357, 800 
550, 900 
203, 400 
250, 100 
212, 700 
8G4, 500 
379, 940 
171, 600 
466, 900 
693, 800 
337, 320 
267, 600 



5, 573, 440 



280, 600 

124, 500 

8,980 

24, 370 

66, 770 
335, 900 

94, 300 
216, 700 

72, 200 
309, 800 

52, 600 
227, 800 
288, 100 
157, 600 
212, 500 
2i0, 000 

11, 000 



2, 723, 720 



Percentages of 
the whole. 



White. Colored. 



53.85 
72.06 
81.60 
64.51 
55.79 
51.59 
85.38 
48.42 
77.62 
40.71 
94.26 
62. 52 
37.34 
74.77 
76.55 
58.43 
96.04 



67.15 



46.15 
27.94 
18.40 
35.49 
44. 21 
48.41 
14.62 
51.58 
22.38 
59.29 

5.74 
37.48 
62.66 
25.23 
23.45 
41.57 

3.96 



32.85 



Enrolled in the 
public schools. 



AVhite. Colored. 



190, 305 
216, 863 
28, 316 
26, 903 
59, 503 
262, 530 
394, 508 
92, 013 

161, 252 

162, 830 
612, 378 
242, 572 
103, 729 
381, 632 
463, 888 
235, 533 
210, 059 



115, 709 

82, 429 

4,858 

14, 654 

37, 272 

174,152 
73, 463 
63, 313 
43, 492 

187, 785 
32, 199 

128, 318 

119, 292 
101, 524 
134, 720 

120, 453 
7,649 



3,845,414 1,441,282 



Per cent of per- 
sons 5 to 18 
years enrolled. 



White. Colored. 



58.13 
67.54 
71.06 
60.73 
70.64 
73.37 
71.61 
45.53 
64.48 
76.55 
70.84 
63.84 
60. 45 
81.74 
66.86 
69. 82 
78.50 



69.00 



41.24 
66.21 
54.10 
60. 13 
55.82 
J51.85 
77.90 
i;9. 22 
(50.24 
60.61 
(51.21 
(56.33 
41.41 
64.42 
63.40 
50.19 
69.54 



52.92 



State. 



Alabama a 

Arkansas 

Delaware h 

District of Columbia 

Florida a 

Georgiaa 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missoiiri 

North Carolina a 

South Carolina 

Tennessee a 

Texas a 

Virginia 

West Virginia 



Total 2,510,907 



Average daily 
attendance. 



White. 



c 112, 800 
126, 820 
c 19, 746 

20,446 

38, 752 
157, 626 
243, 703 

67, 887 
103, 031 

99, 048 

c 406, 180 

154,361 

74, 359 
277, 678 
334, 884 
137, 830 
135, 756 



Colored. 



c 72, 300 
48, 120 
c 2, 947 
10, 903 
25, 386 

104, 414 
28, 663 
41, 548 
18, 531 

103, 635 

c 20, 430 
75, 940 
84, 895 
65, 986 
83, 185 
64, 700 
4,729 



856,312 



Per cent of 
enrollment. 



White. Colored. 



59.27 
58.48 
69.73 
76.00 
65.13 
60.04 
61.77 
73.30 
63.89 
00.83 
66.33 
63.64 
71.69 
72.76 
72.19 
58.52 
64.63 



65.30 



62.48 
58.38 
00.66 
74.40 
68.11 
59. 96 
39.02 
65.62 
42.61 
55.19 
63.45 
59.18 
71. 17 
65.00 
61.75 
53. 11 
61.83 



59.41 



Number of 
teachers. 



White. 



4,412 
5,124 
734 
660 
2,151 
5, 827 
8,578 
2,506 
3,797 
4,591 
13, 750 
5,285 
2,696 
6,920 
9,960 
6,211 
6,066 



89, 276 



Colored. 



2,196 

1,796 

106 

331 

772 

0,206 

1,373 

915 

716 

3,264 

737 

3,075 

1,869 

1,909 

2,502 

2,081 

233 



27, 081 



a In 1893-94. 6 In 1891-92. c Approximately. 

ILLITERACY OF THE COLORED POPULATIOX. 

What have the negroes themselves accomplished to justify the generosity of the 
white people of the South and the benevolence of the people of the North? It may 
be said that in 1860 the colored race was totally illiterate. In 1870 more than 85 per 
cent of the colored population of the South, 10 years of age and over, could not read 
and write. In 1880 the per cent of illiterates had been reduced to 75, and in 1890 
the illiterates comprised about 60 per cent of the colored population 10 years of age 
and over. In several of the Southern States the percentage is even below 50 per 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED EACE. 



1333 



cent. The comparative statistics for 1870, 1880, and 1890, showing the illiteracy of 
the colored race, are giveu for each of the Soiitheru States iu the following table : 

lUiteracij of the colored population 10 i/cars of age and orcr. 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nortli Carolina 

Soutb Carolina 

Teunesseo 

Texas 

Virginia 

West Virginia 



Popula- 
tion 10 
years of 
age a ad 
OTer. 



479, 430 
217,454 
21, G08 
61, 041 
119, 034 
600, 62;i 
197, 689 
392, 642 
161,106 
516, 929 
114,160 
392, 589 
470, 232 
309, 800 
336, 154 
455, 682 
24, 737 



Dliterates. 



Number. 



331, 200 

116, 655 

10, 692 

21, 389 

60, 204 

404, 015 

110, 530 

283, 215 

80, 723 

314, 858 

47, 562 

235, 981 

301, 262 

167, 971 

176, 484 

260, 678 

10, 992 



Per 

cent. 

69. 1 
53.6 
49.' 5 
35.0 
50.6 
67.3 
55.9 
72.1 
50.1 
CO. 9 
41.7 
60.1 
64.1 
54.2 
52.5 
57.2 
44.4 



Total 4, 870, 910 :2, 934, 441 60. 2 



Popula- 
tion 10 
years of 
age and 
over. 



399, 058 

137, 971 

19, 245 

45, 035 

85, 513 

479, 863 

190, 223 

328, 153 

151, 278 

425, 397 

104, 393 

351, 145 

394, 750 

271, 380 

255, 265 

428, 450 

18, 446 



4, 085, 571 



Illiterates. 



Number. 



321, 080 

103, 473 

11,068 

21,790 

60, 420 

391, 482 

133, 895 

259, 429 

90, 172 

319, 753 

56, 244 

271,943 

310, 071 

194, 495 

192, 520 

315, 060 

10, 139 



Per 

cent. 



80.6 
75.0 
57. 5 
48.4 
70.7 
81.6 
70.4 
79.1 
59.6 
75.2 
53.9 
77.4 
78.5 
71.7 
75.4 
73.2 
55.0 



3, 064, 234 1 75. 



Popula- 
tion 10 
years of 
age and 
over. 



Illiterates. 



328, 835 

85, 249 

16, 570 

33, 833 

62, 748 

373, 211 

156, 483 

262, 359 

127, 708 

305, 074 

83, 393 

272, 497 

289, 969 

225, 482 

169, 965 

362, 024 

12,905 



Number. 



290, 953 

09, 244 

11,820 

23, 843 

52, 899 

343, 654 

131,099 

225, 409 

88, 707 

265, 282 

60, 648 

231,293 

235, 212 

185, 970 

150, 808 

322, 355 

9,997 



3, 168, 905 :2, 699, 193 



Per 

cent. 



88.1 
81.2 
71.3 
70.5 
84.1 
92.1 
83.8 
85.9 
69.5 
87.0 
72.7 
84.8 
81.1 
82.4 
88.7 
88.9 
77.4 



85.2 



In thirty years 40 per cent of the illiteracy of the colored race had disappeared. 
In education and in industrial progress this race had accomplished more than it could 
have achieved in centuries in a different environment without the aid of the whites. 
The negro has needed the example as well as the aid of the white man. In sections 
where the colored population is massed and removed from contact with the whites 
the progress of the negro has been retarded. He is an imitative being, and has a con- 
stant desire to attempt whatever he sees the Avhito man do. He believes in educat- 
ing his children because ho can see that an increase of knowledge will enal)le them 
to better their condition. But segregate the colored population and you take away 
its object lessons. The statistics exhibited in the following table in a measure con- 
firm the truth of this position: 

Colored population and ilUferacy in ISOO compared. 



"West Virginia 

Missouri 

Kentucky 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Texas 

Tennessee 

Arkansas 

District of Columbia 

Nortb Carolina 

Virginia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Georgia 

Louisiana 

Mississippi 

Soutb Cai'oliua . 



Colored 
population, 



32, 717 
150,726 
268. 173 

28, 427 
215, 897 
489, 588 
430, 881 
309, 427 

75, G97 
5G2, 565 
635, 858 
166, 473 
679, 299 
858, 996 
560, 192 
744, 749 
689, 141 



Per cent 
to total. 



4.3 
5.6 
14.4 
16.9 
20.7 
21.9 
24.4 
27.4 
32.9 
34.8 
38.4 
42.5 
44.9 
46.8 
50.1 
.57. 8 
59.9 



Per cent 
of colored 
illiteracy. 



44.4 
41.7 
55.9 
49.5 
50.1 
52.5 
51.2 
53.6 
35.0 
00.1 
57.2 
50.0 
69.1 
67.3 
72.1 
60.9 
64.1 



Per cent 
of wliito 
illiteracy. 



13.0 

7.1 

15.8 

7.4 

7.0 

10.8 

17.8 

10.3 

2.7 

17.9 

13.9 

11.3 

18.2 

16.3 

20.1 

11.9 

17.9 



Here it is shown that in the States where the colored population is greatest in 
proportion to the total population, or where such colored population is massed, as 
in the " black belt" of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, 
there the per cent of illiteracy is highest. In tliis tabic the Southern States are 



1334 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



arranged witli reference to their proportion of colored population, West Virginia 
standing first with only 4.3 per cent, and South Carolina at the foot of the list with 
59.9 per cent colored population. The per cent for each State is shown in the third 
column. Leaving out of the count the District of Columbia, in which there is a 
lierfected sj-stem of city schools, the percentages of illiteracy in column 4 seem to 
hear a close relation to the percentages of population in column 3. The eight States 
having less than 30 per cent of colored population have, with a single exception, 
less than 55 per cent of colored illiteracy. The eight States having more than 30 
per cent of colored population have, with two exceptions, more than 60 per cent of 
illiteracy. In the iifth column the per cent of white illiteracy is given for each 
State. 

SECO]S"I)ARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 

There are in the United States, so fa,r as known to this Bureau, 162 institutions for 
the secondary and higher education of the colored race. Six of these schools are 
not located within the boundaries of the former slave States. Of the 162 institu- 
tions. 32 are of the grade of colleges, 73 are classed as normal schools, and the 
remaining 57 are of secondary or high school grade. While all these schools teach 
pupils in the elementary studies, they also carry instruction beyond the common 
school branches. State aid is extended to 35 of the 162 institutions, and 18 of these 
are Avholly supi^orted by the States in which they are established. The remaining 
schools are supported wholly or in jiart by benevolent societies and from tuition fees. 

Detailed statistics of the 162 institutions will be found in this chapter. In these 
schools were employed 1,549 teachers, 711 males and 838 females. The total number 
of students was 37,102; of these, 23,420 were in elementary grades, 11,724 in second- 
ary grades, and 1,958 were pursuing collegiate studies. The following table shows 
for each State the number of schools and teachers and the number of students in 
elementary, secondary, and collegiate grades: 

Summary of teachers and students in institutions for the colored race in 1S94-95. 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Dlinoia 

Indiana 

Kentucky 

Louisiana (a) 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Kew Jersey 

North. Carolina 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

South Carolina 

Tenu.5ssee 

Texas 

"Virjriiiia 

"West Virginia 

Total 



Teachers. 



183 

45 

103 
44 

196 

2 

6 

67 

24 

30 

67 

38 

5 

201 
18 
11 

100 

105 
81 

149 
11 



1,549 



Students. 



Elementary. 



1,218 
279 



125 

231 

1,518 



45 

485 

161 

67 

631 

125 

5 

1,203 

77 



1,071 

1,210 

556 

923 

45 



9,975 



1,431 

385 



154 

276 

2,332 



52 

916 

206 

156 

572 

96 

5 

1,699 

63 



1,107 

1, 703 

882 

1,356 

54 



13, 445 



2,649 
664 



279 

507 

3,850 



97 

1,401 
367 
223 

1,203 

221 

10 

2,902 
140 



Secondary. 



2,178 
2,913 
1,438 
2,279 
99 



625 

171 

13 
238 

93 

592 

7 

33 
186 

67 

70 
277 
139 

15 
,077 

37 



301 
576 
281 
424 
50 



544 
135 
2 
543 
156 
732 

21 

60 
333 

85 
392 
229 
136 

17 
1, 0S6 

77 



500 
641 
325 
574 
61 



23, 420 5, 272,6, 452 11, 724 



1, 1C9 
306 

15 

781 

249 

1,324 

28 

93 
519 
152 
202 
506 
275 

32 

2,163 

114 



801 
1,217 
606 
998 
114 



Collegiate. 



58 

26 

10 

327 



1671 01 



101 
50 
64 



151 
43 

107 
63 

121 
62 
85 



1,598 360 



72 

31 

14 

332 



228 



12 
50 
77 

111 

7 



220 
51 
167 
112 
156 
115 



1,958 



Total. 



3,800 

1,001 

29 

1,392 

756 

5,402 

28 

100 
2,047 

569 

562 
1,820 

503 

42 

5,285 

305 

167 
3,091 
4, 286 
2,159 
3,365 

213 



37, 102 



a Two scliools not reporting. 

Of the 13,682 students in secondary and higher grades there were 990 in classical 
courses, 811 in scientific courses, 295 in business courses, and 9, .331 in English courses. 
The distribution of these students by States, the classification by courses of study, 
and the apportionment by sex can be seen by consulting the following table (p. 1335). 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1335 



Classificaiion of colored students, hij courses of study, 1804-95. 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

riori Ja 

Georgia 

Illiuiiis 

Indiana 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

New Jersey 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

South Carolina , 

Tennessee 

Tex.is 

Virginia 

West ^"irgiuia 

Total 



Students in classi- 
cal courses. 



Male, 



Fe- 
male. 



10 


17 


44 


33 
29 
68 

6 
30 
13 

5 

105 

22 

48 

138 

6 
23 

9 



3 

G 



4 



5 



CO 

23 

19 

1 

5 

6 

7 

29 

4 

42 

111 

1 

41 

9 



Total. 



11 
16 


2L 


49 


93 
52 
87 

7 
35 
19 
12 
134 
26 
90 
249 

7 
64 
18 



Students in scien- 
tific courses. 



Male. 



Fe- 
male. 



4 



25 





157 

17 

1 

2 
71 
10 
45 

7 
10 

4 
10 
37 





Students in English 
course. 



23 
14 
14 

3 


81 





248 

38 

7 

4 

112 

10 

102 

22 

27 

30 

22 

54 

0^ 

811 4,086 5,245 



499 

48 

13 

71 

148 

628 

7 



26 

318 

58 

166 

40 

5 

305 

77 

327 

451 

214 

578 

77 



Fe- 
male. 



501 

78 

2 

117 

268 

991 

21 


34 
249 
104 
205 

30 



293 

62 
513 
616 
287 
780 

94 



Total. 



1,000 

120 

15 

188 

416 

1,019 

28 



60 

567 

162 

371 

70 

5 

598 

139 

840 

1,067 

531 

1,358 

171 



9,331 



Students in busi- 
ness course. 



Male. 



Fe- 
male. 



Total. 



25 
17 

107 





10 



72 
16 

33 
15 








Tlicrc ivere 4,514 colored stndeuts studying to become teachers, 1,902 males and 
2,612 females. Many of these students were included among those pursuing the 
English and other courses noted in the foregoing table. 

The number of students graduating from high school courses was 649, the number 
of males being 282 and the number of females 367. Tiiere were 844 graduates from 
normal courses, 357 males and 487 females. The number of college graduates was 
186, the number of males being 151 and the number of females 35. The distribution 
of graduates by States, as well as the number of normal students, can be found in 
the following table: 

Xarnber of normal students and graduates in 1S94-9j. 



State. 



Students in nor- 
mal course. 



Male. 



Fe- 
male. 



Total. 



Graduates of high 
school course. 



M'^l^- male. I'^^al. 



Graduates of nor- 
mal course. 



Male. 



iaTe. Total. 



Male, 



Graduates of col- 
legiate course. 



m^ate. Total. 



Alabama 

Arlcanaas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia , 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Kentucky 

Xioni.siana , 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas , 

Virginia 

West Virginia 



426 

17 



24 

30 

117 





27 

30 

38 

122 
64 

359 

50 



105 

212 
35 

196 
50 



359 

10 



71 

48 

303 

5 



55 

50 

37 

124 

36 

434 

57 



161 

353 

159 

280 

04 



785 

27 



95 

78 

420 



86 
75 
246 
100 
793 
107 

266 
505 
194 
476 
114 



114 
7 



64 

31 
21 
20 
43 

5 
59 
14 


82 
05 

6 
102 

2 



Total 1,902 |2,612 



4,514 



282 



649 . 357 487 



162 

5 



65 

6 

48 





39 

29 

14 

30 

9 

129 

15 



73 

65 

32 

115 



10 

27 



6 



9 







3 

1 

14 

1 

28 

4 

38 

16 

22 

6 

1 





844 151 



186 



There were 1,166 colored students ntudyinf 
138 females. Of tlie professional students 585 



l^arnod professions — 1,028 males and 
585 were studying theology, 310 medicine, 
55 law, 45 jiharmacy, 25 dentistry, and 8 engineering. The 138 female students were 
receiving professional training for nurses. There were 42 graduates in theology, 67 
in medicine, 21 in law, 2 in dentistry, 16 in pharmacy, and 25 in nurse training! The 
following table (p. 1336) giyea the distribution of professional students and graduates 
by States. 



1336 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



Colorei 


prof 


sssional s 


udc 


)its and 


(jraduates in 1S94-95. 


















Professional students and graduates. 




















Me- 




Students in pro- 
fessional courses. 


Thool- 




Medi- 


Den- 


Phar- 


Nurse 


chanical 
or elec- 










og 


y- 






cine. 


tistry. 


macy. 


ing. 


trical 
engi- 


State. 
























neering. 












m 




ni 








m 




ro 




oi 




\B 








































"3 


'3 

i 


la 
o 
H 


a 

0? 




B 


c3 


§ 
1 


C3 




-d 

o 





1 

O 



6 


s 

16 



34 


1-1 

6 

9 


fl 

ID 

TS 
fl 
-♦^ 

w 

2 




fl 
5 




130 

12 

251 


16 

34 


140 

12 

285 


121 
12 
73 


12 

8 






33 





15 


5 



119 





22 






13 







2 



13 







n 


District of Columbia 





Florida 


4 





4 


4 





fl 








n 











fl 








fl 





Georgia 


94 


40 


134 


9-^ 


10 


?, 


n 





n 








fl 


fl 


40 


6 


fl 


fl 




26 





26 


^fi 





n 


n 


n 


n 


n 


fl 





fl 


n 





fl 


n 




48 
9 






48 
9 


20 
9 




9, 




n 







28 

n 


5 

n 








n 



fl 



fl 




fl 







fl 







fl 




12 


25 


37 


T 





n 





n 








n 


n 




95 




fl 


fl 


Missonri 


5 





5 


5 














































o 


2 











n 


n 





n 


n 





fl 


'-> 







(1 


North Carolina 


128 


2 


130 


42 





14 


3 


56 


8 








16 


5 


2 











Ohio 


10 


15 


25 


10 


3 

























15 


4 








Pennsylvania 


40 





40 


40 


/ 






































South Carolina 


7 





7 


7 











































170 
17 
65 



4 



170 
21 
05 


30 
17 
05 
585 


2 





42 


6 


55 


3 





21 


102 



310 


32 



67 


12 



25 


2 


2 


14 



45 


5 




4 
fl 








25 


6 


8 












n 




"16 ll38~ 




Total 


1,028 


138 


1, 100 


(» 











Tho importance of industrial training is almost universallyrecognized by teachers 
of the colored race, and the negroes themselves are beginning to see its value. This 
feature of colored education was treated at some length in the Education Report for 
1893-94. More complete statistics are presented this year. For the first time the 
number of students in each industrial branch has been ascertained. Of the 37,102 
students in the 162 colored schools nearly one-third, or 12,058, were receiving indus- 
trial training. Of these, 1,061 were learning farm and garden work, 1,786 carpentry, 
235 bricklaying, 202 plastering, 259 painting, 67 tin and sheet-metal work, 314 forg- 
ing, 200 machine-shop work, 147 shoemaking, 706 printing, 1,783 sewing, 5,460 cook- 
ing, and 1,017 were learning other industries. An exhibit of the industrial side of 
colored education is made in the following table : 

Industrial training of colored students in 1S94-95. 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

New Jersey 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

Total 



Pupils receiv- 
ing industrial 
trainiug. 



, 159 1 
105 

21 

77 

C9 
489 
143 
281 

58 
189 

94 

20 
659 

50 
486 
208 
159 
365 

59 



2,437 

167 

21 

164 

221 

1,944 
360 
492 
214 
474 
201 
42 

1, 801 
107 

1,034 
016 
460 

1,130 
173 



Students trained in industrial branches. 



225 
15 

7 



20 
39 
30 
79 
58 
293 



54 

20 

21 

105 



12, 058 



289 
20 
21 
25 
64 

143 
12 

122 
16 

136 
40 
20 

291 
43 

208 

101 

120 
71 

_44 
OOl'l, 786 



67 314 200 



PM 



64 

45 


35! 

761, 


43 


32 

9 
17 
99 
24 
86 
87 
42 
38 

9 
706 



309 378 
8 24 







35 

198 

62 

15 

84 

94 





538 

44 

117 

55 

33 

191 



,783 




5 


292 



2 


25 

180 

11 



lOo 


1,017 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1337 



Colored institutions received benefactions in 1894-95 amounting to $304,822. They 
received State and municipal aid amounting to $188,936; from productive funds. 
$98,278; from tuition fees, $101,146, and from other sources and unclassilicd sums 
amounting to $534,272. The latter ligure includes the sums received by colored agri- 
cultural and mechanical colleges from the United States. The income of the colored 
institutions, so far as reported, amounted to $922,632. In the libraries of the 162 
colored schools there were 175, 788 volumes, valued at $357,549. The value of grounds, 
buildings, furniture, and scientific apjtaratus was $6, 475, .590, and the value of other 
property and endowments was $2,381,748. The following table summarizes the 
liuaucial reports received from the 162 colored institutions: 

Financial summary of the 1G2 colored schools. 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Mar j'land 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

New Jersey 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

Soutli Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

AVcst Virginia 




Total 304, 822 175, 788 357, 549,6, 475, 590 2, 381, 748 188, 930 101, 146 98, 278 534, 272 922, 632 



5, 000 

39, 500 

25, 000 

394, 800 

41, 350 

30, 000 

500 

504, 085 

30, 000 



° a 

it 



$14. 500 
6,000 



c ? 



u a 

'3 p-c 

I o o 5 

a ^ - 



BC33 
?5 



i-H >> 



$13, 276 
3, 860 



20, 500 
2,800 
2,819 



3,000 
7,500 
6, 500 
4, 321 

C5, 000 
3, 000 
7,6!8 

12,500 



7,987 

657 

13, 573 



0,356 
7,120 
3,966 
3,941 
1,367 



2,450 
8,' 500 
{3,304 



$112, 769 
2,594 
4, OUO 
11,541 
12, 019 
52, 257 



4,264 



1,117 
5,679 
1,284 



2, 150 
3,430 
298 
15,000 
3, OOOi 



8, 496 920 
3, .500 2,300 

'22,469 

7,958; 1,000 

11,644' 1,227 

2,681' 

3. 276 22, 003 
1,488 2,093 



4,176 

32, 475 

22,190 

36, 238 

50 

500 

22, 644 

8,700 

11,271 

36, 668 

39, 309 

4,300 

117,301 

3,270 



$149, 613 

14, 904 
4,000 

57, 528 

15, 476 
81, 953 



17, 796 
47, 095 
33, 773 
50, 179 
07, 701 

3,500 
39, 678 
27, 000 
33, 740 
47, 776 
55,610 

7, 279 
158, 180 

9,851 



Beginning on the next page is a table giving in detail the statistics of the 162 
colored schools so far as reported to this Bureau. 

In the coucluding pages of this chapter are printed two addresses in which are 
presented two views of the education of the colored race. The first was delivered 
at Brooklyn, N. Y., in Jauuarj', 1896, at the dinner in honor of Alexander Hamilton 
by Booker T. Washington, principal of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Insti- 
tute, 
at 

well as the intellectual training of the negro, while Dr. Mitchell advocates the highei 
education. 



)y Booker T. Washington, principal of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Insti- 
-ute. The second was delivered before the American Baptist Home Mission Society, 
ifc Asbury Park, N. J., May 26, 1896, by Edward C. Mitchell, D. D., president of 
^jclaiid University, New Orleans, La. Mr. Washington pleads for the industrial as 



1338 



EDUCATION REPOKT, 1894-95 



Statistics of schools for the education of the 



State and. fjost- 
oliice. 



INamo of school. 



Eeligious 
denomina- 
tion. 



Teachers. 



White. 



Colored. 



ALABAMA. 



Athens 

Calliotin 

Hunts ville. -. 

Marion 

Montgomery. 

Normal 

Sclma 

...-do 

Talladega 

Tuscaloosa . . 
Tuskegee..t. . 



ARKANSAS. 



Artadelahia. 
....do..^--.. 
liittio Rock.. 

....do 

Pino Blnff . . . 
Southland . . . 



DELAWAEE. 

Dover 



DIST. COLUMBIA. 



"Washington . 

....do 

....do 

....do 



FLORIDA. 

Jacksonville. 

do 

Livo Oak 

Ocala 

Orange Park. 



Tallahassee.., 

GEORGIA. 



Athena 

....do 

...-do 

Atlanta 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Augusta 

do 

do 

College 

La G-range 

Mcintosh 

Macon 

Roswell 

Savannah 

South Atlanta . . . 

Thomasville , 

Wayneshoro 



ILLINOIS. 



Trinity Normal School''' 

Calhoun Colored School 

Central Alabama Academy 

Lincoln Normal School 

State Normal School for Col'd Students 
State Normal and Industrial School... 

Burrell School 

Selnia University 

Talladega College 

Stillman Institute 

Tuskegeo Normal and Industrial Institute 



Cong 

Nonsect 

M.E 

Cong 



Nonsect , 

Cong 

Bapt 

Cong 

Presb 

Nonsect 



Shorter University 

Arkadelphia Academy 

Arkansas Baptist College 

Philander Smith College 

Arkansas Normal College 

SouthLand College and Normal Institute 



State College for Colored Students. 



Howard University 

Normal School, 7th and 8th divisions. 
High School, 7th and 8th divisions*.. 
Way land Seminary 



A.M.... 

Bapt 

Bapt 

Meth . . . 
Nonsect 
Triends. 



Nonsect - - 



Nonsect . 

Nonsect . 



Bapt. 



Cookman Institute 

Edward Walters College * 

Florida Institute '■■ 

Emerson Home 

Orange Park Normal and Manual Train- 

ing^'School. 
State Normal and Industrial College for 

Colored Students. 



Jerual Academy 

Knox Institute 

West Broad Street School 

Atlanta Baptist Seminary 

Atlanta University 

Gammon School of Theology 

Morris Brown College 

Spelman Seminary 

Storrs School 

Haines Normal and Industrial School. 

Paine Institute 

Walker Baptist Institute 

Georgia State Industrial College 

La Grange Academy 

Dorchester Academy 

Ballard Normal School 

Eoswell Pnhlic School * 

Beach Institute 

Clark University 

Allen Normal and Industrial School. . . 
Haven Normal Academy * 



M.E.... 
A. M. E . 
Bapt.... 
M.E.... 
Cong .. . 



Nonsect .. 



Bapt. 

Cong 



Bapt 

Nonsect 

M.E 

A.M. E 

Bapt 

Cong ... 
Presb. -. 
Meth ... 
Bapt 



Bapt. 

Cong , 
Cong . 



M.E. 
Cong 



Cairo Sumner High School , 

* Statistics of 1893-94. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1339 



colored race, 1S94-05 — Detail talle, Part I. 



Pupils eurolled. 


Students. 1 


Graduates. 


Total. 


Elo- 
montary 
grades. 


Second- 
ary 
grades. 


Colle- 
giate 
classes 


Clas- 
sical 
courses 


Scien- 
tific 
courses 


English 
course. 


Nor- 
mal 
course. 


r>usi- 

iiess 

course. 


High 
school 
course. 


Nor- Collc- 

111 al giato 

course, course. 


9 

50 
125 

53 

50 
420 
199 
135 
100 
258 

31 
•180 

39 
26 
70 
123 
123 
89 

23 

393 

2 

197 

98 

103 
96 
55 

49 

21 

68 

85 

196 

150 

78 

81 

203 



75 

130 

99 

3(j 

201 

69 

175 

125 

143 


a 

10 

118 

146 

77 

90 

430 

208 

141 

118 

323 



320 

43 
00 
80 
189 
69 
90 



194 
24 

421 
C3 

144 
63 
81 
50 
57 

37 

56 
159 
201 

139 

281 
491 
147 
262 

82 

55 


87 
250 
275 
146 


"a 
3 


1 
12 

102 
146 

77 

00 
294 

42 
133 

83 
305 


6 
13 

14 


«3 

i 
14 

16 


15 


6 
i 

16 


6 
"3 

17 


"3 

a 

4) 

IS 


"3 
19 


6 
"3 
E 

20 


6 
'3 

21 


_d 

"3 

i 

22 


-2 
'a 

23 


"3 
g 

24 


_c5 
"3 

25 


d 
3 

a 

o 
26 


d 
"3 

27 


d 
3 

1 
28 


d 
"3 

20 


"3 

§ 

30 


d 

"3 
31 


_d 

"3 

a 

32 


11 

30 
125 

53 

50 
293 

56 
126 

05 
204 














125 


146 










:....:. 









































3 








1 
































127 

143 

9 

85 

48 

31 

218 

13 
11 

21 
20 

80 
26 

13 

30 

2 

197 

9 

28 
22 
25 

11 

7 

21 

2 
70 
50 
44 


145 

165 

8 

35 

18 



157 

12 
20 
16 
17 

49 
21 

2 

96 

24 

421 

2 

33 
19 
46 
41 

8 

9 

21 



131 



4 


















127 
13 
10 


145 
13 
25 










9 
9 



10 
13 










1 




2 
6 




3 







I'JO 
113 

35 


27 


208 

129 

18 






16 



9 





3 

55 






56 








9 


8 


1 






8 
2 


n 


6 











6 


6 








40 


40 


n 






1 


210 

19 
15 
55 

88 
43 
59 


159 

31 
40 

58 

171 

20 

05 


52 

7 


13 












270 

8 


170 

7 










17 


15 




1 


5 


1 






31 
17 


43 
35 


3 


o 










4 


8 


1 

1 


1 
4 














2 


2 






6 


6 


1 


4 


"13 


... 

14 


15 


1 










































4 

10 

327 



4 

4 

5 



3 



17 



3 



4 



1 

10 

3 



1 

4 









9 



22 
2 


3 



47 
24 


















13 

71 



2 

117 









06 





4? 








8 
2 




10 
24 




4 






2 



36 



93 















89 

75 
74 
30 

38 

14 

48 
83 
126 
72 
64 


61 

111 

44 

35 

9 

49 

28 

34 

153 

130 



85 


























14 


7 


















84 


129 


































































21 

3 

6 



40 


3 

5 






































49 

15 

20 
83 


50 

57 

32 

18 
153 












































2 




2 










4 



2 















1 
1 

3 
10 




3 

3 






























1 





6 






28 
13 
84 
24 





7 

29 
23 













50 





C 




83 
















2 


2 


















155 


75 
110 

28 


223 
416 
147 
142 
28 


24 


20 
66 
36 
91 
5 
11 
15 
32 


29 

52 



120 

52 

55 





6 

50 

37 


3 








24 




3 


155 223 
52 






29 
14 











2 
9 
2 


4 

7 

8 

1 
1 





2 


4 
2 

8 






















48 160 


3 













5 

9 



2 


















i. 
6 


1 






22 











25 











13 

64 

175 

10 





87 
250 

30 



10 

5 
16 

2 





15 
8 














101 
64 
164 
110 
111 




87 
244 
225 
109 






































5 


20 








1 


5 


1 


5 












































160 
45 
IOC 

7 


181 
130 
167 

21 


116 
35 
50 


130 
112 
07 


40 
10 
55 


51 

18 
100 

21 


4 








19 



5 











20 


55 




48 
C 

too 

5 










2 

1 


14 
2 












10 


18 








1 


2 


























7 


21 





















1340 



EDUCATIOK REPORT, 1894-95, 



Statistics of schools for the education of the colored 



State and post- 
office. 



Name of scliool. 



EeligioTis 
denomina- 
tion. 



Teaclicrs. 



"Wliite. 



Colored. 



Evansville... 
New Albany. 



KENTUCKY. 



Berea , 

Frankfort , 
Lebanon . . . 
Lexington , 
Louisville . 

do 

Paris 



LOUISIANA. 



Alexandria . . 

Baldwin 

New Iberia.. 
New Orleans. 

do 

do 

do 



IIAEYLAND. 



Baltimore . 

do .... 

Hebbville. 



70 Melvale 

71 Princess Anne. 



MISSISSIPPI. 



Clinton 

Edwards 

Holly Springs 

....do 

Jackson 

Meridian 

Natchez 

Tougaloo 

Westaide 



MISSOUEI. 



Hannibal 

Jefferson City 
Kansas City .. 
Mill Spring... 
Sedalia 



NEW JERSEY. 

Bordentown 



NORTH CAKOLINA. 



Asbboro 

Beaufort 

Cbarlotte 

Clinton 

Concord 

Elizabeth City. 
Fayetteville . . . 
Eranklinton . . . 



-do 



Governor Higb School. 
Scribner High School . 



Nonsect , 



Berea College 

State Normal School for Colored Persona 

St. Augustine's Academy''' 

Chandler Normal school* 

Christian Bible School 

Central High School 

Paris Colored High School 



Nonsect . 
Nonsect . 
E. C 

Cong .... 
Christian 

Nonsect . 
Nonsect . 



3 .... 

6""i 

8 
2 



Alexandria Academy « 

Gilbert Academy and Industrial College 

Mount Carmel Convent a 

Leland University 

New Orleans University 

Southern University 

Straight University 



M.E. 



Bapt .... 
M. E.... 
Nonsect 
Cong . . . 



Baltimore City Colored High School 

Morgan College 

Baltimore Normal School for Training of 
Colored Teachers. * 

Industrial Home for Colored Girls 

Princess Anne Academy , 



M.E.... 

Nonsect 



Mount Hermon Eomale Seminary* 

Southern Christian Institute 

Rust University 

State Colored Normal School 

Jackson College 

Meridian Academy 

Natcliez College * 

Tougaloo University 

Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
lege. 



Christian 

M.E 

Nonsect . 

Bapt 

M.E 



Cong .... 

Nonsect - 



Douglass High School" 

Lincoln Institute 

Lincoln High School .. 

Hale's College 

Geo. P. Smith College. 



Nonsect 
M.E 



Colored Normal and Industrial School.. 



Ashboro Normal School 

"Washburn Seminary 

Biddle University 

Clinton Normal Institute* 

Scotia Seminary 

State Colored Normal School 

State Colored Normal School 

Albion Academy, Normal and Industrial 

School. 
Eranklinton Christian College 



Nonsect 



Nonsect . 
Presb 



Presb... 

Nonsect 
Nonsect 
Presb. .. 



Christian 



'Statistics of 1893-94. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED KACE. 



1341 



7'acc, lSOl-05 — Detail tabic, Part I — Coutiuucd. 



Pupils enrolled. 








Students 










Graduates. 






Total. 


Ele- 
mentary 
grades. 


Second- 
ary 
grades. 


Colle- Cla.'s- Scien- 
ciato sical tiflc 
classes courses courses 


English 
eour.se. 


Nor- 
mal 
coiurse. 


r,usi- 

ncss 
course. 


High 
school 
course. 


Nor- 
mal 
course. 


Colle- 
giate 
course. 




_2 
9 

21 
60 

248 

43 





20 

282 

173 


6 

s 

10 

44 
05 

212 
02 
70 


11 


"is 

12 


1 
13 

21 
12 

04 
19 


1 

i 

14 

44 
10 

06 
27 
41 


15 


CD 

'a 

s 

o 
16 


6 
17 

21 
12 

17 


a 

o 



44 
10 

5 


6 
1 
19 


6 

"3 

s 

20 


o 

21 


d 

1 

22 


a 
23 


6 

a 

o 
24 


25 


,2 
"3 
S 

o 

26 


"3 
27 

4 
3 

3 


d 

"3 

a 

o 

3 

4 




d 

29 


1 

a 

o 
30 


d 

"3 
31 




d 

a 

32 




')^ 


45 

139 
24 


52 

132 
35 
35 

238 












1 












5'' 


45 


14 


39 


11 







19 


4 

27 








1 


4 
6 






"il 
















51 






























5^ 
































1 




50 











26 































.... 




57 


524 
103 


232 
90 


380 
90 


50 
53 


138 
01 






1 


138 
8 






6 
2 


10 
8 






6 

3 


16 
3 


6 
3 


10 
3 






58 


30 


12 


12 


18 


26 


34 


2 


8 






51 






on 


95 


75 


OS 


03 


15 


6 


12 





12 


6 


] 





114 


27 


1 


2 










1 




01 


















O*" 


200 
2.i0 
118 
255 

40 
103 

7 



58 

78 

35 

113 

83 
80 
57 

50 
201 
298 

21 

111 

36 

4S 
45 

20 

100 

79 

260 

25 


50 
42 
104 

72 


239 
3.-j3 
190 
314 

100 
57 
10 

100 
44 

114 

47 
117 

84 

82 
112 

86 

170 

7 

24 
94 
04 

25 
35 

22 

90 

84 


50 
283 
114 

64 
131 

90 


170 

212 

98 

101 


187 
319 
158 
200 


20 
31 
12 
67 

40 

2 


39 
34 

28 
85 

100 
1 


10 
7 
8 

50 


13 

4 



18 
33 


5 

8 








190 


200 


13 
5 
1 

10 


13 
26 

1^2 






3 
6 
1 


3 
6 
2 


3 
3 

1 
9 


3 

4 
2 
4 


1 
1 


1 



1 











01 






ot 



20 


1 
10 










Ofi 


5 





14 


22 






6f 






» 


11 



07 


40 


50 




55 


6 






















5 


2 


08 














' 


10 






oq 



21 

78 
28 
50 
32 

40 
24 
173 
200 



04 



5 

50 

5 

25 
09 
19 
19 

14 


90 
16 

114 

40 

71 

39 



86 

58 

159 

5 

4 

07 



5 

20 

5 

20 
77 

46 
268 
40 




28 


70 
21 













58 


00 
44 








1 








70 


9 


7 


6 


1 


6 


1 


31 


27 






■ 





1 











71 






7' 


4 
49 

28 
80 
17 
20 
28 
45 

15 
41 
30 
43 
4 

15 

75 

10 

172 





32 

42 

91 

4 


4 
48 
24 
82 
20 
28 
17 



20 
20 
04 
20 


17 

70 

7 



4 

15 

62 

64 

111 

12 


3 



34 


3 

10 


1 

22 

7 




2 


2 














° 






2 
4 




S 


t 

4 





1 


73 


50 


71 


33 
67 


44 
03 






74 






32 


25 






75 






80 
30 


82 
52 


3 
10 


1 
15 


7f 






















8 


10 






77 


























78 


















22 


17 










2 


1 






79 


53 


2 














15 





14 





7 





80 




















81 


7 







9 


4 

5 


S 

7 










39 


25 


26 



10 










7 


2 




1 









H'> 


30 

5 




04 


7 

10 






40 

5 

18 
10 
30 






30 



9 

7 




4 
5 





7 


2 



3 



83 

84 
85 






















8f 


























87 



69 




c 



09 












10 

30 






7 



4 

15 



30 













30 
6 






4 

7 




13 






88 
89 










90 









8 


















4 



9 







91 


5 


11 














9' 






















91 


15 
00 


18 
80 


























6 


4 










01 




















4 


"> 














95 












also 


repo 


rt. 























1342 



EDUCATION REPOET, 1894-95. 

Statistics of schools for the education of the colored 



State and post- 
office. 



Name of school. 



Eeligious 
denomina- 
tion. 



Teachers. 



White. 



Colored. 



NORTH CAROLINA- 

continiied. 

Franklinton 

Goldsboro 

G-reensboro 



do 

iCings Mountain . 

Jjumberton 

Pee Dee 



Plymouth ... 

Ealeigh 

do 

Keidsville . . . 

Salisbury 

do 

TVarrenton . . 
Wilmington . 

Windsor 

Winton 



OHIO. 

Wilberforce 



PENNSYLVANIA. 

Lincoln Univer- 
sity. 

SODTH CAEOLINA. 



Aiken 

Beaufort 

....do 

Camden 

Charleston.. 

....do 

Chester 

Columbia . . . 

....do 

Frogmore . . . 
Greenwood . 
Orangeburg. 



TENNESSEE. 



Jonesboro . . . . 

Kjioxville 

....do 

Maryville 

Memphis 

do 

Morristown 

Murfreesboro . 

NashviUe 

.™..do 

do 

do 



TEXAS. 



Austin ... 
Brenham . 
Crockett.. 
Galveston 
Hearne . . . 



Marshall. 



State ColOf ed Normal School 

do 

Agricultural and Mechanical College for 
the Colored Kace. * 

Bennett College* 

Lincoln Academy 

Whitin Normal School 

Barrett Collegiate and Industrial Insti- 
tute. 

State Colored Normal School 

Shaw "University 

St. Augustine's School 

City Graded School (colored) 

Livingston College 

State Colored Normal School 

Shiloh Institute 

Gregory Normal Institute 

Rankin- -Richards Institute 

Waters Normal Institute 



Nonsect 



Meth .... 

Cong 

Nonsect . 
]Nonsect . 

Nonsect .. 

Bapt 

P.E 



A M.E.Z. 
Nonsect . . 

Bapt 

Cong 

Nonsect .. 
Bapt 



11 



Wilberforce University . 



Lincoln University* 



Presb. 



Schoficld Normal and Industrial School . 

Beaufort Academy * 

Harbison Institute 

Browning Industrial Home and School. . 

Avery Normal Institute 

Wallingford Academy * 

Brainord Institute 

Allen University 

Benedict CoUege 

Penn Industrial and Normal School 

Brewer Normal School 

Clafiin University avid Agricultural Col- 
lege and Mechanics' Institute. 



Nonsect 



Presb . 
M.E.. 
Cong . 



Warner Institute 

Austin High School 

Knoxville "College 

Freedmen's Normal Institute . 

Hannibal Medical College 

Lo Moyne Normal Institute * . 
Morristown Normal Academy * 

Bradley Academy * 

Central Tennessee College 

risk University 

Meigs's High School 

Roger Williams University . . . 



Presb — 

A.M 

Bapt 

Nonsect 
Cong ... 
Nonsect 



Cong . . . . 
Nonsect . 
U. Presb - 
Friends- - 
Nonsect - 



M. E. 



M.E.... 
Cong ... 
Nonsect 
Bapt 



Tillotson College 

East End High School * 

Mary Allen Seminary * 

Central High School 

Hearne Academy and Normal and In- 
dustrial Institiite. 

Bishop College 

* Statistics of 1803-91. 



Cong 



Nonsect 
Bapt 

Bapt 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1343 



race, 1S04-D5— Detail table, Part I— Continued. 



Pupils enrolled. 


Students. 


Graduates. 




Total. 


Ele- 
mentary 
grades. 


Second- 
ary 
grades. 


Colle- Clas- 
siate sical 
classes courses 


Scien- 
tific 
courses 


Enjilisli 
coarse. 


Nor- 
mal 
course. 


Busi- 
ness 
course. 


High 
school 
course. 


Nor- 
mal 
cour.se. 


Colle- 
giate 
course. 




6 
9 

140 
30 
37 

97 
G2 
38 
50 

C2 

194 

79 

450 

79 

50 

40 

135 

35 

91 

175 

1G7 

74 

185 

53 

55 

135 

73 

74 

131 

59 

136 

108 

342 

50 
300 
146 
128 
6 
223 
141 
136 
157 
212 
219 
110 

95 

203 



90 

35 

179 


6 
"a 

g 

o 
Ph 

10 

110 
75 
26 

106 
136 
43 
85 

118 

168 

139 

361 

69 

51 

55 

225 

75 

120 

130 


11 

19 

20 


6 

1 

26 
44 


<6 
% 
13 

121 
10 
30 

92 
14 
24 

22 

42 
90 
18 
30 
26 
7 
25 
40 
10 
44 

37 


-a 

3 
14 

90 
31 
19 

106 

5 

26 

32 

73 
85 
23 
51 
27 
14 
29 
60 
25 
45 

77 


15 


a 

o 
Eh 

16 


6 
% 

17 

11 


_2 

a 

o 

18 
6 


19 

21 


_a3 

a 
fH 

20 

7 


6 
21 

96 


d 

g 

22 

79 


d 

23 

71 


d 

a 

Ph 
24 

90 


_d 
25 


d 

a 

26 


d 
27 

3 


a 
fH 

28 
3 


_d 
"« 
% 

29 

5 


6 
3 

30 

17 


d 

31 


d 

-a 

1 

32 


9(1 














97 


7 


7 


































9F 


5 
57 
12 

20 

20 
70 
54 
420 
37 
43 
15 
95 
25 
04 

77 




122 

19 

30 

45 

59 

111 

310 

38 

37 

26 

165 

50 

08 

63 














3 

5 

24 

14 

42 

90 


12 
14 
26 
18 

73 
85 


















OP 


























3 


4 

2 




2 


■7 


3 
1 






lOf 



17 



14 



4 



3 



19 



12 












7 



9 


S 







101 


10 


12 


3 





10: 
lor 


30 
7 


28 
5 








3 


2 


20 


30 














1 


1 


104 

iflf 
































lOf 


16 



4 



16 

5 


4 

8 




7 
5 




14 

8 




43 

5 




37 

8 


26 
3 
2 

20 


27 
1 
2 

35 










10 

3 
6 


7 


5 

7 


3 





10' 



3 
6 



5 

7 


lOf 






lOf 














IK 


























111 














91 

77 


120 

62 


9 

50 


23 
57 







5 


2 
9 










ir 


43 
167 




8 





22 


4 


15 


7 


9 


6 


7 


8 


4 
38 










IK 


149 
203 

52 

95 
275 
148 

77 
122 

76 
118 
123 
228 

CI 

320 
171 
125 
1 
447 
149 
206 
169 

365 
117 

98 
245 


25 

184 

46 

40 

91 

60 

65 

52 



121 

101 

286 

41 
.298 

82 

51 

3 

191 

39 
131 

57 

83 
176 

58 

71 


35 

196 

45 

30 

158 

112 

70' 

50 



104 

120 

187 

50 
300 
104 

62 

1 

386 

51 
187 

58 
138 
283 

83 

82 
216 
112 
104 

29 

158 


49 
1 
7 

25 
44 
13 
9 
33 
59 
15 
7 
39 

7 
10 
46 
74 

3 

32 
102 

5 

64 

156 

43 

34 

22 
18 

17 
13 

49 


114 

7 

7 

55 

117 

36 

7 
29 
76 
14 

3 
35 

13 
12 
62 
60 

61 
98 
19 
94 
107 
82 
33 

18 
29 
120 
18 
12 

16 














49 


114 


8 

1 


^2 

7 








1 


9 


1 


9 


11£ 
IK 




1 






:' ::: 












2 

1 
4 


3 

2 
21 






\Y 














65 

34 


85 
99 


5 
4 


20 
21 






1 
4 


2 
21 






IK 








10 


18 


















IK 






n{ 






8 
1 
4 


25 






5 


19 








1 


7 


9 
43 


15 


20 

2 


7 

43 


14 

39 

6 






4 


3 










I'^i 


46 




17 




43 



6 




2 



15 








10 








6 


9 






i?i' 


55 

15 

108 


71 
14 
123 






6 
2 
1 
9 



9 


10 


9 

2 
8 






^% 










2 

9 







4 

1 





8 





8 


12', 
12E 
K>< 


48 


56 






1?' 










1?? 


18 
3 


5 
3 


15 



5 



3 
3 



3 



64 



75 


13 
04 


11 
50 






9 
7 

3 

8 


8 

I 
6 
1 


1 





T>f 








13f 




1 


1 


1 


13 


















66 
31 


113 
42 






13' 






























13" 






























13'1 


36 
46 


17 
9 


27 
38 
43 
15 




82 
1 




9 

8 


1 



105 


119 


23 
3 


33 
79 










1 
1 


3 

7 


3 

8 




4 


13F 








18 
2 
5 

1 


3 
9 
5 

1 


13f 


176 

58 

91 


283 
83 

88 


1.3' 


18 



1 



3 
4 



6 


10 
22 


19 
18 






1 
1 


5 
1 


4 







13f 








13£ 
14f 


232 
122 73 
41 22 

189 112 






















120 















25 







141 





















13 





12 






















145 
14- 


19 


14 








4 

















3 


1 










144 



1344 



EDUCATION EEPOET, 1894-95. 

Statistics of schools for the education of the colored 



145 
146 
147 



148 
149 

150 
151 
152 

153 
154 
155 

156 
157 
158 
159 
160 



161 
162 



State and post- 
office. 



TEXAS— cont'd. 



Marshall 

Prairie View 
"Waco 



Burkeville. 
Hampton . . 



Lawrenceviile 

Longfleld 

Manassas 



Manchester. 

Norfoll< 

Petersburg . 



do 

do 

Kichmond 

do 

Staunton . 



WEST VIRGINIA. 



Farm 

Harpers Ferry. . 



Name of school. 



Wiley University 

Prairie View State Normal School " 
Paul Quinu College 



Ingleside Seminary 

Hampton Normal and Agricultural In- 
stitute. 

St. Paul Normal and Industrial School . . . 

Curry College* 

Manassas Industrial School for Colored 
Youth. 

Public High School, colored 

Norfolk Mission College 

Bishop Payne Divinity and Industrial 
School. 

Peabody School 

"Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute. 

Hartshorn Memorial College 

Eichmond Theological Seminary 

Valley Training School* 



Eeligious 
denomina- 
tion. 



M. E. 



Presb 

Nonsect 



Epis 

Bapt 

Nonsect .. 



"West Virginia Colored Institute. 
Storer College 



Nonsect . . 
U. Presb.. 
Epis 



Nonsect 
Nonsect 

Bapt 

Bapt 



Nonsect 
Bapt 



Teachers. 



White. 



Colored. 



Statistics of 1893-94. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1345 



race, 1S94-95 — Detail table, Part I — Coiitiiuied. 





Pupils enrolled. 






Students. 




Grades. 




Total. 


Ele- 
mentary 
grades. 


Second- 
ary- 
grades. 


Colle- 
giate 
classes 


Clas- Scien- 

sical tilic 

courses courses 

i 


English 
cour.se. 


for- 
mal 
course. 


Busi- 
ness 
course. 


High 
school 
course. 


Kor- 

ninl 

course. 


Colle- 
giate 
course. 




6 
% 
9 

130 
115 

GO 


430 

112 
52 
37 

28 

248 

10 

297 

142 

1 

50 

19 

34 
CI 


a 

10 

154 

106 

05 

111 
377 

145 
43 
40 

22 

438 



450 
179 

90 


32 

44 
74 


11 

30 
23 
40 


261 

32 
42 
37 

12 

225 



280 

25 




"3 

a 

12 

59 
63 
59 

56 
265 

60 
38 
40 

14 

397 



413 
31 
22 


6 
13 

70 
92 


6 

"3 

a 

14 

69 
43 


"3 
15 

33 


6 

"3 

i 
16 

23 


"3 

a 

17 

5 


6 
"a 

a 

a 
18 




"3 
19 


6 

"3 

a 

20 


"3 
21 

100 


_5J 

"3 

a 

22 

128 


"3 
23 

13 


s 

pR 

24 

21 


25 


a; 
3 

a 
^5 

26 


6 

"3 

27 


3 

a 

28 




6 
"3 

29 

1 


_© 

a 

30 

3 


"3 
31 

3 


6 

"3 

a 

32 




l^s 














116 


10 


16 


1 


1 


4 


4 


40 


175 

78 


59 

111 

112 

85 

















9 

6 


1 

26 
14 

4 


2 


1 


1 17 


80 
10 


6 

23 



17 

102 

1 


55 
112 

85 
5 


7 

41 



37 

146 

74 





9(1 







9 


26 
14 


1^8 




















41 39 

78 85 

1 










149 










TiO 


























Vil 



10 




1 
















28 



22 


°l ^ 










7 

11 



3 
2 




9 

10 



10 
1 




7 

11 




8 


: 

10 




11 








152 


23 





41 










14 24 










154 


10 


15 





2 



17 



37 



297 



450 





53 





94 










I 








155 

156 

l^i? 






















1'i8 


50 





































1'i9 


9 

25 
20 


20 

29 
25 


10 


12 

15 
49 














10 

9 
41 


12 

15 
49 


















IfiO 











9 



9 










25 
52 


29 
05 














6 



2 






161 


2 









16? 









ED 95- 



-43 



1346 



EDUCATION REPOET, 1894-95. 



Statistics of schools for the education of the 





Name of school. 


Students 


Pupils re- 
ceiving 

indirstrial 
training. 


Students trained in industrial branches. 




fessional 
courses. 


1 

a 

CD 

fcX) 

!-i 
O 

a 

^^ 
C3 


a 

o 

o 


p 

3 


fcjo 

(a 


fcb 
g 

'S 
Ph 


o 

CO 

a 

CD 
<D 

!-i 

o 
a 
H 


_g 
'to 
o 


,i4 

t^ 
o 
F= 

P< 
o 
-a 

6 

a 

15 


bb 

a 

a 

o 
o 

16 


fcii 

a 

17 


bb 



'% 

CD 
ZD 

18 


tb 

.9 

o 

o 

O 

19 


m 

o 

O 




6 
Is 


6 

a 


o 


6 

1 


ID 

a 

0) 


"3 
o 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


^ 


ALABAMA. 


































'> 










79 
15 


91 
10 


170 
25 


69 

2 




















39 
10 


4 



53 
7 


s 


Central Alabama Academy. 


























4 


























5 


State Normal School for 
Colored Students.* 

State Normal and Indus- 
trial School. 








250 

169 

48 


300 

279 

44 


550 

448 

92 


36 


75 
53 

48 


















200 
100 
44 


200 
5G 


135 


6 

7 


2 


16 


18 


2 







7 







29 

8 






27 



15 



8 




10 
35 
31 
52 






10 
35 
31 
52 


q 




118 


225 


343 


10 


75 























5 


135 


8 


110 


in 




11 

12 


Tuskegee Normal and In- 
dustrial Institute. 

ARKANSAS. 


480 



329 
18 


809 
18 


108 


38 


31 


31 


22 


13 


29 


16 


19 


44 


93 

18 


35 


68 


IS 


































14 










12 
38 
40 
15 

21 

77 


12 


20 
12 



64 


24 
38 

60 
27 

21 

141 


























24 


15 


Philander Smith College... 
Arkansas Normal College.. 
Southland College and Nor- 
mal Institute. 

DELAWARE. 

State College for Colored 
Students.' 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 

Howard University 

Normal School, 7th and 8th 

divisions. 
High School, 7th and 8th 

divisions. a 
Wayland Seminary 

FLORIDA. 


12 







12 





















38 
2 
5 



35 






Ifi 



15 

7 


15 
5 

21 

25 










20 


15 


... 








17 










15 



64 


8 




5 


1R 








2 





4 



12 


3 


5 





19 


217 


34 


251 


'n 














•'1 








































'>,'>. 


34 

4 






34 
4 


.... 


23 
30 


23 
30 






















23 
15 


15 




OS 






















'''1 
























'^ 










































26 















49 

20 


50 

57 

15 


50 
106 

35 




20 



49 

15 


























30 

57 


20 




27 


Orange Park Normal and 
Manual Training School. 

State Normal and Indus- 
trial College for Colored 
Students. 

GEORGIA. 


''8 
























2D 
30 









































85 


85 






















85 


... 




SI 


West Broad Street School. 




























S^ 










10 





10 





























10 








2 


SS 










34 


Gammon School of Theology 
Morris liro wn College 


84 

10 








32 


84 
10 
32 


































35 
SR 


8 





10 


17 
240 
130 
262 


25 
240 
130 
272 





























7 
'I 


17 
100 
130 


5 

125 



10 



"6 


37 





























5 


38 


Haines Normal 9,u([ Indus- 
trial School 





8 


8 


6262 





















' statistics of 1893-94. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED EACE. 



1347 



colored i-ace, 1894-95 — Detail table, Part II. 



Cliief soui'ces of support. 



21 



A. M. A . 



Frecdmen's Aid M. E. Ch. 



$15, 076 



23 



O - [ 

t. (» . 
o'a = 



24 






25 



26 



27 



$451 
400 






28 



29 



ss 



30 



$549 
1,100 



$7, 500 , 



State and U. S. 



Anier. Miss. Assn 

Am. Bapt. H. M. S 

Amer. Miss. Assn 

Ch. and contributiona. .. 
Statu and coutributions , 



3,089 
46,' 738 



1,985 

500 

500 

6,200 

1,000 

4,527 



30,142 $9,009 4,000 



5,000 1 876 

3,000 1 1 350 

128,617 141,354 1,503 
1, 500 ! I... 

215, 000 ' 3, 000 9, 696 



50 
7, 068 



1, 25o; 



A. :M.E.Con. in Ark. 
A. 15. Homo Miss. S.. 
Popular collection .. 



State andU. S 

Society of Trienda. 



U.S. 



U.S. 
U.S. 



600 
1,500 



150 

100 

700 

3,500 



0,13,000 

350 



5,000 
10, 000 

1,200 
30, 000 
60, 000 
26, 000 



35, 500 



20, 700 



300 
256 

500 , 



2, 500 
32, 698 

3, 004' 

3, ooo: 

8, 508 

3, 500' 

59, 401 1 



600 
700 



6,000 300 1. 

2,504 2, lOO! 



1,294 



600, 000 200, 000 29, 500 7, 987 8, 500 




11,541 




10,000 

30, 098 

3,880 
3,400 

17, 139 
3,500 

73, 347 



900 

1,306 

500 



6,300 
5,898 



57, 528 19 
20 



Am. Bapt. H.M. S- 



3, 000 70, 000 



Frccdmcn'3 Aid S. M. E. Cli 



1,000 



30, 000 



1, 800 2, 261 



A.B. H.M 

H. M. S. M. E. Ch . 
Am. Miss. Assn ., 



State and U. S. 



Jcnul V,. A. find A. B. H. M. S 

Am. Miss. Assn 

City 

Am. Bapt. H.M. S 

I'uition and benevolence 

Endowment funds 

A.M.E.Ch 

W. A. n. M. S. Slater Fund. . . . 

Tuition and benevolence 

Bresb. Board Miss, lor Freed- 
men. 



5 

402 

22, 234 




2,804 



150 
200 



25, 000 
19, 300 



75 

200 
150 
2, 000 
7,548 
9.00U 
1,200 



5,275 

5, 000 

1,200 

50, 000 

252, 000 

100,000 

75, 000 

2,500 150,000 

150 20, ooo: 

120 20, 000 



2,800 




30,000 



500, 000 




2, 019 





84 
112 



219 

o' 



10,000 12,912 



948 



36 
455 
1,551 
357 
1,335 
2,130 
1.312 
2,045 





1,250 

580 

8,000 





4,820 

123 

2,000 

4,000 

10, 850 



a No report. 



303 




2,060 
0,525 
2,254 

10, 357 
5,335 

18, 980 
1,312 
2,645 



1348 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

Statistics of sclwols for the education of the colored 





Name of scliool. 


St> 


dents 


Pupils re- 


Students trained in industrial branches. 




fessional 
courses. 


industrial 
training. 


o 
g 

cS 
tJO 

u 
o 

a 

ci 


a 

o 


a 

i 

a 


a 
'V, 

03 


bib 


1 

"a 
o 
B 

<E 

(D 

m 
o 






bic 

_g 
xn 


bia 
_g 

o 
o 
O 


i 

ri 

2 

u 
O 




a! 
■a 


6 

a 


o 
H 




a 

o 


o 
H 


a 
'So 

c 


o 

P, 
o 
-a 
? 

i 

_g 

§ 
3 


a 

o 
.a 
m 


a 




1 


2 


8 


4 


5 


G 


7 


8 


9 


10 


ll|l2 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 20 


30 
40 


GEORGIA — continued . 








































AValker Baptist Institute . . 
Georgia State Industrial 

College. 
Dorchester Academy 


••' 








141 

30 
100 


55 


F,r, 




















55 






41 

42 
43 


141 

115 145 
250 350 


9 33 

24 20 
70 


13 


13 


13 


30' 30 














115 

275 


2 
25 


16 
30 























44 














45 






































46 






































47 

48 

49 


Clark University 

Allen Normal and Indus- 
trial Scliool 
Haven Normal Academy a. 

ILLINOIS. 


::: 






160 
30 


181 
120 


341 
150 


... 20 



"o 


"o 


1 



"o 


10 



"o 


""o 


16 



136 
150 


IG 
15 


244 



50 

51 

52 

53 
54 

55 
5G 
57 
58 
59 

60 
61 

62 
63 


' 






































INDIANA. 










































' 












i 
























KENTUCKY. 








50 
43 


30 
02 


80 
105 




























State Normal School for 

Colored Persons. 
St. Augustine's Academy a. 


1 




30 1^ 


















62 62 
































1 




50 


125 


175 
























• 


Christian Bible School 


26 


Tt 












1 










1 












1 




















! 


Paris Colored High School . 

LOUISL4.NA. 












1 




















...1... 








































Gilbert Acad-my and In- 
dustrial College. 


1 




120 


30 


150 


30 


10 
















5 


15 


15 


... 

























36 







36 


























n 

















64 


New Orleans University ... 


1 


89 
72 


6G 
115 


155; 49 
187 


40 
72 











o! 

...1... 





o! 


66 








66 


Straight University 

MAEVLAND. 

Baltimore City Colored 
High School. 


12 





12 




38115 


67 

6R 












i 










9 





9 















































69 

70 
71 

72 
73 
74 


Baltimore Normal School 
for Training of Colored 
Teachers, a 

Industrial Home for Col- 
ored Girls. 

Princess Anne Academy . . . 

MISSISSIPPI. 

MountHermon Female Sem- 
inary, a 

Southern Christian Insti- 
tute. 

Rust Univer.sitv 




...1--.--. 












58 


112 
44 


112 
102 






















75 
44 


40 
44 














58 


16 














5 





6 





8 





8 


4 

27 



60 


4 

87 


4 



16 













... 












11 



36 


( 






'Statistics of 1893-94. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1349 



race, 1804-95 — Detail lahle, Part II— Continued. 



Cliief sources of support. 


o 

tw Si 

o s 

.3 
"a 
> 


.9 
a 

a 

> 


o 2 
■g'S 

n. 

O - m 
t^ <e 3 
Mr « 
"S ^ 2 

CSV- ta 
> 


o 
u 

u ^ 

!| 
§s 

<" u 
O o 

«^ 
g- 

s 


'S 
s 
S 

o 

"2 

o 
la 
o 

a 


'3 

1 . 

II 
1.2 

5 

a 

-A 


p 

a 
p ^^ 

•si 

^ 

s 
o 

a- 


o 

a 

o 

kg 
11 

u 
o 

a 


u 
a 
tu 
^. 

o 

o4 
eS 

o — 
o 

a 

a 
o 
H 




21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


2C 


27 


28 


29 30 




S.Col.M.E.Ch 

Ara.B.H.M.S 

State an<l TJ. S 




502 

55 

265 

300 

300 




.$14, 484 
5,000 


$25, 000 



$500 


$159 
289 


$1, 603 
11 


$6, 304: J8, 126 
1, 002i 1, 802 


39 
40 
41 


Benevolence and tuition 

Am. M. Assu. and tuition 

State 


$1,620 

150 

25 








613 

500 
50 


'i,'86o 




3, 452 4, 065 


A"} 


25, 000 
1,000 







300 


4, 500 0, 80(1 43 
24 374 44 







45 






















46 


F A and S Ed S M E Cli , 




500 


250, 000 






1,855 




8,515 




10, 370 


47 










48 




















- 


4<> 


State 




25 
















50 




















51 






250 

7,000 
G:il 


10, 000 

132, 656 
20, 564 














5? 




14,145 
1,000 


100, 400 



3,000 


3,265 
2,900 


4,073 

1 


145 


7, 483 
5,901 


.53 


State and TJ. S 


.54 




55 


A.M. A 





















56 







450 
185 
290 



20, 000 
20, 000 


3,425 








190 


4,031 


4, 221 


57 


Citv 


58 


City 








191 






191 


m 














60 






i,66o 


40, 000 












61 
















6^ 




902 
3, 000 
2, 882 
4,500 


1,000 

5,000 

727 

2,500 

200 
2,000 


160,000 

lOO, 000 

49, 422 

125, 000 


92, 750 





480 

3,440 



3,200 


4.827 

5, 300 

n. 548 


5,307 
8,740 
19. 048 
14,000 


63 


F.A., S. Ed.S. M.E.Ch. andS.E. 


64 


"'g,'66o 


7, 500 



6.'> 






10, 800 


67 


Citv 


67 




9,055 


50, 000 







2,800 


1,117 


13, 456 


17, 373 


68 




69 










3,500 
1,000 


6,500 








4,900 
3,834 


11,400 
5,000 


70 


U S. and E A and S Ed So 







14,000 


1, 166 




71 






!'>• 




1,000 


1,000 
3,000 


25, 000 
90,000 








400 
1,631 





9,338 


400 
10, 969 


73 


Freednien's Aiil and S. Ed. So. 


74 



o No report. 



1350 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

Staiisfics of sell ools for ihe education of ihe colored 





Name of school. 


Students 

in pro- 
fessional 
courses. 


Pupils re- 


Students trained in industrial branches. 




industrial 
training. 


o 
g 
be 

o 
8 


O 





_g 
'3 

12 


o 

a 

u 

13 




3 
a 
S 
o 

m 
16 


fci; 

.9 

.3 
17 


a 

'$■ 
a 
m 

18 


'oil 

o 
o 

19 


CD 

a 

0) 

o 

20 




6 


6 

p 
3 
PR 


o 


6 


6 

a 

Ph 
6 


o 
H 

7 


fail 



'& 

3 

10 


fcjo 

o 

5 
11 


to 
.9 
'3d 

3 
14 


o 

ft 
o 

A 

6 
a 

15 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


15 

7G 

77 
78 
70 
80 

81 

82 
83 
81 
85 

80 

87 
88 
89 
90 
91 
9'' 


MISSISSIPPI— continued. 
State Colored Normal School 











75 


7^ 






















75 






...1 


































































































Tougaloo University 

Alcorn A gricultural and 
Mechanical College. 

MISSOURI. 


4 


25 


29 


158 


150 


308 30 


83 
37 










45 
26 








80 


70 - 1 




^5ft 




3 


23 






27 


21 




2 
























85 


80 


165 




40 










20 


25 






80 






















1 




5 





5 



9 

20 




27 

22 



36 

42 






























9 

17 



22 










KEW JERSEY. 

Colored Normal and Indus- 
trial School. 

NORTH CAEOLIN'A. 







2 


6 


20 






2 



























172 


49 


49 
172 






41 



23 



q 















29 



50 


49 






25 







































283 


283 






















283 


283 




State Colored ]S ormal School 
(Elizabeth City). 

State Colored Normal School 
(Fa,yetteTille).a 

Albion Academy, Normal 
and Industrial School. 

Frauklinton Christian Col- 
lege. 

State Colored Normal School 
(Franklinton). 

State Colored Normal School 
(Goldsboro). 

Agricultural and Mechan- 
ical College for the Col- 
ored Race, a 




























93 








































94 
95 


5 


2 


7 


80 
126 


29 
103 


109 
229 


50 


46 
89 


25 


10 
6 


2 
4 


1 
3 












18 
28 








5 




103 


96 








97 








































98 








































90 








































100 










17 


136 


153 




3 


















118 


32 




101 


























102 


Barrett Collegiate and In- 
dustrial Institute. 

State Colored Normal School 
(Plymouth). 


9 





9 


50 


35 


85 


25 


















28 


20 


12 




103 


















104 


110 





110 


100 
79 


110 
139 


210 
218 




10 


100 
9 








40 
1 








50 








110 

55 


110 
55 





105 




xou 


(Jity Graded School, Colored 


















107 








15 


33 


48 


4 


3 














8 


21 


12 






108 


State Colored Normal School 

(Salisbury). 
Shiloh Institute 




















109 








































110 










20 


225 


245 




























1]1 


Kaukin'-Eichards I n s t i - 

lute, a 
"Waters Normal Instiluto . . 

OHIO. 

Wilberforce University 


































112 


4 
10 



15 


4 
25 


































113 


50 


57 


107 




43 
















24 


ri 


44 


180 



Statistics of 1803-94. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1351 



7-ctcc, 1S94-93— Detail table, Fart 7/— Coiitiuiied. 



Cliicf sources of support. 


o 3 
2, 


2 
a 

3 


Yaluoof grounds, buildings, 
furniture, and scientific 
apparatus. 


Amount of any other prop- 
erty or endowment. 


'S 

3 

u 

o 

03 
a '3 





3 ■ 



s 

< 


a 
1 . 

11 
sl 

a 
p 


a 


6 
ft 

a 

^3 

•? p 

3 



a 

■A 


a) 


3 
1 . 

11 

'S =! 



01 00 

"S 

3 


a 


es 

.3 

aS 
g 

"a 


H 




21 


22 


23 24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 




State 




$1, 500: .*io nnn 





$2,000 


$240 






$2, 240 


75 


Am Bapt H M So 




300 


35, 000 

2,500 






76 


it. E. Cli 




25 






600 




$300 


oiin 


77 












78 




$1, 500 


2,500 

2,875 


80, COO 
102, 500 


$163," 575 



2,321 


1,000 




15, 000 
11, 600 


16, 000 
19, 670 


79 


TJ. S. and State 


70 '*.=>. 679 


80 










81 






31 

'"soo 

500 


81, 625 

18, 000 

2,500 

60,000 

10, 000 




65,000 


167 


1 084' 


66, 251 


82 


State 






200 

7,427 






83 


Students 









1,200 








84 


U. S. and S. Ed. So. of M. E. Ch . 


200 


50 
500 


1,450 
3,500 


S'S 


5,000 


3,000 


86 








87 










3,000 





152 


83 








235 


88 




89 


City 




31 

1,000 








300 



900 


50 




6 




50 




400 
900 


m 


Preedmen's N. Presl). Chr 


11, 150 




00, 000 



4,500 


91 
9?! 




<n 


Prcsb. Br. and State 


5, OOo' 1,100 


15,OOo' 

11, oooL 

6, 000 4, 000 
2, 000 


1,500 








1,500 
4,320 
1,820 
1,650 


94 






219 

1,500 

300 


1 400 




150 
320 




2,776 

1,400 

150 


9-> 






100 
1,500 






96 


State .md Peabody E 


150 


97 


State 


98 


F. A. andE. S 


















99 


Am. Miss. Assu 


100 

10 

978 


200 




111 










111 

19". 

3, OSt 


100 




150 


1.(100 


180 
3,080 





15 


101 




1, 000 8. 000 




10? 


State 


250 
2,000 












103 


Am. B. H. M. So 




200. ono 


30, 000 


•> 179 




8,497 


10, 669 


mi 






'...: 




' 


105 


State and city 




200 
3, OCO 
















106 


A, M. E. Z. Cli 


3,500 


180 
2,500 


110. non 


i, 000 




'i,'486 


503 


250 
!>, 000 


200 


50 
200 


5,800 


210 
9 :!nn 


6, .500 
1,480 

510 
4,500 


107 


State and Peabody F 


920 

100 6,135 
700 12. onn 


108 




109 










110 










111 


Am.Bapt.n.M.S 

A. M. E. Cb. and State 


8,000 


5,000 


10, 860 
200, 000 


23, 000 


175 
12, 500 


181 
3,500 


2,300 


1,446 

8,701) 


1, 802 

27, 000 


112 
113 



« No report. 



1352 



EDUCATION KEPOET, 1894-95. 



Statistics of sell ools for the education of the colored 





Name of school. 


Students 
in pro- 
fessional 
courses. 


Pupils re- 


Students trained in industrial oranches.' 




industrial 
training. 




a 
'^ 

^^ 

a 
^1 

a 
u 


PI 




t'lj 

_p 

3 




q 

a 
'S 




a 

.3 
u 





14 


c 
f: 

P< 

.3 

<s 

.9 
15 


a 


M 

16 


t'n 

g 

17 


tic 

a 

'b 


M 

18 


fci) 

a 



a 

To 




20 






a 


a 
o 


CD 
3 


'a 

a 



H 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


ru 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

Lincoln ITniversity * 

SOUTH CAEOLINA. 

Schofiekl Normal and In- 
dustrial School. 
Beaufort Academy a 


40 





40 


































115 


40 


20 


60 


8 


20 
















6 


114 


20 




10 






















17 


Harbison Institute 








































IS 


Brownins' Industrial Homo 

and School. 
Avery Normal Institute... 
Wallingford Academy* 












75 



75 























75 



25 






119 









































?i 










36 


30 


06 


36 


11 






8 











6 


30 


30 




??. 


Allen University 


7 





7 








?3 




28 
103 

'279 
10 


50 
81 

123 
169 

61 


78 
184 

123 

418 

71 


"6 


10 

10 


21 

86 


70 

1 












7 



70 


'"6 



50 

17 


7 








124 

125 
90 


Penn Industrial and Nor- 
mal School. 

Brewer Normal School 

Claflin University and Ag- 
ricultural College and 
Mechanics Institute. 

TENNESSEE. 

















118 





118 





118 










70 


81 

123 
113 

01 




20 

22 

20 






?7 








28 


Austin Higli School 
























90 




2 







2 50 



90 



140 



6 



12 











0' 


ol 






15 



108 



12 



5 



130 
31 


Freedmen's Normal Insti- 
tute. 
Hannibal Medical College.. 














32 


Lo Moyne Normal Insti- 
tute, a 

Morrislown Normal Acad- 
emy.* 






1 
































33 






































3'l 






































135 
30 


Central Tennessee College. 
Fisk University 


165 
3 






ies 59 

3 07 


83 
128 


142 
195 


4 


22 











6 











40 
22 


52 
100 


3 
20 


6 


37 


Meio-'s High School 






















38 


Koger Williams University. 

TEXAS. 








22 
91 


46 

84 


08 
175 


5 


14 


1 












10 



44 

84 








■^o 





4 


4 


91 








3 





1 








40 


East End High" School a 


41 


Mary Allen Seminary* 








































142 
43 


Central Higli School" 

Hearno Academy and Nor- 
mal and Industriallnsti- 
tute. 





' 






13 

52 
2 



12 

128 
75 




25 

180 

77 



13 

1 












2 

2 









1 





4 

s 

30 



12 

14 
75 




12 
31 







44 


12 
5 






12 
5 


28 


16 


4 


1 


1 

1 


45 


Wiley Ilniversitv 


40 


Prairie View State Normal 

School a 
Paul Quinn College 














i 




47 








1 


250 

00 


2 

111 
191 

35 


3 

111 
441 

95 


2 


1 
























48 


VIRGINIA. 

Ingloside Seminary 
























111 


m 


ioo 


I4P 


Hampton Normaland Agri- 
cultural Institute. 

St. Paul Normal and Indus- 
trial Scliool. 

Curry Collegea 








46 

22 


22 

12 



5 


1 
5 


5 
2 


1 


13 


« 


104 '■>?• 


150 
151 


t) 





5 


2 




8 


12 


23 


4 



statistics of 1893-94. 



aNo report. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1355 



race, 1S94-95 — Detail table, Part II — Continued. 



Chief sources of support. 


u 
o 

I! 

% 


a 

u 

a 

a 


■^ a 

,3 " 

a ci 
gars 
^^5 2 


2 

•3. a 

l-i 

1? 

a 
< 


•s 

a 



a 
g . 

(CIS 

o 

a 

i 


'3 

a 

o 

'^ . 

11 

'S a 
S.2 


o 

a 


. 

S 

a 

£--2 

«-« 

3 
o 

a 


<D 

.a 
"o 

a 

o 
u 

C CO 

a 
o 

a 


a 
>-, 

o 

3 

o 
H 




21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


-27 1 2S 


29 


80 








15,000 
900 


$212,000 
33, 000 


$394, 800 






$22, 469 
1,000 


$11, 271 
5,000 


$33, 740 
fi .^00 


1U 






$150 



$150 


115 








116 


N. Presl). Cb 




50 
300 

500 
500 


6,000 






222 
400 

2,800 
336 






222 
400 


117 


M.E. Ch 













118 







25, 000 
1,300 
10, OOO 
40, 000 
50, 000 
5,000 

10, 000 

8,000 

10. 000 

100,000 















2 500 


ll** 




1, 464J i! 800 


1?0 






^n 


A M E CIi . . 


$600 


i.'soo 

300 

200 
1,800 

50 

305 

1,600 


1,000 

40, 000 

350 




1,050 




3, 950 5, 000 


^f?, 


Am J?!ipt H.M. So 


IT. 




1,000 








Oi i.nnn! i.ooo 


1?4 













^•?^ 


ir.S.. Statt',Slateraiicl Poabody 
Puuds, F. A. and S. E. So. 



60 





2,000 
350 


3,000 
100 




22, 754 
500 


27, 754 
950 


126 
1?7 


City 


i?a 


f'biircb and Miss. Socictv 

New Eng. T. M \ 


is, 000 







3,000 


500 





9,500 


13, 666 


129 
130 




300 


1,100 





80 


215 


1 
80 34 

1 


409 


131 


A.M. A 








132 
133 


F. A. and S.Ed. S 






1 




877 


6,275 


7,152 














134 


F. A. So. M. E. Cbr 


1,087 
600 


4,o6;) ii6,6oo 

5, 227 400, 000 


5,000 
25, 000 


4 nr,7 


247 7 nnn 


ii.oii 

22,185 


135 


Am. Miss. Assn 

VWy 





5,285 


900 


16, 000 


136 
137 


Am. Bapt. H. M. Bo 


10, 000 
191 


4,000 
1,400 
















13« 




60, 000 








1,181 





9 r.nn 


3,681 


139 






140 






SOU 
48 


50, 000 
18, 000 










1,800 



1,800 



298 


141 


City 







'"'298 








14*1 


Am. Bapt, H. M. So 


1,237 






143 


Am. Bapt. IT. M. So 


875 
2, 000 


75, 000 










144 


F. A. and S. Ed. So. M. E. Cb . . 
















14'> 




















146 




4,000 

5,000 
80, 392 

0,500 


400 

400 
7, 332 


70, 000 
3,000 


500 




1,500 






1,500 


in 








14ft 


U S 


57'' 000 


424 085 








22, 203 


97,477 


119, 680 


149 


Contributions 


40, 000 




150 
















151 



ED 95- 



-43^ 



1354 



EDUCATION EEPORT; 1894-95. 

Statistics of schools for the education of the colored 





N^ame of school. 


Students 
in pro- 
fessional 
courses. 


Pupils 


re- 


Students trained in industrial branches. 




industrial 
training. 


i 

bJO 
O 

a 

pR 


u 
a 


a 

i 


fcJO 

o 
n 


"3. 


o 

% 

a 

o 
<c 

o 


b'o 

g 

S 
PR 


o 

ft 
o 
-d 

6 
g 


ti 

_g 

S 

a 

o 
o 
,a 


fee 

.9 
.9 


til 



1 


tb 

3 

o 
o 
Q 

19 


1 

<s 
O 
20 






6 
'a 
Q 

PR 


. 
o 




1 


3 

o 
H 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


153 

15:? 


VIEGINIA— continued . 

Manassas Industrial School 

for Colored Youth. 
Public High School, Colored. 











37 


40 


77 


37 


37 


























40 


40 





ira 


Norfolk Mission College 








18 



240 



258 





















18 ^iO 


"6 


"6 


155 
150 


Bishop Payne Divinity and 

Industrial School. 
Peabody Schoola 


1 





10 



































157 


Virginia Normal and Colle- 
giate Institute. 

Hartshorn Memorial Col- 
lege. 

Eichmond Theological 
Seminary. 

Valley Training Schoola. . . 











148 


148 






















148 


11 




158 




























159 


50 





50 


































ifin 


































161 


AYEST VIRGINIA. 

West Virginia Colored In- 
stitute. 
Storer College 














34 
25 


44 
70 


78 
95 




32 
12 

















2 











4 
5 


40 
















a No report. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



1355 



race, 1894-05 — Detail tahlc, Part //—Continued. 





o 






& 
^ 


'3 

•a 


"3 


s 

p< 


^ 

J 








c s> 


>> 

S 


IK'S 






a 

o . 

OT3 


i 


a 



1 


IS 




Chief sources of support. 


^ CO 


a 




o o 


3'^ 

Ma 
^ P, 
o 


£•1 


.So 

21 


.^2 

a! 

t4 


'^ 






° a 


m 


-^- 5 ci 


■f t>» 


.f3 


4^ 


■M^ 


.4.3 


a 






o< 




o-- 5? 


ia« 


a 


q 


n^ 


fl 








§^ 







gS 


o 


3 
o 





§ 


■3 






? 


^ 


a 


1 


a 


1 


1 




H 




21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 






$3, 180 


150 


$10, 000 














1.5?, 


State 




68 
1,000 


3,000 
50, 000 















15-1 


U I'resb. Church 








$2, 664 






$7, 571 
50 


$9, 575 
450 


154 


Church 


50 


200 


10, 000 








$400 


1,55 


City and State 




















156 


y tate 






175, 000 




$15, COO 


908 




8,389 


24, 207 


157 








45, 000 


$20, 000 

eo, 000 












158 


EnflowracntandAin.B.H.M.S. 




5,000 


30, 000 





364 




3,814 


4,178 


159 






















ifin 


U.S. and State 





500 


25, 000 





3,000 


750 





3,000 


6,750 


161 


Endowment and contrib 


4,401 


5,000 


60, 000 


30, 000 




738 


2,093 


270 


3,101 


162 



1356 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION OF THE BLACKS.' 

It liardly seems fitting for you to associate my history and thought •with those of 
Alexander Hamilton, one of the great men not horn to die. And yet it may not 
seem immodest in me to suggest that the great and lowly, the rich and poor, the 
white and black, the ex-master and the ex-slave, have this in common, that each in 
bis own way, and in his own generation, can put forth his highest efforts to serve 
humanity in the way that our country most needs service; in this all of us can he 
equal — in this all can he great. If any of you have the faintest idea that I have 
come here iu the capacity of an instructor along any lino of education I wish you to 
part with such an impression at once. My history and opportunity have not fitted 
mo to he your teacher ; the most that I can do is to give you a few facts out of my 
humble experience and leave you to draw your own conclusious. 

I was born a slave on a plantation in Virginia, in 1857 or 1858, I think. My first 
memory of life is that of a one-room log cabiu with a dirt floor and a hole in the 
center that served as a winter home for sweet potatoes, and, wrapped in a few rags 
on this dirt floor I spent my nights, and, clad in a single garment, about the planta- 
tion I often spent my days. The morning of freedom came, and though a child, I 
recall vividly my appearance with tliat of forty or fifty slaves before the veranda of 
the " big house" to hear read the documents that made us men instead of pi'operty. 
With the long prayed for freedom in actual possession, each started out into the 
world to find new friends and new homes. My mother decided to locate iu West 
Virginia, and after many days and nights of weary travel we found ourselves among 
the salt furnaces and coal mines of West Virginia. Soon after reaching West Vir- 
ginia I began work in the coal mines for the support of my mother. 

While doing this I heard in some way, I do not now remember how, of General 
Armstrong's school at Hampton, Va. I heard at the same time, which impressed me 
most, that it was a school where a poor boy could work for his education, so far as 
his board was concerned. As soon as I heard of Hampton I made up my mind that 
in some way I was going to find my way to that institution. I began at once to save 
every nickel I could get hold of. At length, Avith my own savings and a little help 
from my brother and mother, I started for Hampton, although at the time I hardly 
knew where Hamptou was or how much it would cost to reach the school. After 
walking a portion of the distance, traveling in a stage coach and cars the remainder 
of the journey, I at length found myself in the city of Richmond, Va. I also found 
myself without money, friends, or a place to stay all night. The last cent of my 
money had been expended. After walking about the city till midnight, and growing 
almost discouraged and quite exhausted, I crept under a sidewalk aud slept all that" 
night. The next morning, as good luck would have it, I found myself near a ship 
that was unloading pig iron. I applied to the cajitaiu for work, and lie gave it, and 
I worked on this ship by day aud slept under the sidewalk by night, till I had 
earned money enough to continue my way to Hampton, where I soon arrived with a 
surplus of 50 cents in my pocket. 

I at once found General Armstrong, and told him what I had come for, and what 
my condition was. In his great hearty way he said that if I Avas worth anything 
he would give me a chance to work my way through that institution. At Hamptou 
I found buildings, instructors, industries provided by the generous; in other Avords, 
thochance to workformy education. While at Hampton Iresolved, if God permitted 
me to finish the course of study, I Avould enter the far South, the black belt of the 
Gulf States, and give my life in providing as best I could the same kind of chance for 
self-help for the youth of my race that I found ready for me Avheu I Avent to Hamp- 
tou, and so in 1881 I left Hampton and went to Tuskegee and started the Normal 
and Industrial Institute in a small church and shanty, Avith 1 teacher and 30 students. 

Since then the institution of Tuskegee has groAvu till wo have connected with the 
institution 69 instructors and 800 young men and Avomen, representing 19 States; 
and, if I add the families of our instructors, wo have on our grounds constantly a 
population of about 1,000 souls. The students are about equally divided between 
the sexes, and their average is 18^ years. In planning the course of training at Tus- 
kegee we have steadily tried to keep in A'iew our condition and our needs rather than 
pattern our course of study directly after that of a people whose opportunities of 
civilization have been far different and far superior to ours. From the first, industrial 
or hand training has been made a special feature of our work. 

This industrial training, combined with the mental and religious, to my mind has 
several emphatic advantages. At first few of the young men and women who came 
tons Avould be able to remain in school during the nine months and -pay in cash the 
$8 per month charged for board. Through our industries Ave give them the chance 

lAn address delivered by Booker T. Wasliinston, principal of tlie Tuskegee (Ala.) Normal and 
Industrial Institute, at the iiinneriu honor of Alexander Hamilton, Brooklyn, N. T., January, 1896. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1357 

of working oitt a portion of their board and the remainder they pay in cash. We 
find by experience that this iustitntiou can furnish labor that has economic value to 
the institution and gives the student a chance to learn something from the labor 
within itself. For instance, we cultivate by the labor of our students this year about 
600 acres of land. This land is not only cultivated in a way to bring in return to our 
boarding department, but the farm, including stock raising, dairying, fruitgrowing, 
etc., is made a constant object lesson for our students and the people in that section 
of the South. A three-story brick building is now going up, and the bricks for this 
building are manufactured at our brick yard by students, where we have made 
1,500,000 brick this season. The brick masonry, plastering, sawing, sawing of lum- 
ber, carpenters' work, painting, tiusmithiug, in fact everything connected with the 
erection of this building is for permanent use, and the students have the knowledge 
of the trades entering into the erection of such a building. While the young men 
do this, the girls to a large extent make, mend and laundry their clothing, and in 
that way are taught these industries. 

Now, this work is not carried on in a miscellaneous or irregular manner. At the 
head of each industrial department we have a competent instructor, so that the stu- 
dent is not only learning the practical work but is taught as well the underlying 
principles of each industry. When the student is through with brick masonry he 
not only understands the trade in a practical way, but also mechanical and archi- 
tectural drawing to such an extent that he can become a leader in this industry. 
All through the classroom work is dovetailed in the industrial — the chemistry teach- 
ing made to tell on tlio farm and cooking, the mathematics in the carpentry depart- 
ment, the physics in the blacksmishing and foundryiug. Aside from the advantage 
mentioned, the industrial training gives to our students respect and love for labor — 
helps them to got rid of the idea so long prevalent in the South that labor with the 
hands is rather degrading, and this feeling as to labor being degrading is not, I 
might add, altogether original with the black man of the South. The fact that a 
man goes into the Avorld conscious of the fact that he has within him the power to 
create a wagon or a house gives him a certain moral backbone and independence in 
the world that he would not i)0ssess without it. 

Whihi friends of the North and elsewhere have given us money to pay our teachers 
and to buy material which we could not produce, still very largely by the labor of 
the students, in the way I have attempted to describe, wo have built ui> within 
about fourteen years a property that is now valued at $225,000; 37 buildings, count- 
ing large and small, located on our 1,400 acres of land, all except three of which are 
the ])roduct of student labor. The annual expense of carrying on this work is now 
about $70,000 a year. The whole property is deeded to an undenominational board 
of trustees, who have control of the institution. There is no mortgage on any of 
the property. Our greatest need is for money to pay for teaching. 

What is the object of all this? In everytning done in literary, religious, or indus- 
trial training the question kept constantly before all is that the institution exists for 
the purpose of training a certain number of picked leaders who will go out and 
rearh in an effective manner masses by whom we are surrounded. It is not a prac- 
tical nor desirable thing for the North to educate all the negroes in the South, but 
it is a perfectly practical and possible thing for the North to help the South edu- 
cate the leaders, who in turn will go out and reach the masses and show them how 
to lift themselves up. In discussing this subject it is to be borne in mind that 85 per 
cent of the colored people South live practically in the country districts, where they 
are difficult to reach except by special effort. In some of the counties in Alabama, 
near Tuskegee, the colored outnumber the whites four and five to one. 

In an industrial sense, what is tlie condition of these masses? The first year our 
people received their freedom ihey had nothing on which to live while they grew 
their first cotton crop; funds for the first crop were supplied by the storekeeper or 
former master, a debt was created; to secure the indebtedness a lien was given on 
the cotton crop. In this w.iy wo got started in the South what is known as the 
mortgage or crop lien system — a system that has proved a curse to the black and 
white man ever since it was instituted. By this system the farmer is charged a rate 
of interest that ranges from 15 to 40 per cent. By this system yon will usually find 
three-fourths of the people mortgage their crops from year to year, as many deeply 
in debt and living in one-roomed cabins on rented land. By this system debts and 
extravagances are encouraged, and the land is impoverished and values fall. 

Tlio schools in the country districts rarely last over three and one-half months in 
the year, and are usually taught in a church or a wreck of a log cabin or under a 
brush arbor. My information is that each child entitled to attend tho public schools 
in Massachusetts has spent on him each year between $18 and $20. In Alabama 
each colored child has spent on him this year about 71 cents, and tho white children 
but a few cents more. Thus far in my remarks I have been performing a rather 
nngracions Task in stating contlitions without suggesting a remedy. What is the 
remedy for the state of things I have attempted to describe? 



1358 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

If the colored people got any good out of slavery it was the liabit of work. In 
tills respect the masses of the colored peoplo are difierent from most races among 
whom missionary eflbrt is made, in that the negro as a race works. You will not 
find anything like that high tension of activity that is maintained here; still the 
negro works, whether the call for lahor comes from the rice swamps of the Carolinas, 
the cotton plantations of Alabama, or the sugar cane bottoms of Louisiana, the 
negro is ready to answer it — yes, toil is the badge of all his tribe, though he may do 
his work in the most shiftless and costly manner, still with him it is labor. I know 
you will find a class around railroad stations and corners of streets that loaf, just as 
jon will find among my people, and we have got some black sheep in our flock, as 
there are in all flocks, but the masses in their humble way are industrious. 

The trouble centers here : Through the operations of the mortgage system, high 
rents, the allurements of cheap jewelry and bad whisky, and the gewgaws of life, 
the negro is deprived of the results of his labor. Unused to self-government, 
unused to the responsibility of controlling our own earnings or expenditures, or 
even our own children, it could not be expected that we could take care of ourselves 
in all respects for several generations. The great need of the negro to-day is intel- 
ligent, unselfish leadership in his educational and industrial life. 

Let mo illustrate, and this is no fancy sketch : Ten years ago a young man born in 
slavery found his way to the Tuskegee school. By small cash payments and work 
on the farm he finished the course with a good English education and a practical 
and theoretical knowledge of farming. Returning to his country home where five- 
sixths of the citizens were black, he still found them mortgaging their crops, living 
on rented land from hand to mouth, and deeply in debt. School had never lasted 
longer than three months, and was taught in a wreck of a log cabin by an inferior 
teacher. Finding this condition of things, the young man to whom I have referred 
took the three months public school as a starting point. Soon he organized the older 
people into a club that came together every week. In these meetings the young 
man instructed as to the value of owning a home, the evils of mortgaging, and the 
importance of educating their children. He taught them how to save money, how 
to sacrifice — to live on bread and potatoes until they could get out of debt, begin 
buying a home, and stop mortgaging. Through the lessons and influence of these 
meetings, the first year of this young man's work these people built up by their 
contributions in money and labor a nice frame schoolhouse that replaced the wreck 
of a log cabin. The next year this work was continued and those people, out of 
their own pockets, added two months to the original three months' school term. 
Month by month has been added to the school term till it now lasts seven months 
every year. Already fourteen families within a radius of 10 miles have bought and 
are buying homes, a large proportion have ceased to mortgage their crops and are 
raising their own food supplies. In the midst of all Avas the young man educated 
at Tiiskegee, with a model cottage and a model farm that served as an example and 
center of light for the whole community. 

My friends, I wish you could have gone with me some days ago to this community 
and have seen the complete revolution that has been wrought in their industrial, 
educational, and religious life by the work of this one teacher, and I wish you could 
have looked with me into their faces and seen them beaming with hope and delight. 
I wish you could have gone with me into their cottages, containing now two and 
three rooms, through their farms, into their church and Sunday school. Bear in 
mind that not a dollar was given these people from the outside with which to make 
any of these changes ; they all came about by reason of the fact that they had this 
leader, this guide, this Christian, to show them how to utilize the results of their 
own labor, to show them how to take the money that had hitherto been scattered 
to the Avind in mortgaging, high rents, cheap jewelry and whisky, and to concen- 
trate in the direction of their own uplifting. My people do not need or ask for 
charity to be scattered among them ; it is very seldom you ever see a black hand in 
any part of this country reached forth for alms. It is not for alms we ask, but for 
leaders who will lead and guide and stimulate our people till they can get upon their 
own feet. Wherever they have been given a leader, something of the kind I have 
desciibed, I have never yet seen a change fail to take place, even in the darkest 
community. 

In our attempt to elevate the South one other thing must be borne in mind. I do 
not know how you find it here, but in Alabama we find it a pretty hard thing to 
make a good Christian of a hungry man. I think I have learned that we might as 
well settle down to the uncompromising fact that our people will grow in proportion 
as Ave teach them that the way to have the most of Jesus, and in a permanent form, 
is to mix in with their religion some land, cotton, and corn, a house with two or 
three rooms, and a little bank account; with these things interwoven with our 
religion there will be a foundation for growth on Avhich we can build for all time. 
What I have tried to indicate are some of the lessons that we are disseminating into 
eA^ery corner of the black belt of the South, through the work of our graduates and 



EDUCATION OP THE COLORED RACE. 1359 

throns'li tlio Tuskegee negro conference, that brings together at Tuskegeo once a 
year 800 of the representatives of the black yeomanry of the Sonth to lay phms, to 
get light and encouragement, and thus add the strength of mothers and fathers to 
the strengtli of the schoolroom and pulpit. More than anything else Tuskegee is a 
great college settlement dropped into the midst of a mass of ignorance that is grad- 
ually but slowly leavening the whole lump. 

Of this you can be sure that it matters not what is said the black man is doing or 
is not doing, regardless of entanglements or diicouragements, the rank and file of 
my race is nov/ giving itself to the acquiring of education, character, and property 
in a way that it has never done since the daAvn of our freedom. The chance that 
wo ask is, bj' your help and encouragement, to be permitted to move on unhindered 
and unfettered for a few more years, and with this chance, if the Bible is right and 
God is true, there is no power that can permanently stay our progress. Neither 
hero nor in any part of the world do j)eople come into close relations with a race 
that is io a large extent empty handed and cmx^ty headed. One race gets close to 
another in proportion p.s they arc drawn in commerce, in proportion as the one gets 
hold of something that the other wants or resiiects — commerce, we must acknowl- 
edge, in the light of history, is the great forerunner of civilization and peace. 

Whatever friction exists between the black man and white man in the 8onth will 
disappear in proiiortion as the black man. by reason of his intelligence and skill, can 
create something that thowhitonian wants or respects; can make something, instead 
of all the dependence being on the other side. Despite all her faults, when it comes 
to business pure and simple, the Sonth presents an opportunity to the negro for busi- 
ness that no other section of the country does. The negro can sooner conquer South- 
ern prejudice in the civilized Avorld than learn to compete with the North in the 
business Avorld. In field, in factory, in the markets, the South presents a better 
opportunity for the negro to earn a living than is found in the North. A young man 
educated in head, hand, and heart, goe-* out and starts a brickyard, a blacksmith shop, 
a wagon shop, or an industry by which that black boy produces something in the 
community that makes the white man dependent on the black man for something — 
produces something that interlocks, knits the commercial relations of the races 
together, to the extent that a black man gets a mortgage on a white man's house 
that he can foreclose at wall; well, the white man won't drive the negro away from 
the polls when he sees him going np to vote. There are reports to the etTect that ia 
some sections the black man has difficulty in voting and having counted the little 
white ballot Avhich he has the privilege of depositing about twice in two years, but 
there is a little green ballot that he can vote through the teller's window three hun- 
dred and thirteen days in every year, and no one will throw it out or refuse to count 
it. The man that has the property, the intelligence, the character, is the one that is 
going to have the largest share in controlling the Government, whether he is white 
or black, or whether in the North or South. 

It is important that all the privileges of the law be ours. It is vastly more 
important that wo be prepared for the exorcise of these privileges. Says the great 
teacher: "I will draw all men unto me." How? Not by force, not by law, not by 
superficial glitter. Following in the tracks of the lowly Nazariue, we shall con- 
tinue to work and wait, till by the exercise of the higher virtues, by the products 
of our brain and hands, wo make ourselves so valnable, so attractive to the American 
nation, that instead of reiielling we shall draw men to us because of our intrinsic 
worth. It will be needless to pass a law to compel men to come into contact with a 
negro who is educated and has $200,000 to lend. In some respects yon already 
acknowledge that as a race wo are more powerful, have a greater power of attraction, 
than your race. It takes 100 per cent of Anglo-Saxon blood to make a white Ameri- 
can. The minute that it is proved that a num possesses one one-hundredth part of 
negro blood in his veins it makes him a black man; he falls to our side; we claim 
him. The 99 ])er cent of white blood counts for nothing when weighed beside 1 jier 
cent of negro blood. 

None of us will deny that immediately after freedom we made serious mistakes. 
We began at the top. W^e made these mistakes, not because wo were black people, 
but because we were ignorant and inexperienced people. We have spent time and 
money attempting to go to Congress and State legislatures that could have better 
been spent in becoming the leading real estate dealer or carpenter in our own county. 
We have spent time and money in making political stump speeches and in attending 
political conventions that could better liavo been spent in starting a dairy farm or 
truck garden and thus have laid a material foundation, on v/hich we could have stood 
and demanded cur rights. When a man cats another person's food, wears another's 
clothes, and lives in another's house, it is pretty hard to tell how ho is going to vote 
or whether ho votes at all. 

Gentlemen of the club, the iiractical question that comes homo to yon, and to me 
as an humble member oi^ an ^mfortunato race, is, how can we help you in working 
out the great problem that concerns 10,000,000 of my race, and 60,000,000 of yours. 



1360 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95, 

Wo aro lierc; you rise as -wo rise; you fall as wo fall; "we are strong when you are 
strong ; you are weak -when ^\e are weak ; no power can separate our destinies. The 
negro can afford to be wronged in this country; the white man can not afford to 
Avrong him. In the South you can help us to prepare the strong, Christain, unselfish 
leaders that shall go among the masses of our jieople and show them how to take 
advantage of the magnificent opportunities that surround them. In the North you 
can encourage that education among the masses which shall result in throwing Avide 
oi)en the doors of your offices, stores, shops, and factories in the way that shall give 
our black men and women the opportunity to earn a dollar. * * * Let it be said 
of all parts of our country that there is no distinction of race or color in the oppor- 
tunity to earn an honest living. Throw wide oiien the doors of industry. We are 
an humblC; jiatient people ; we can afford to work and wait. There is plenty of room 
at the top. The workers up in the atmosphere of goodness, love, patience, forbear- 
ance, forgiveness, and industry aro not too many or overcrowded. If others would 
be little, we can bo great; if others bad, we can be good; if others try to push us 
down, Avo can help to push them up. 

Men ask me if measures like those enacted in South Carolina do not hurt and dis- 
courage. I answer, Nay, nay; South Carolina and no other State can make a law to 
harm the black man in great measure. Men may make laAvs to hinder and fetter 
the ballot, but men can not make laws that Avill bind or retard the growth of 
manhood : 

Fleecj' locks and black complexion 
Can not forfeit Nature's claim ; 

Skins may differ, but aflection 
Dwells in white and black the same. 

If eA'or tliere was a people that obeyed the scriptural injunction, "If they smite thee 
on one cheek, turn the other also," that people has been the American negro. To right 
his Avrongstho Russian appeals to dynamite, Americans to rebellion, the Irishman to 
agitation, the Indian to his tomahawk ; but the negro, the most patient, the most unre- 
sentful and law abiding, depends for the righting of his wrongs upon his songs, his 
groans, his midnight prayers, and an inherent faith in the justice of his cause, and if 
wo judge the future by the past who may say that the negro is not right? We Avent 
into slavery pagans, wo came out Christians. Wo went into slaA^ery a piece of prop- 
erty, we came out American citizens. We Avent into slavery Avithout a language, we 
came out speaking the proud Anglo-Saxon tongue. Wo went into slaA'ory with the 
slave chains clanking about our Avaists, we came out with the American ballot in 
our hands. Progress, progress is the laAv of nature ; under God it shall be our eternal 
guiding star. 

HIGHER EDUCATION AND THE NEGRO.^ 

That education is the strength of our Republic, the source of its prosperity, the 
chief guarantee of its perpetuity, needs no discussion here. Is it necessary to defend 
in this presence the projiosition that higher education, thoAvorkof colleges and uni- 
versities, is indispensable to the existence of any education among any people? 
What educated nation exists or over has existed upon the oarth Avithout colleges of 
higher learning? Did common schools ever make an intelligent nation? Did com- 
mon schools ever exist iu any nation excepting as the fruit of higher learning ? Should 
we GA'er haA^o had our common-school system but for our colleges? 

To ask these questions is to answer them. The intelligence of the old world has 
all come down from her uniA'ersities. The brighter civilization of America, with all 
her common-school system, has grown out of Harvard and Yale, Brown and Columbia, 
and William and Mary, Dartmouth and Williams, each of which was founded before 
the public school. The college is the fountainhead of all learning, and the only pos- 
sible source of supply for all secondary and primary schools of instruction. The 
colleges aro more. They aro the only doA^elopers of complete manhood. There can 
bo no well-rounded, thoroughly balanced minds, capable of dealing with principles, 
measuring forces, comprehending relations, grasping and handling the great ques- 
tions of public life and human leadership, without the broad culture and thorough 
discijilino Avhich years of life in college alone can insure. Exceptional cases of 
remarkable genius or of abnormal growth do not vitiate this general rule. It has 
become an axiom in America, and our 500 colleges haA'o grown out of it. 

Said Dr. Shi-dd, fifty years ago: "The common information of society is nothing 
more nor less than the fine and diffusiA'o radiance of a more substantial and profound 
culture. This light jienetratingiu all directions is like aglobeof solid lire. All this 
general and practical information Avhich distinguishes from a savage (or although 
civilized yet ignorant) state of society — Avhich distinguishes England and the United 
States from Africa and South America — did not groAv up spontaneously from the oarth, 

1 An address delircred before the American Baptist Home Mission Society, at Asbury Park, N. J., 
May 26, 1893, by Edward C. Mitchell, D. D., president of Leland University, "New Orleans, La. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 1361 

is not the effect of a colder climate or a harder soil. It has been exhaling for centu- 
ries from colleges and universities — it has been distilling for nges from the alembic 
of the scholar's brain." The history of the last fiity years has been aecunnilating 
evidences of this great trnlb, and all nations have been furnishing illnstrations of it. 

A new nation has now como upon the stage. Eight millions of fieople have been 
thnist into the center of our civilization. They have been endowed Avith citizenship, 
with nil its responsibilities, with all its possibilities for good or evil. They consti- 
tute about one- eighth part of our body politic. Amouo- them is over one-third of the 
I'aptist denomination of this country. Shall tiiey bo educated? Can we afford to 
leave one stone nnturued, one agency unemployed, which might lead this mighty 
force out of the slough of ignorance and poverty and vice up into the plane of Chris- 
tian manhood and useful citizenship ? There can be but one answer to this question. 
If wo have any love for our country ; if we have any regard for our brethren in Christ 
Jesus; if wo have any loyalty to our great Baptist brotherhood, Ave can not Avith- 
hold any possible facility for that self-improvement of Avhich, through no fault of 
their own, they have for centuries been deprived. 

It goes without saying in this audience that education is Avhafc they need — educa- 
tion, moral, intellectual, physical. Providentially the moral education is not Avith- 
out a substantial basis. The spirit of God has not been absent from this people in 
their long night of bondage. With all their ignorance and even superstition at times, 
none can doubt the genuineness of their love to the Divine Master; and, to this day, 
religion among them is a Acry potent influence, and is A'cry Avidespread in its exten- 
sion. From the census of 1890 it appears that the proportion of Avhito Baptist com- 
municants to tho Avholo Avhito population of the South is about 8 jter cent (or 1 in 
12), while tho proportion of negro Baptist communicants to the whole negro popu- 
lation is 20 per cent (or 1 in 5). Moreover, tho moral and religious training of the 
negro in tho days of slavei-y was by no means altogether neglected. They 'enjoyed 
some advantnges Avhich have now jiassed aAvay from them. A large proportion of 
them not only received a religious training from members of white Christian families, 
l)ut they were regular attendants upon Avhite churches, and thus intelligently taught 
tho Word of Co(l. That they no louger enter Avhito churches is athingto beexpected 
under present circumstances; nor can it bo regretted if only a proper leadership, out 
of themselves, can bo raised up for them. It is evident, lioweA'cr, that what they 
need in religious things is not so much the spiritual as the intellectual. It is a better 
intelligeuco to guide their religious proclivities which is the onething lacking in 
many localities. 

Tliis brings us to tho question: What should be tho intellectual training of this 
people? 

If negroes are men and women, members of the human family, endowed with 
similar capacities and tendencies Avhich apjiear in other races, then our question is 
already ausAvered by what avo said in the beginning. If the experience of five hun- 
dred years has taught us any wisdonv in regard to the processes of human dcA'-elop- 
mcnt; if we, in our American republic, have learned anything in the last two cen- 
turies as to Avhat constitutes education, and what means and appliances are best to 
make it effectiA'c, then hero and now aa^o have a grand opportunity to employ this 
wisdom for the elevation of a ucav race. Thei-o is nothing for us to do but to put 
into operation tlio same agencies by Avhicli Ave ourselves have been educated, taking 
adA'anta^'e of all tho improA'cments which modern science has invented, or our past 
mistakes haA-o suggested. 

To imagine that tho negro can safely do without any of the institutions or instru- 
mentalities Avhich Avero essential to our own mental adA'ancement is to assume that 
tho negro is superior to the white man in mental capacity. To deprive him of any 
of these advantages, Avhich he is capable of using, Avould be to defraud ourselves, as 
a nation and a Christian church, of ali tho adde<l power Avhich his developed manhood 
siiould bring to >is. It does not seem to be necessary in this audience to discuss the 
proposition that intelligence is power, and that the only road to intelligence is 
through mental discipline conducted under umral influences. 

What now have wo been doing for our brother in black to help him in his life 
struggle? The Avork began somewhat as in the days of our fathers. The John Har- 
A-ards and the Elihu Yales of Pilgrim history found their counterparts in General 
Fiske, Dr. Phillips, Seymour Straight, and Holbrook Chamberlain, who founded 
colleges, even before it Avas jiossiblo for many to enter upon the college course, but 
with a wise forecast for the need that Avould eventually come and is now actually 
upon us. 

A little later, about 1870, tho people of the South organized public schools. In 
nearly all the Southern States the same proportionate provision is made for the negro 
as for the Avhites, and tliis is and must ever bo tiie main dependence of tho elevation 
of tho negro. Witli all the honor Avhich is due, and Avhich is cheerfully rendered to 
Northern benevcdence, for tho splemlid foundations of higher learning, it should not 
be forgotten that more than ten times as much money has been api)ropriated by the 
South for negro education. 



1362 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

It is true that tliis provision is irla(leq^lato for botli races. In abont one-third of 
tlio States an average of only four montlis per annum of instruction is given. Tiiis 
is not from want of -will, but of means. The poverty of tlio South is yet very great. 
AVe of the prosperous North can not understand it. If wo did, we should better 
appreciate the pluck and energy and uncomplaining self-sacriiice with which they 
adjust themselves to their new conditions and bear their heavy burdens. President 
Dreher, of Roanoke College, Virginia, has shown by reliable statistics that with all 
the apparent inferiority of the South in her appointments for education, yet in pro- 
portion to her means she is doing oven more than the North for this purpose. 

But what shall we teach the negro ? Shall we give him anything beyond the three 
R's? By "we," of course, is meant, "we white folks," but Southern white folks 
have long ceased to teach the negro the common branches at all. This work has all 
been relegated to negro teachers. Let us take for example Mississippi, which, hith- 
erto, has shared with Louisiana the unenviable distinction among States of haviug 
the greatest amount of illiteracy. The State superintendent of public instruction, 
Mr. J. R. Preston, wrote for the New York Independent last year, in reply to some 
inquiry : "There is not a white teacher in the colored schools of the State/' and this 
is substantially true of evei-y State of the South. Your Northern friend, who desires 
to teach the three R's, might travel from Mason and Dixon's line to the Gulf, and ho 
would find every situation preempted. Ho would have to adopt for himself the 
Shakespearian lamentation, "Othello's occupation's gone." The only jilace Avhero 
ho would find primary instruction given by Avhite teachers would be in our own so- 
called universities. According to the lastre^Dort from Washington, the white teachers 
of public schools in the South are in the proportion of 1 to every 42 white jiupils, 
and the colored teachers of 1 to every 51 colored pujyils. The entire public-school 
system for the negro is carried on by negro teachers. 

And this not only in the lower grades of instruction. Superintendent Preston 
informs us that in Mississippi there are over 600 colored teachers who hold first-grade 
certificates. Now a first-grade certificate, in most States, means that the teacher 
has passed an examination in algebra, physics, physiology, chemistry, geometry, 
Latin, civil government, psychology, pedagogy; or, in other words, with the excep- 
tion of Greek, ho is fitted to enter the freshman class in any Southenr college. And 
Superintendent Preston says: "These teachers are examined by a white board. 
They haA^e just the same questions that the white teachers have. I make them out 
and I know. And the board was just to them and gave them all they earned, but it 
is not likely to err on the side of mercy." It is not probable that any Southern State 
is behind Mississippi in the ]iroportionate number of its colored teachers. Virginia 
reports 700, North Carolina 761, Arkansas 500; Texas has a different method of clas- 
sification, but reports 1,900 as "higher than third grade." As regards the kind and 
amount of education which Mississippi's colored people have received. Superintend- 
ent Preston says: "The other day I was conducting an institute where there were 
19 colored teachers in attendance, and I found that 18 of them were college grad- 
uates. I went right over into an adjoining county, and took a white institute with 
37 in attendance, and found only about one-fourth were college graduates." By col- 
lego graduates normal graduates are doubtless meant, and, in the case of colored 
teachers, the normal colleges of our missionary schools. 

What, then, I again ask, shall we teach the negro? The answer seems to be as 
plain as the logic of common sense can make it. Let us teach what our colleges and 
universities were founded to teach. Let us teach the only thing left for us to teach. 
Let us teach the only thing that the negro can not do as well for himself. Let us 
teach the thing which the experience of all the ages and the matured judgment of 
all true educators has decided to bo essential for the full development of manhood. 
Let us teach the negro who he is and what he is as God made him in his physical 
and mental structure. Let us teach him what the world is that God has made for 
him, Avith all its elements and poAvers and forces. Let us teach him the history of 
races and of civilizations, with the laws of that progress. Let us teach him to 
become master of his OAvn tongue by studying its sources in the ancient world and 
in classic literature, and master of himself by analyzing the structure and workings 
of his own mind. In short, let us give him such glimpses of the whole range of 
science as shall tax his powers to the utmost, while it takes the conceit out of him 
and brings him nearer to that supreme discovery of Socrates that he "knows 
nothing." 

As Commissioner Harris has well said : " Education, intellectual and moral, is the 
only means yet discovered that is always sure to help people to help themselves. 
* * * It produces that divine discontent which goads on the indiAadual and will 
not let him rest." 

But has the negro the capacity for mental training? Is that a question to-day? 
I am almost ashamed to discuss it in this presence, biit my apology is that I have 
been requested to do so. It will bear examination from any and CA^ery point of A'ieAV. 
It is vital to the whole subject before us. If anybody doubts, he should inform 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 13 63 

biinsclf. If color has auythiug to do with iutollect, it sliouid appear wlien the two 
colors or races are brought into contact aud competition. Tho best source of iiifor- 
matiou, therefore, is a study of tho negro at school. "\Vo have seeu, however, that 
tho common-school teacher is now ruled out of court as an interested party. To iiud 
white teachers we must go to the colleges. I have recently asked presidents of 
fifteen colleges these three questions: (1) About what proportion of your pupils are 
full-blooded negroes? (2) What difference, if any, have you perceived in tbo aver- 
age ability of full-blooded negroes as compared with those of mixed blood ? (3) What 
difference, if any, is mauifesfc between your pupils as a whole in intellectual ability 
and those of white schools under similar conditions? Tho replies to tliese questions 
are before me. The substance of them is this: Not more than one-fifth of all the 
pupils arc full-blooded negroes. Tho rest are of all degrees from quadroon to blonde. 
In the second place, there is no ditierence of mental abilitj'' clearly traceable among 
them ; if there be any, it is in favor of tbe full-blooded negro. Thirdly, as compared 
white pupils, there is no perceptible dilTorcnce, when their environments are taken 
into account. Of course, there is some difficulty in measuring the force of environment a. 

Tliis consensus of opinion among Southern educators coincides with my own obser- 
vations. Having been a teacher for over thirty years, over twenty of which were 
spent in theological schools in tho North and in Europe, I have now spent ten years 
in the South, and in daily contact with so-called negro i^upils, and I can truly say 
that I find no appreciable difference in original caiiacity. If they have come from 
ignorant districts and dark surroundings, their vocabulary is limited, and their first 
exhibitions of intelligence are inferior to those who come from cultivated homes, 
though often their greater eagerness to learn counterbalances this disability. We 
must not, however, be misled by an assumption that tho American negro is merely a 
transplanted savage. Two centuries of life in the midst of the foremost civilization 
of the world is a long way from savagery. There were intelligent Christian men 
and women in daily contact with the American bondsmen; theyAvere able Christian 
ministers, from whose lips they received their doctrine. Though schools were for- 
bidden, there were lovely Cliristiau daughters, white angels, who defied the law in 
their loving sympathy for the lowly. Life in many a Southern family was an educa- 
tion inferior only to that of their master's children. Only by the intellectnal bright- 
ness of Southern people, and tho Christian character which illuminated Southern 
homes, can wo account for the mental development of thousands of negroes, as they 
c.amo out of the war too old to come into our schools, but constituting, ucverthcless, 
the present influential leaders of tho ]ieople. 

And it must bo in part the memories of tho.se refining influences which are blos- 
soming out all over tho South in the neat, attractive homes which these people are 
building for themselves. Tho Southern negroes are not all living in one-room 
cabins, of Avhich wo have heard much recently. There are better homes than mine 
owned by negroes in New Orleans. There are plenty of ex-slaves in Louisiana who 
are richer than their former masters. There are over 300,000 homes and farms owned 
by negroes in the South without encum1)rance. Six years ago Southern negroes 
were paying taxes on nearly $300,000,000. Tho white Baptists of the South had a 
church property worth $18,000,000, tho accumulation of two hundred j'ears. The 
negro Baptists at the same date (twenty-six years out of slavery) had acquired a 
church property of over nine millions. There must have been an ante helium civili- 
zation behind all this. 

Said Iiev. A. D. Mayo, at the Mohonk Conference in 1890: "It has never been real- 
ized by tbe loyal North what is evident to every intelligent Southern man, Avhat a 
prodigious change had been wrought in this people during its years of bondage, 
and how, without tho schooling of tiiis era, tbe subsequent elevation of -the emanci- 
pated slave to a full American citizenship would have been an impossibility. * * » 
In that condition he learned the three great elements of civilization more speedily 
than they were ever learned before. He learned to work, he acquired the language 
and adopted the religion of the most progressive of peoples. Gifted with a marvel- 
ous aptitude for such schooling, he was found in 1865 farther out of the Avoods of 
barbaiism than any other people at the end of a thousand years." 

The scholastic education of the negx'o began in earnest only about twenty years ago, 
1876 being tho date of the complete inauguration of the public school system of the 
South. This is too short for ns to expect great results. Tho educated generation 
are not yet fairly out of school, but there have already appeared some isolated cases 
which show signs of promise. In the class of 1888 at Harvard University were two 
negroes, one of whom was selected bj' the fiiculty to represent his class on com- 
mencement day, as beiug the foremost scholar among his 250 classmates; the other 
was elected by tho class for the highest honor in their gift by being nuide their orator 
on class day. Tho circumstance reflects honor not merely on him, but on the demo- 
cratic spirit of our oldest university, Avhich recognized merit without regard to color. 
Boston University has also yielded first honors to a negro. A negro professor of the- 
ology at Straight University at New Orleans is a graduate of Vermont University, 



1364 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

who afterwards took tho prize for traveling scholarship from Yale Theologieal Sem- 
inary, and spent a year in Germany upon it. Professor Bowen, of the Gammon 
Theological Seminary, delivered at the Atlanta Exposition opening an address which 
in classic finish Avill bear comparison with tho best orations of Edward Everett. 
The princiiial of one of our auxiliaries, Mr. E. N. Smith, a perfect gentleman and 
an excellent teacher, is a full-blooded negro, a graduate from Lincoln University and 
Newton Theological Institution, and pronounced by Dr. Hovey one of thc*^ best 
scholars that have been educated there. 

Said President Merrill E. Gates, of Amherst College (The Independent, Dec. 5, 1895) : 
"My observation leads me to believe that the proportion of truly successful men, 
tried by tho highest standards of success, among tho colored men who study ia our 
Northern colleges, is quite as great as is the proportion of successful men among the 
whites who have the same, or equally good, opportunities for an education." 

We might multiply examples — they are not necessary. There seems to be nothing 
better established than the essential manhood of the negro. Intelligent men of the 
South do not question it. Their recent cordial response to our proposal for coopera- 
tion is a good illustration of this. 

There are two points of importance to which I wish to call your attention before 
leaving this subject — one relates to the continued iise of our colleges in tlie South 
for giving primary instruction, the other is the relation of industrial training to the 
education of the negro. 

We have seen that the public schools of the South are fairly equal in quality for 
both races, and that negro schools are taught by negro teachers. There is a truth 
beyond that. In the present deficiency of provision for common-school instruction, 
the colored people are ready and willing, with proper encouragement, to supplement 
these with schools supported by themselves. There a,re twelve such institutions 
already established in Louisiana. Now, if this be so — if the negro, with the help 
of the State, is providing his own primary education, and doing it successfully, what 
propriety is there in our continuing to furuish college endowments and employ col- 
lege teachers to do primary work? It is a first principle of true beneficence to do 
nothing for any man which he can be led to do for himself. Certainly we ought not 
in any way by rivalry to discourage the work of self-education. It has been well 
said by tho Hon. J. L. M. Curry : "An educational charity would sadly fail of its pur- 
pose if the least impediment were placed in the path of the free school. In so far as 
these institutions not under State control impair the efficiency of or divert attend- 
ance from the public schools, they are mischievous, for the great mass of children, 
white and black, must, more in the future than at present, depend almost exclusively 
upon the State schools for the common branches of education." 

In the United States statistics of 1893 and 1894 it appears that in the 158 private 
schools designed for the secondary and higher education of colored people in the 
South, there were 18,595 primary pupils, while only 13,262 belong to the secondary 
or high-school class, and 940 were in collegiate classes. As these schools of higher 
education are situated for the most part in larger towns and cities, where the best 
provision for public schools is ustially made, it is fair to presume that those 18,000 
pupils are drawn from the free schools by the attractive name of "college" or "uni- 
versity," which veils their low grade of standing, and that these learned faculties of 
1,320 professors must be largely engaged in rudimentary instruction. Would it not 
be far better for these pupils to set before them the prize of admission to the college, 
at least as far as the normal grade, as a motive for excellence in the common schools, 
and would it not be better for the professors to be allowed to confine their work of 
instruction to those higher branches for which they are specially fitted? • 

Of course, the change of policy here recommended would considerably diminish 
the show of numbers in our so-called colleges, but it would greatly improve the effi- 
ciency and thoroughness of their legitimate work, and directly helj) and stimulate the 
free schools to better attainment. Said Commissioner Harris, in his discussion of 
tho education of the negro in the Atlantic Monthly for June, 1892: " It is clear from 
the above consideration that money expended for the secondary and higher cdxica- 
tion of the negro accomplishes far more for him. It is seed sown Avhere it brings 
forth an hundredfold, because each one of the pupils f>f these higher iustitutions is 
a center of diifusion of superior methods and refining influences among an imitative 
and impressible race. State and national aid, as well as private bequests, should 
take this direction first. There should be no gift or bequest for common or elemen- 
tary instruction. This should be left to the common schools, and all outside aid 
should be concentrated on tho secondary and higher instruction." 

There is an importaat reason for this wise counsel of Dr. Harris which now presses 
itself upon our attention. We have reached a crisis in the progress of negro educa- 
tion. The work of the common school now carried on by the people themselves has 
created all over the South a new generation of educated youth, wiser than their 
parents, wiser than their ministe'S, appronching manhood and womanhood, ready 
soon to take control of affairs and of public sentiment. They already know the 



EDUCATION OF THE COLOEED RACE. 1365 

difference between learning and ignorance, between religion and superstition. They 
Lave no knowledge of slavery. Tlicy are a new generation of free-born people. 
Tbeir improvement is iibenomenal, but no corresponding improvement has come to 
the ministry. That the ministry has greatly improved during this twenty years no 
one who has visited their churches or attended their associations can doubt. Con- 
sidering their advantages, they are a very able body of men. Some of them rank 
among the best preachers of the South. Many of the younger of them have had 
more or less training in our colleges. The Richmond, Atlanta, and Gammon theo- 
logical seminaries have sent out a small quota. But as yet not a thousand in all the 
South have had even a college education. Nearly the whole educational machinery 
thus far has been occupied in supplying the great demnnd for teachers, and the whole 
force of educated talent has been drawn to the schools. 

The fact mentioned a while since that less than 1,000 in the whole South are at 
this moment engaged in collegiate study is to bo accounted for not by want of 
capacity for higher studies, but for want of motive. Education costs them a great 
deal. Nearly every one earns every dollar which he pays for his learning. With 
most it has been a great struggle to reach the point of normal graduation, and then 
the best salarj' for teaching at present available is open to them. Every influence 
urges them to stop here and reap the fruits of their hard-earned attainment. More- 
over, the influences around them all tend to discourage higher attainment. Some 
have brotliers and sisters to educate, and must stay at home to earn the money. 
Others have mothers and fathers who are struggling witli poverty and debt, and 
who now claim their services to help them out. All their neighbors say, "You 
know enough now, since you have been teaching the whole neighborhood," To 
break away from all this requires higher incentive and a stronger pressure than 
comes to most of them. Meau while, the old people and their ministers go on in the 
ruts of ignorance and superstition. The uneducated ministers (however good and 
gifted with natural ability) are unable to keep pace with the young people in intel- 
ligence or to retain their influence over them. A breach is growing. A moral drift 
away from religion is beginning to manifest itself. There is danger ahead for which 
no adequate provision is in sight. What shall that provision be? Ministers' insti- 
tutes? Some helpful suggestions can bo doubtless made to the existing ministry by 
their educated white brethren. But he must have great faith in the receptive pow- 
ers of the average negro who supposes that a mature man can be transformed I'rom 
ignorance to erudition by a week or ten days annually of lecturing. Shall wo take 
them into our colleges? It is too late. They are too old to begin a course of study. 
They are ashamed to expose their ignorance. Many have families. Gladly as we 
would help them in their conscious need, and deeply as our hearts are stirred by 
their struggle, the problem is insoluble in that direction. The only hope for a min- 
istry Avhicli will really lead and properly teach the next generation of the colored 
race is through the legitimate methods of education. 

How shall this be reached? How shall we bridge this chasm between an educated 
people and an ignorant ministry ? To meet this crisis wisdom and generalshiii are 
needful. It is our duty as their friends to point out the danger and to provide the 
remedy. The motive which is lacking should be somehow supplied. Six hundred 
years ago illiteracy in England well-nigh approached that of the negro American of 
today. It is said that only live of the twenty-tive barons who signed the Magna 
Charia could write their names. Her Christian philanthropists saw the evil, and 
established prizes, denomiuated "bursaries," "scholarships," and "fellowships," to 
stimulate high attainments in study. The accumulation of these prizes by the wise 
forecast of our English ancestors really constitutes the basis of the universities of 
Oxl'ord and Cambridge. 

Tlie duty of the hour for us toward our Southern brethren is not only to endow 
the ccdleges which we have cstablislied, but to ofl'er to those who by their own exer- 
tions have attained the rank of college students a prize sufficient to enable and 
stimulate them to go on to the full stature of intellectual manhood. Here is an 
opportunity for the use of consecrated wealth. Who will avail himself of it, as 
Daniel Hand has done for the American Missionary Association? 

Whr.t shall wo say, now, about the relation of industrial training to our problem? 
Industrial training is good and useful to some persons, if they can afford time to 
take it. But in its application tothe negro several facts should he clearly understood: 

1. It appears not to be generally known in the North that in 1he South all trades 
and occupations are open to the negro, and always have been. Before the war slaves 
were taught mechanics' arts, because they thereby became more profltable to tiieir 
masters. And now every village has its negro mechanics, who are patronized both 
})y white and colored cni]doyt?rs, and any who wish to learn the trade can do so. 

2. It is a mistake to suppose that industrial education can bo wisely a]iplied tothe 
beginnings of school life. Said the Rev. A. D. Mayo, tlian whom no man in America is 
better ac(|uaint(ul with the condition and wants of thr South : "There are two spe- 
cious, un-American notions now masquerading under the taking j^hrase, " industrial 



1366 EDUCATION REPOET, 1894-95. 

education:" First, that it is possible or desiraWo to train large bodies of youth to 
superior industrial skill Tritliont a basis of sound elementary education. You can 
not polisb a brickbat, and you can not make a good workman of a plantation negro 
or a white ignoramus until you first wake np his mind, and give him the mental 
discipline and knowledge that comes from a good school; * * * second, that it 
is possible or desirable to train masses of American children on the European idea 
that the child will follow the calling of his father. Class education has no place in 
the order of society, and the American people will neTcr acce^Jt it in any form. The 
industrial training needed in the South, must bo obtained by the establishment of 
special schools of im.x3roved housekeex)ing for girls, with mechanical traiuimg for 
such boys as desire it. * ■' * And this training should bo given impartially to 
both races, without regard to the thousand and one theories of what the colored man 
cannot do." 

3. Industrial training is expensive of time and money, as compared with its results 
as a civilizer. When you have trained one student yoii have simply fitted one man 
to earn an ordinary living. When you have given a college education to a man with 
brains you have sent forth an instrumentality that will aft'ect hundreds or thousands. 

Said "Chauncey M. Depew, in his address at the tenth convention of the University 
of Chicago, in April, 1895: "I acknowledge the position and the usefulness of the 
business college, the manual training school, the technological institute, the scien- 
tific school, and the schools of mines, medicine, law, and theology. They are of 
iufinito imi:)ortanco to the youth who has not the money, the time, or the opportuDity 
to secure a liberal education. They are of equal benefit to the college graduate who 
has had a liberal education in training him for his selected pursuit. But the theo- 
rists, or rather the practical men Avho arc the architects of their own fortunes, and 
who are iDroclaiming on every occasion that a liberal education is a waste of time 
for a business man, and that the boy who starts early and is ti-ained only for his 
one pursuit is destined for a larger success, are doing infinite harm to the ambitious 
yonth of this country. 

"The college, in its four years of discipline, training, teaching, and development, 
makes the boy the man. His Latin and his Greelv, his rhetoric and his logic, his 
science and his philosojihy, his mathematics and his history, have little or nothing to 
do Avith law or medicine or theology, and still less to do with manufacturing, or min- 
ing, or storekeeping, or stocks, or grain, or provisions. But they have given to the 
youth, when he has graduated, the command of that superb intelligence with Avhich 
God has endowed him, by which, for the purpose of a living or a fortune, he graspa 
his profession or his business and speedily overtakes the boy who, abandoning 
college opportunities, gave his narrow life to the narroAving pursuit of the one thing 
by which ho expected to earn a living. The college-bred man has an equal opportu- 
nity for bread and butter, but beyond that he becomes a citizen of commanding 
influence and a leader in every community where he settles." 

4. Industrial training is liable to divert attention from the real aim and end of 
education, which is manhood. The young scholar can not serve two masters. It 
requires all the energy there is in a boy to nerve him to the high resolve that in spite 
of all difficulties he will patiently discipline himself until he becomes a man. This 
is one reason why our northern colleges, which in many cases began as manual-labor 
schools, have abandoned it. Ought we to insist on "putting a yoke upon the necks" 
of our brethi'en in black "which neither we nor our fathers were able to bear?" 

Finally, exf)erience seems to show that industrial education does not educate, even 
in trades. 

In the report of the Bureau of Education for 1889-90 is a full statistical table of 
the lines of business in which the graduates of 17 colored schools are employed. In 
all these schools industrial instruction is given, such as carpentry, tinning, painting, 
Avhix) making, plastering, shoemaking, tailoring, blacksmithiug, farming, gardening, 
etc. Out of 1,243 graduates of these schools there are found to be only 12 farmers, 
2 mechanics, 1 carpenter. The names of the nniversities are Allen (S. C); Atlanta 
(Ga.) ; Berea (Ky.) ; Central Tennessee (Tenn.) ; Claflin (S. C.) ; Fisko (Teun.) ; Knox- 
villo (Tenn.) ; Livingstone (N. C.) ; New Orleans (La.) ; Paul Quiun (Tex.) ; Philander 
Smith (Ark.); Eoger Williams (Tenn.); Eust (Miss.); Southern, New Orleans, La.; 
Straight, New Orleans, La.; Tuskegee (ALa.); Wilberforce (Ohio). 

The employments of the graduates were : Teachers, G93 ; ministers, 117; physicians, 
163; lawyers, 116; college professors, 27; editors, 5; merchants, 15; farmers, 12; car- 
penter, 1; United States Government service, 36; druggists, 5; dentists, 14; book- 
keepers, 2; i>riuters, 2; mechanics, 2; butchers, 3; other pursuits, 30. 

The money appropriated to these schools by the Slater fund from 1884 to 1894 was 
$439,981.78. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 

THE SLATER FUND AND THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 

Compiled from Occasional Papers publialicd l)y tbo trustees of tbo Jolm F. Slater fund, Xos. 1 to 6.'] 



Co}tlcnfs. — I. Difficulties, complicaticns, and limitations connected ■u'itli the ediica- 
tiou of tho negro. II. Education of tbo negroes since 1860. III. Occupations 
of tlio negroes. IV. A statistical sketcli of tlie negroes in the United States. 
y. Memorial sketches of John F. Slater. VI. Documents relating to tho origin 
and worlv of the Slater trustees: (a) Charter from the State of New York; 
(h) letter of the founder; (c) letter of the trustees accepting the gift; (d) the 
thanks of Congress; (e) by-laws; (./') members of tho board; {(j) remarks of 
President Hayes on tho death of Mr. Slater. 



DIFFICULTIES, COMPLICATIONS, AND LIMITATIONS CONNECTED WITH 
THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGEO. 

[By J. L. M. Curry, LL. D., secretary of the trustees of tlio John F. Slater fund.] 

Civilization certainly, Christianity probably, has encountered no problem which 
surpasses in magnitute or complexity tho negro problem. For its solution political 
remedies, very drastic, have been tried, but have failed utterly. Educational agen- 
cies have been very beneficial as a stimulus to self-government and are increasingly 
hopeful and worthy of wider application, but they do not cure social diseases, moral 
ills. Much has been written of evolution of man, of hnman society, and history 
shows marvelous progress in some races, in some countries, in the bettering of habits 
and institutions, but this progress is not found, in any equal degree, in the negro 
race in liis native land. What has occurred in the United States has been from 
external causes, l^sually human development has come from voluntary energy, from 
self-evolved organizations of higher and higher efliciency, from conditions which are 
principally the handiwork of man himself. With the negro, whatever progress has 
marked his life as a race in this country has come from without. The great ethical 
and political revolutions of enlightened nations, through the efforts of successive 
generations, have not been seen in his history. 

AVhen, on March 4, 1882, our large-hearted and broadmindcd founder established 
this trust, he had a noble end in view. For near thirteen years tho trustees have 
kept tho object steadily before them, with varying results. Expectations have not 
always been realized. If any want of highest success has attended our etforts, this 
is not an nncomp.anioned experience. As was to have been foreseen, in working 
out a novel and great problem, difficulties have arisen. Some are inherent and per- 
tain to the education of the negro, however, and by whomsoever undertaken, and 
some are peculiar to the trust. Some are remedial. In this, as in all other experi- 
ments, it is better to ascertain and comprehend the difficulties so as to adopt and 
adjust the proper measures for displacing or overcoming them. A general needs to 



^Announcement to the series.— Tho trustees of tbe Jolm F. Slater fund propose to publish from timo 
to timo papers that relate to the educ.ition of tbo colored race. These papers are designed to furnish 
information to tliose who .are concerned in tho administration of schools, and also to those who by 
their oiUcial stations are called upon to act or to advise in respect to the care of such institutions. 

Tbo trustees believe that the experimental period in tho education of the blacks is drawing to a 
close. Certain principles that were doubted thirty years ago now .appear to bo goiicrally recog-nizod 
as sound. In tho next thirty years better systems will undoubtedly prevail, and the aiil of tbo sep- 
ar.ato States is likely to be more and more 'freely bestowed. There will also be abundant room for 
continued generosity on the part of individuals and associations. It is to encourage and assist the 
workers .and tbe thinkers that these papers will be published. 

_ Each paper will be tho nttor.ance of^the writcrwhoso name is attached to it, the trustees disclaiming 
in advance all rosponsibility for the atatomeut of fivcta and opinions . 

1367 



1368 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

know the strength and character of the opposing force. A physician can not pre- 
Bcribo intelligently until ho kno^TS the condition of his patient. 

The income of the fund is limited in amount, and the means of accomplishing "the 
general object" of the trust are indicated in Mr. Slater's letter and conversations 
and by the repeatedly declared policy of the board — as teacher training and indus- 
trial training. He specified "the training of teachers from among the people re- 
quiring to be taught and the 'encouragement of such institutions as are most elTectu- 
ally useful in promoting this training of teachers.' " No one, in tho least degree 
familiar with the subject, can deny or doubt that the essential need of the race is a 
higher and better qualified class of teachers. The fund does not establish nor con- 
trol schools, nor appoint teachers, [t cooperates with schools established by States, 
by religious denominations, and by individuals. Mr. Slater did not purpose "to 
bestow charity upon the destitute, to encourage a few exceptional individunls, to 
build churches, schoolhouses, or asylums." Aided schools may accept money to carry 
out the specific purposes of the trust, but they often have other and prescribed 
objects, and hence what the trustees seek is naturally, perhaps unavoidably, sub- 
ordinated to what are tho predetermined and unchangeable ends of some of these 
schools. 

The most obvious hindrance in the way of the education of the negro has so often 
been presented and discussed — his origin, history, environments — that it seems super- 
fluous to treat it anew. His political status, sudden and unparalleled, complicated 
by antecedent condition, excited false hopes and encouraged tho notion of reaching 
per saltnni, without the use of tho agencies of time, labor, industry, discipline, what 
tho dominant race had attained after centuries of toil and trial and sacrifice. Edu- 
cation, property, habits of thrift and self-control, higher achievements of civiliza- 
tion, are not extemiDorized nor created by magic or legislation. Behind tho Cau- 
casian lie centuries of tho educating, uplifting influence of civilization, of the 
institutions of family, society, tho churches, tho state, and tho salutary effects of 
heredity. Behind tlie negro are centuries of ignorance, barbarism, slavery, super- 
stition, idolatry, fetichism, and the transmissible consequences of heredity. 

Nothing valuable or permaiient in human life has been secured without the sub- 
stratum of moral charactei", of religious motive, in the individual, the family, the 
community. In this matter the negro should be j udged charitably, for his aboriginal 
people were not far removed from the savage state, where they knew neither house 
nor home and had not enjoyed any religious training. Their condition as slaves 
debarred them the advantage of regular, continuous, systematic instruction. The 
negro began his life of freedom and citizenship with natural weaknesses uncorrected, 
with loose notions of piety and morality and with strong racial peculiarities and 
proclivities, and has not outgrown the feebleness of the moral sense Avhich is common 
to all primitive races. One religious organization, which has acted with groat lib- 
erality, and generally with great wisdom, in its missionary and educational work 
among the negroes, says: "Of the paganism in the South, Dr. Behrends has well 
said that the note of paganism is its separation of worshiii from virtue, of religion 
from morals. This is the characteristic fact of the religion of tho negro." The Plan- 
tation Missionary, of this year, a journal edited and published for tho improvement 
of the "black belt" of Alabama, says, "five millions of negroes are still illiterate, 
and multitudes of them idle, bestial, and degraded, with slight ideas of purity or 
thrift," The discipline of virtue, the incorporation of creed into personal life, is 
largely wanting, and hence physical and hysterical demonstrations, excited sensi- 
bilities, uncontrolled emotions, transient outbursts of ardor, have been confounded 
with tho graces of the spirit and of faith based on knowledge. Contradiction, nega- 
tion, paradox, and eccentricity are characteristics of the ignorant and superstitious, 
especially when they concern themselves with religion. 

The economic condition is a most serious drawback to mental and moral progress. 
Want of thrift, of frugality, of foresight, of skill, of right notions of consumption 
and of proper habits of acquiring and holding jiroperty, has made the race tho vic- 
tim and prey of usurers and extortioners. The negro rarely accumulates, for he 
does not keep liis savings, nor put them in permanent and secure investments. He 
seems to be under little stimulus toward social improvement, or any ambition except 
that of being able to live fronv day to day. "As to poverty, 80 per cent of the wealth 
of the nation is in tho North and only 20 per cent in the South. Of this 20 per cent 
a very small share, indeed, falls to the seven millions of negroes, who constitute by 
far the poorest element of our American people." (American Missionary, November, 
1894, p. 390.) "While it is true that a limited number of the colored people are becom- 
ing well-to-do, it is also equally true that the masses of them have made but little 
advance in acquiring property during their thirtj^ years of freedom. Millions of 
them are yet in real poverty and can do little more than simply maintain physical 
existence." (Home Missionary Monthly, August, 1894, p. 318.) No trustworthy state- 
ment of the property hold by negroes is possible, because but few States, in assessing 
property, discrinuuato between the races. In Occasional Papers, No. 4 (see p. 1404) Mr, 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1369 

Gannett, in discussing tlio tendency of population toward cities, concludes that "tlio 
nc<^ro is not fitted, either by nature or education, for those vocations for Iho pursuit 
of which men collect in cities," and that as the inclinations of the race "tend to 
keep it wedded to the soil, the probabilities aro that the great body of the negroes 
■will continue to remain aloof from llie cities and cultivate the soil as heretofore." 
The black farm laborers hire to Avhite proprietors, work for wages or on shares, give 
a lieu on future earnings for food, clothing, shelter, and the means for cultivation of 
tho crops. The meager remainder, if it exist at all, is squandered in neighboring 
stores for whisky, tobacco, and worthless "goods." Thus tho negro in his industrial 
progress is hindered by his rude and primitive methods of farming, his wastefulness 
and improvidence. The manner of living almost necessarily begets immorality and 
degradation. Mr. Washington, in his useful annual conferences, has emphasized 
th(5 need of improved rural abodes and tho fatal consequences of crowding a wiiole 
family into one room. Tho report already quoted from (Homo Monthly, p. 22) says : 
"On the great plantations (and tho statement might be much fnrther extended) there 
has been but little ])rogress in thirty years. Tho majority live in one-room cabins, 
tabernacling in them as tenants at will." Tho poverty, wretchedness, hopelessness 
of tho present life are sometimes in pitial)lo contrast to the freedom from care and 
anxiety, tho cheerfulness and frolicsomeuess, of ante-bellum days. 

Tiio average status of the negro is much misunderstood by some persons. The 
incurable tendency of opinion seems to be to exaggerated optimistn or pessimism, to 
eager exjiectancy of impossible results or distrust or incredulity as to futnr(i i)rog- 
ress. It is not easy to form an accurate .judgment of a country, or of its popula- 
tion, or to generalize logicallj', from a Pullman car window, or from snatches of 
conversation with a porter or waiter, or from the testimony of one race only, or 
from exceptional cases like Bruce, Price, Douglass, Washington, Revels, Payne, Sim- 
mons, etc. Individual cases do not demonstrate a general or permanent widening of 
range of mental possibilities. Thirty years may test and develop instances of per- 
sonal success, of individual luanhood, but are too short a time to bring a servile race, 
as a whole, np to equality with a race which is the heir of centuries of civilization, 
Avith its uplifting results and accessories. It should bo cheerfully conceded that 
some negroes have displayed abilities of a high order and have succeeded in official 
and ]>rolcssional life, in pulpit and literature. Tho fewness gives conspicuonsuess, 
but docs not justify an a priori assumption adverse to future capability of the race. 
Practically, no negro born since 18(30 was ever a slave. More than a generation has 
passed since slavery ceased in the United States. Desiiite some formidable obsta- 
cles, the negroes ha\e been favored beyond any other race known in the history of 
mankind. Freedom, citizenship, suffrage, civil and political rights, edncatioiial 
opportunities and religious privileges, every nu^thod and function of civilization, 
have been secured and fostered by Federal and State governments, ecclesiastical 
organizations, nninificent individual benefactions, and yet the results have not been, 
on the whole, such as to inspire most sanguino expectations, or justify conclusions 
of Tapid development or of racial equality. In some localities there has been 
degeneracy rather than ascent in the scale of manhood, relapse instead of progress. 
Tlie unusual environments should have evolved a higher and more ra])id degree of 
advancement. Professor Mayo-Smith, who has made an ethnological and sociological 
study of the diverse elements of our population, says: "No one can as yet predict 
what position tho black race will ultimately take in tho population of this country." 
He would be a bold speculator who ventured, from existing facts, to predict what 
would be the outcome of our experiment witli African citizenship and African 
development. Mr. Bryce, tho most philosophical and painstaking of all foreign 
students of our institutions, in the lust edition of his great work, says: "There is 
no ground for despondency to anyone who remembers how hopeless the extinction of 
slavery seemed sixty or even iorty years ago, and who marks the progress which tho 
negroes have made since their sudden liberation. Still less is there reason for im- 
patience, for questions like this have in some countries of the Old World required 
ages for their solution. The problem which confronts tho South is one of tho great 
secular problems of the world, presented hero under a ibrm of peculiar ditKcnlty. 
And as tho present differences between tho African and the European are tho prod- 
Tict of thousands of years, during which one race was advancing in the temperate, 
and the other remaining stationary in the torrid zone, so centuries may pass before 
their relations as neighbors and fellow-citizens have been duly adjusted." It Avonld 
be unjust and illogical to push too far tho comparison and deduce inferences unfair 
to the negro, but it is an interesting coincidence that Japan began her entrance into 
tho family of civilized nations almost contemporaneously with emancipation in the 
United States. In 1858 I witnessed tho unique reception by President Buchanan, in 
the east room of the White House, of the conmiissioners from Japan. With a 
rapidity without a precedent, she has taken her place as an equal and independent 
nation, and her rulers demand acknowledgment at the highest courts, and her min- 
isters are ofldcially tho equals of their colleagues iu every diplomatic corps. By 



1370 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

internal development, withont extraneous assistance, Japan has reached a degree of 
self-reliance, of self-control, of social organization, of respectable civilization, far 
beyond what onr African citizens have attained nnder physical, civic, and religions 
conditions by no means unfavorable. It is true that Japan for a long time had a 
separate nationality, while the freedmen have been dependent wards, but the 
Oriental nation, without the great etJiical and pervasive and ennobling and energiz- 
ing iutluence of Christianity (for the propagandism of the daring Jesuit mission- 
aries of the sixteenth century has been effaced) has recorded her ascents by monu- 
ments of social life and dramatic events in history. Her mental culture and habits 
and marvelous military success are witnesses of her progress and power. We have 
been accustomed to think of the Avhole Orient, that "fifty years of Europe were 
better than a cycle of Cathay," but within a quarter of a century Japan has trans- 
formed social usages and manners, arts and manufactures, and in 1889, when we 
were celebrating the centennial of our Constitution, she adopted a constitution, 
with a limited monarchy and parliamentary institutions. 

Much of the aid lavished upon 4:he negro has been misaiiplied charity and, like 
much other almsgiving, hurtful to the recipient. Northern philanthropy, "disas- 
trously kind," has often responded with liberality to~appeals worse than worthless. 
Vagabond mendicants have been pampered; schools which were established without 
any serious need of them have been helped; public-school systems upon which the 
great mass of children, white and colored, must rely for their education have been 
underrated and injured, and schools of real merit, and doing good work, which deserve 
confidence and contributions have had assistance legitimately their due diverted into 
improper channels. Reluctantly and by constraint of conscience this matter is men- 
tioned, and this voice of protest and warning raised. Dr. A. D. Mayo, of Boston, an 
f.etute and thoughtful observer, a tried friend of the black man, an eloquent advo- 
cate of his elevation, who for fifteen years has traversed the South in the interests 
of universal education, than whom no on© has a better acqnaintance with the schools 
of that section, bears cogent and trustworty testimony to which I give my emphatic 
endorsement : 

"It is high time that our heedless, nndiscriminating, all-out-doors habit of giving 
money and supplies to the great invading army of Southern solicitors should come 
to an end. Whatever of good has come from it is of the same nature as the habit of 
miscellaneous almsgiving which our system of associated charities is everywhere 
working to break up. It is high time that we understood that the one agency on 
which the negroes and nine-tenths of the white people in the South must rely for 
elementary instruction and training is the American common school. The attempt 
to educate 2,000,000 colored and 3,000,000 white American children in the South by 
passing around the hat in the North; sending driblets of money and barrels of sup- 
plies to encourage anybody and everybody to open a little useless priA'ate school; to 
draw on our Protestant Sunday schools in the North-to build up among these people 
the church parochial system of elementary schools which the clergy of these churches 
are denouncing — all this and a great deal more that is still going on among us, wjth, 
of course, the usual exceptions, has had its day and done its work. The only reliable 
method of directly helping the elementary department of Southern education is that 
our churches and benevolent people put themselves in touch with the common-school 
authorities in all the dark places, urging even their poorer people to do more, as they 
can do more, than at present. The thousand dollars from Boston that keeps alive a 
little ]>rivateordenominational school in a Southern neighborhood, if properly applied, 
would give two additional months, better teaching and better housing to all the 
children, and unite their people as in no other way. Let the great Northern schools 
in the South established for the negroes be reasonably endowed, and worked in coop- 
eration with the public-school system of the State, with the idea that in due time 
they Avill all pass into the hands of the Southeru'people, each deijendeut on its own 
constituency for its permanent support. I believe in many instances it would bo the 
best policy to endow or aid Southern schools that have grov^n up at home and have 
established themselves in tbe confidence of the people. While more money should 
CA^ery year be given in the North for Southern education, it should not bo scattered 
abroad, but concentrated on strategic points for the uplifting of both races." 

After the facts, hard, stubborn, unimpeachable, regretable, which have been giA'en, 
we may well inquire Avhether much hasty action has not prevailed in assigning to 
the negro an educational position, which ancient and modern history does not Avar- 
rant. The partition of the continent of Africa by and among European nations can 
hardly be ascribed solely to a lust for territorial aggrandizement. The energetic 
races of the North begin to realize that the tropical countries — the food and the 
material producing regions of the earth — can not, for all time to come, be left to 
the unprogressiA'e, uncivilized colored race, deficient in the qualities necessary to the 
dcA^elopment of the rich resources of the lands they possess. The strong powers seem 
unwilling to tolerate the Avastingof the resources of the most fertile regions through 
the apparent impossibility, by the race in possession, of acquiring the qualities of 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF TPIE NEGRO. 1371 

efficiency Avliich exist el8eT\'iiere. Tlio oxperimcut of tlio Congo Free State, one of the 
richest and most valnable tracts in Africa, established and fostered nuder propitious 
circumstances by the King of Belgium, seems likely to bo a barren failure and to 
prove that African colonization is not a practicable scheme, without State subvention, 
or the strong, overmastering hand of some superior race. It requires no superior 
insight to discover that human evolution has come from the energy, thrift, discipline, 
social and political eiiicieucy of peoples -whoso power is not the result of varying 
circumstances, ''of the cosmic order of things which we have no power to control."^ 
The negro occupies an incongruous jiosition in our country. Under military 
necessity slaves were emancipated, and all true Americans accept the jubilaut 
eulogium of the poet, when he declares our country 

A later Eileu planted in the wikls, 

"With not an inch of cartli within its bounds 

But if a slave's foot press, it sets him free. 

Partisanship and an altruistic sentiment led to favoritism, to civic equality, and 
to bringing the negroes, for the first time in their history and without any previous 
preparation, "into the rivalry of life on an equal footing of opportunity." The 
whole country has suliered in its material development from the hazardous experi- 
ment. The South, as a constituent portion of the Union, is a diseased limb on the 
body, is largely uncultivated, neglected, unproductive. Farming, with the low 
prices of products, yields little remunerative returu on labor or money invested, 
and, except in narrow localities and where "trucking" obtains, is not improving 
agriculturally, or, if so, too slowly and locally to awaken any hopes of early or 
great recovery.^ Crippled, disheartened by the i>resence of a people not much 
inferior in numbers, of equal civil rights, and slowly capable of equal mental devel- 
opment or of taking on the habits of advanced civilization, the white people of the 
South arc deprived of any considerable increase of numbers from immigration and 
any largo demand for small freeholds, and are largely dependent on ignorant, undis- 
ciplined, uninventive, inefficient, unambitious labor. Intercourse between the Slavs 
and the tribes of the Ural-Altaic stock, fusion of ethnic elements, has not resulted in 
deterioration, but has produced an apparently homogeneous people, possessing a 
common consciousness. That the two diverse races now in the South can ever per- 
fectly harmonize while occujiying the same territory no one competent to form an 
opinion believes. Mr. Bryce concludes that the negro will stay socially distinct, as 
an alien element, unabsorbed and unabsorbable. That the presence in the same 
country of two distinctly marked races, having the same rights and privileges, of 
unequal cai^acities of development — one long habitated to servitude, deprived of all 
power of initiative, of all high ideal, without patriotism beyond a mere weak 
attachment — is a blessing is too absurd a jiropositiou for serious consideration. 
Whether the great resources of the South are not destined, under existing condi- 
tions, to remain only partially developed, antl whether agriculture is not doomed to 
barrenness of results, are economic and political questions alien to this discussion. 

As trustees of the Slater fund, we are confined to the duty of educating the lately 
emancipated race. In Occasional Papers, No. 3 (see p. 1374), the history of education 
since 1860, as derived from the most authentic sources, is presented with care and 
fullness. " The great work of educating the negroes is carried on mainly by the 
public schools of the vSouthern States, supported by funds raised by public taxation, 
and managed and controlled by public school officers. The work is too great to be 
attempted by any other agency, unless by the National Government; the field is too 
extensive, the officers too numerous, the cost too burdensome." (Bureau of Educa- 
tion Report, 1891-92, p. 867.) The American Congress refused aid, and upon the 
impoverished Soiith the burden and the duty were devolved. Bravely and with 
heroic self-sacrifice have they sought to fulfill the obligation. 

In the distril)ution of public revenues, in the building of asylums, in provision 
for public education, no discrimination has been made against the colored people. 
The law of Georgia of October, 1870, establishing a j)ublic school system, expressly 
states that both races shall have equal privileges. The school system of Texas, 
begun under its present form in 1876, provides " absolutely equal privileges to both 

1 Since thia paper was prepared, Bishop Turner, of Georsia, a colored preacher of intellisence and 
respectability, in a letter from Liberia, May 11, 1895, advises the reopening of the African slave trade 
and says that, as a result of such enslavement for a term of years bj' a civilized race, " millions and 
millions of Africans, who are now running around in a state of nudity, fighting, nccromancing, 
masquerading, and doing everything that God disapproves Of, would be working and benefiting the 
world." Equally curious and absurd is the conclusion of tlio editor of the Glolie Quarterly Keview 
(July, 1895, Kew York), a Northern man, that "nothing but some sort of reenslavement can make the 
negro work, therefore ho must bo rcenslaved, or driven from the land." Could anything be more sur- 
prising than these utterances by a lornier slave .and by an abolitionist, or show more clearly '"the 
difficulties, complications, and limitations" which environ the task and the duty of "uplifting the 
lately emancipated race?" 

2 The last assessment of property in Virginia, 1895, shows a decrease of $8,133,374 from last year's 
valuation. 



1372 EDUCATION REPOET, 1891-95. 

■white and colored cliildreu." In Florida, nuder tlio constitution of 1868 and the law 
of 1877, both races share equally in the school benefits. Several laws of Arkansas 
provide for a scliool system of equal privileges to both races. Under the school sys- 
tem of North Carolina there is no discrimination for or against either race. The 
school system of Louisiana was fairly started only after the adoption of the consti- 
tution of 1879, and equal privileges are granted to white and colored children. 
Since 1883 equal privileges are granted in Kentucky. The school system of West 
Virginia grants eqiial rights to the two races. The system in Mississippi was put in 
operation in 1871 and grants to both races " equal privileges and school facilities." 
The same exact and liberal justice obtains in Virginia, Alabama, and Tennessee. 

In 1893-94 there were 2,702,410 negro children of school age — from 5 to 18 years — 
of whom 52.72 jier cent, or 1,424,710, were enrolled as pupils. Excluding Maryland, 
Kentucky, and Missouri, the receipts from State and local taxation for schools in the 
South were $14,397,569. It should be borne in mind that there are fewer taxpayers 
in the South, in proportion to population generally and to school population espe- 
cially, than ill any other part of the United States. In the South Central States 
there are only 65.9 adult males to 100 children, while in the Western Division there 
are 156.7. In South Carolina, 37 out of every 100 are of school age ; in Montana, only 
18 out of 100. Consider also that in the South a largo proj)ortion of the compara- 
tively few adults are negroes with a minimum of property. Consider, further, that 
the number of adult males to each 100 children in New Hampshire, Massachusetts, 
and Connecticut is twice as great as in North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, 
Alabama, and Mississippi. In view of such and other equally surprising facts, it is 
a matter of national satisfaction that free education has made such progress in the 
South. (Bureau of Education Eeport, 1890-91, pp. 5, 19, 21, 24.) 

It is lamentable, after all the provision which has been made, that the schools are 
kept open for such a short period, that so many teachers are incompetent, and that 
such a small iiroportiouofpei'sonsofKchool age attend the schools. This does not apply 
solely to tl:e colored children or to the Southern States. For the whole country the 
average number of days attended is only 89 for each pupil, when the proper school 
year should count about 200. While the enrollment and average attendance have 
increased, "what the people get on an average is about one-half an elementary edu- 
cation, and no State is now giving an education in all its schools that is equal to 
seven years per inhabitant for the rising generation. Some States are giving less 
than three years of 200 days each." (Annual Statement of Commissioner of Educa- 
tion for 1894, p. 18.) It is an obligation of patriotism to support and improve these 
State-managed s<hools, because they are among the best teachers of the duties of 
citizenship and the most potent agency for molding and unifying and binding hete- 
rogeneous elements of nationality into compactness, unity, and homogeneity. We 
must keep them etBcieut if Ave wish them to retain public confidence. 

In No. 3 of Occasional Papers (see page 1379) is described what has been undertaken 
and accomplished by different religious denominations. The information was fur- 
nished by themselves, and full credit was given for their patriotic and Christian 
work. These schools are of higher grades in name and general purpose and instruc- 
tion than the public schools, but unfortunately most of them are handicapped by 
high-sounding and deceptive names and impossible coursex of study^ There are 25 
nominal "universities" and "colleges," which embrace primary, secondary, normal, 
and .professional grades of instruction. These report, as engaged in "collegiate" 
studies, about 1,000 students. The work done is in some instances excellent; in 
other cases it is as defective as one could well imagine it to bo. This misfortune is 
not confined to colored schools. The last accessible report from the Bureau of Edu- 
cation gives 22 schools of theology and 5 each of schools of law and of medicine, and 
in the study of law and medicine there has in the last few years been a rapid increase 
of students. 

A noticeable feature of the schools organized by religious associations is the pro- 
vision made for industrial education, in the special colored schools established or 
aided by the State of higher order than the public schools, such as those in Georgia, 
Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas, manual training is required for both sexes. As few- 
white schools of the South are provided with this necessary adjunct of education, it 
would be nnjnst to criticise too severely what is being done along industrial lines in 
colored schools. It is rather a matter for rejoicing that the schools have even been 
started in this most hopeful direction, and especially as the long-wished-for industrial 
development seems to be dawning on the South. Whatever may be our speculative 
opinions as to the iirogress and development of which the negro may bo ultimately 
capable, there can hardly be a well-grounded opposition to the opinion that the 
hope for the race in the South is to be found not so much in the high courses of uni- 
versity instruction or in schools of technology as in handicraft instruction. This 
instruction, by whatever name called, encourages us in its results to continued and 
liberal effort. What such schools as Hampton, the Spelnian, Claflin, Tuskegee, Toug- 
aloo, and others have done is the demonstration of the feasibility and the value of 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1373 

industrial and mechanical trainini;-.' Tho general instruction heretofore given in tlie 
schools, it is feared, lias been too exclusively intellectual, too little of that kind 
TvhicU produces intelligent and skilled workmen, and therefore not thoroughly- 
adapted t') racial development nor to iitting for tho practical duties of life. I'er- 
haps it has not been philosophical uor practical, but too empirical and illusory in 
fitting a man for "tho conditions in which ho Mill lie compelled to earn his livelihood 
and unfold his i)Ossil)ilities." Tho effort has been to fit an adult's clothing to a child, 
to take tho highest courses of instruction and ajiply tlnnn to untutored minds. Mis- 
guided statesmanship and philanthropy have opened '' high schools and universities 
and offered courses in Cireek and Latin and Hebrew, in theology and philosophj', to 
those Avho need tho rudiuients of education and instruction in handicraft." This 
industrial training is a lielpful accompaniment to mental training, and both should 
be based on strong moral character. It has been charged that tho negroes have had 
too strong an inclination to become preachers or teachers, but this may bo in part 
duo to tho fact that their education has been ill adjusted to their needs and surround- 
ings, and that when tho pupils leave school they do so without having been prepared 
for the competition which awaits them in tho struggle for a higher life. 

Wbate\er may bo tho discouragements and difficulties and however insufficient 
may bo tho school attendance, it is a cheering fact that tho schools for the negroes 
do not encounter tho prejudices which were too common a few years ago. In fact, 
there may almost be said to bo coming a time when soon there Avill be a sustaining 
public opinion. Tho struggle of man to throw off fetters and rise into true man- 
hood and save souls from bondage is a juost instructive and thrilling spectacle, 
awakening sympathetic enthusiasm on tho part of all who love what is noble. 
* * * Having gathered testimony from many of tho leading colored schools of 
tho South in answer to these direct questions, "Is tiiero any opposition from the 
white race to your work in educating the negroes? If so, does that opposition 
imperil person or property ?" I group it into a condensed statement: 

1. C0KGKEGA1T02^AL1STS. 

Storrs School, Atlanta, says : ''There is no aggressive opposition to our work among 
the negroes." Fisk University, Nashville: "There is no special manifestation of 
open opjiosition to our work on tho ])art of tho white people; indeed, tho better cit- 
izens have a good degree of sympathy with our work and take a genuine pride in tho 
nniversity." Talladega College, Alabama: "I do not know of any opposition from 
the white race to our work. * * * Wo have more opposition from the very people 
for whom we are especially laboring than from tho other race." By act of incorpora- 
tion, Febnmry 1^8, 1880, tho college may hold, purchase, dispose of, and convey prop- 
erty to such an amount as the business of the college requires, and so long as the 
property, real or personal, is used for purposes of education it is exempt from taxa- 
tion of any kind. Knoxville College: "No opposition from tho white race disturbs 
ns." Beach Institute, Savannah, Ca. : " There seems to be here no active opposition 
to our work in educating tho negroes." Straight University, New Orleans: "There 
is no opposition from the white race." Ballard Normal School, Macon, Ga. : "We 
meet now with no ojiposition from the whites." 

2. METHODISTS. 

From Philander Smith College, Little Rock, Ark. : "' No opposition that amounts to 
anything." Cookman Institute, Jacksonville, Fla. : "There is no active opposition 
from the white raco to our work, as far as 1 know." Clallin University, Orangeburg, 
S. C. : " There is no opposition to it on the part of tho white race." Central Tennes- 
see College, Nashville, Tenn. : "On tho part of the intelligent whites there is none; 
on tho contrary, they have nearly always spoken well of it and seem to rejoice that 
their former slaves and their children are being educated. Having been here over 
twenty-seven years, I feel quite safe." Bennett College, Greensboro, N. C, gives an 
emphatic negative to both questions. New Orleans University: "No oppositiou 
from white people to our work." 

3. PRESBYTERIANS. 

From Biddle University, Charlotte, N. C. ; " No opxiositiou from the whito race; 
on the contrary, very pleasant neighbors." 

' Principal "Washington, of Tnskegeo Institute, as the representative of his race, made an aildress 
at tho opening of tho great Athanta Ex;positiou which elicited hijjh coinmemlation from President 
Cleveland and tho press of the country for its practi&il wislom and its hroad, catholic, and patriotic 
sentinienta. The Negro Building, with its interesting exhibits, shows what i)rogress has heen^made 
by the race in thirty years and excites strong hopes for tlio future. The special work display'ed by 
the schools of Hampton and Tuskegec received honorable recognition from the jury of awards. 



1374 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1894-95. 

4. BAPTISTS. 

Bishop College, Marshall, Tex.: ''We liave experienced opposition from certain 
classes of -white people to the extent of threats and assaults, yet such have come 
from those who were entirely unacquainted with the real work heing done, and I 
think that now sentiment is changing." Leland University, New Orleans, La.: 
"There is not to my knowledge, nor ever has hecn since I came in 1887, any opposi- 
tion from the white race to our work." Spelman Seminary, Atlanta, Ga. : "Wo are 
not aware of any opposition from the white race to our work." Shaw University, 
Ealeigh, N. C: "It gives ns pleasure to say the feeling for our work among; the 
whites seems of the kindest nature and ever^^thing is helpful." Roger Williams 
University, Nashville, Tenn. : " No opposition meets us from any sources ; on the 
contrary we are generally treated with entire courtesy." Selma University, Ala- 
bama: "There is no opi>osition to our work from the white race. So far as I know 
they wish us success." 

5. NOXDENOMIifATIONAL SCHOOLS. 

Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Alabama; "I am glad to state that 
there is practically no opposition oi'i the j)art of the whites to our work: on the con- 
trary, there are many evidences of their hearty approval." Hampton Normal and 
Industrial Institute, Virginia : "This school meets no opposition to the work from 
the white race, and, with occasional individual exceptions, has never met any, but 
receives for itself and its graduate teachers a great amount of practical sympathy, 
and is glad of this and every opportunity to acknowledge it." 

CONCLUSIONS. 

I. It follows that in addition to thorough and intelligent training in the disci- 
pline of character and virtue, there shouid be given rigid and continuous attention to 
domestic and social life, to the refinements and comforts and economies of home. 

II. Taught in the economies of wise consumption, the race should be trained to 
acquire habits of thrift, of saving earnings, of avoiding waste, of accumulating 
property, of having a stake in good government, in i:»rogressive civilization. 

III. Besides the rudiments of a good and useful education there is imperative need 
of manual training, of the proper cultivation of those faculties or mental qualities 
of observation, of aiming at and reaching a successful end, and of such facility and 
skill in tools, in practical industries, as will insure remunerative employment and 
give the power which comes from intelligent work. 

IV. Clearer and juster ideas of education, moral and intellectual, obtained in 
cleaner home life and through respected and cajiable teachers in schools and churches. 
Ultimate and only sure reliance for the education of the race is to be found in the 
public schools, organized, controlled, and liberally supported by the State. 

V. Between the races occupying the same territory, possessing under the law equal 
civil rights and privileges, speculative and unattainable standards should be avoided, 
and questions should be met as they arise, not by Utopian and i:)artial solutions, but 
by the impartial application of the tests of justice, right, honor, humanity, and 
Christianity. 

II. 

EDUCATION OF THE NEGROES SINCE 1860. 

[By J. L. M. Curry, LL. D., secretary of the trustees of the John F. Slater fund.] 

INTRODUCTION. 

The purpose of this paper is to put into permanent form a narrative of what has 
been done at the South for the education of tlie negro since 1860. The historical and 
statistical details may seem dry and uninteresting, but we can understand the sig- 
nificance of this unprecedented educational movement only by a study of its begin- 
nings and of the difficulties which had to be overcome. The present generation, near 
as it is to the genesis of the Avork, can not appreciate its magnitude, nor the great- 
ness of the victory which has been achieved, without a knowledgeof the facts which 
this recital gives in connected order. The knowledge is needful, also, for a compre- 
hension of the future possible scope and kind of education to be giA^en to the Afro- 
American race. In the field of education we shall be unwise not to reckon Avith such 
forces as custom, pliysical constitution, heredity, racial characteristics and possibili- 
ties, and not to remember that these and other causes may determine the limitations 
under which we must act. The education of this people has a far-reaching and com- 
plicated connection with their clestinj^, with our institutions, and possibly Avith the 
Dark Continent, which may ascumc an importance akin, if not superior, to Avhat it 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1375 

had centuries ago. Tbo partition of its territory, the iuternational questions which 
arc springing up, and the efiett of contact with and government hy a superior race, 
must necessarily give an enhanced importance to Africa as a factor in commerce, in 
relations of governments, and in civilization. England will soon have au unbroken 
line of territorial possessions from Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope. Germany, 
France, Portugal, Italy, Spain, possibly Russia, will soon have such footholds in 
Africa as, whatever else may occur, will tend to the development of century-para- 
lyzed resources. 

AVhat other superior races have done, and are doing, for the government and 
uplifting of the inferior races, which, from treaty or conquest, have been placed 
under their responsible jurisdiction, may help in the solution of our problem. Italy 
had a grand question in its unilication; Prussia a graver one in the nationalization 
of Germany, taxing the st.atesmanship of Stein, Bismarck, and their colaborers; 
Great IJritain, in the administration of her large and Avidely remote coloni.al depend- 
encies with their different races; but our problem has peculiar difficulties which 
have not conironted other governments, and therefore demands the best powers of 
philanthropist, sociologist, and statesman. 

The emergence of a nation from barbarism to a general diffusion of intelligence 
and property, to health in the social and civil relations; the development of an 
inferior race into a high degree of enlightenment; the overthrow of customs and 
institutions which, however Indefensible, have their seat in tradition and a course 
of long observance; the working out satisfactorily of political, sociological, and 
ethical problems— are all necessarily slow, requiring patient and intelligent study 
of the teachings of history and the careful application of something more than mere 
empirical methods. Civilization, freedom, a pure religion, are not the speedy out- 
come of revolutions and cataclysms any more than has been the structure of the 
earth. They are the slow evolution of orderly and creative causes, the result of law 
and ])reordained principles. 

The educational work described in this paper has been most valuable, but it has 
been so far necessarily tentative and local. It has lacked broad and definite general- 
ization, and, in all its phases, comprehensive, philosophical consideration. An aux- 
iliary to a thorough study and ultimate better plans, the Slater fund, from time to 
time', will have prepared and published papers bearing on different phases of the 
negro question. 

I. The history of the negro on this continent is full of pathetic and tragic romance, 
and of startling, unparalleled incident. The seizure in Africa, the forcible abduc- 
tion and cruel exportation, the coercive enslavement, the subjection to environuients 
which emasculate a race of all noble aspirations and doom inevitably to hopeless 
ignorance and inferiority, living in the midst of enlightenments and noblest civili- 
zation and yet forbidden to enjoy the benefits of which others were partakers, for 
four years amid battle and yet, for the most part, having no personal share in the 
coniiict, by statute and organic law and law of nations held in fetters and inequality, 
and then, in the twinkling of an eye, lifted from bondage to freedom, from slavery 
to citizenship, from dependence on others and guardianship to suffrage and eligibility 
to office — can be predicated of no other race. Other peoples, after long and weary 
years of discipline and struggle against heaviest odds, have won liberty and free 
government. This race, almost without lifting a hand, nnappreciative of the boon 
except in the lowest aspects of it, and unprepared for privileges and responsibilities, 
has been lifted to a plane of citizenship and freedom, such as is enjoyed, in an equal 
degree, by no people in the world outside of the United States. 

Common schools in all governments have been a slow growth, reluctantly conceded, 
grudgingly supported, and perfected after many experiments and failures and with 
heavy pecuniary cost. Within a few years after emancipation, free and universal 
education has been provided for the negro, without cost to himself, and chietiy by 
tbe self-imposed taxes of those who, a few years before, claimed his labor and time 
■without direct wage or pecuniary compensation. 

II. Slavery, recognized by the' then international law and the connivance and pat- 
ronage of European sovereigns, existed in all the colonies prior to the Declaration 
of Independence, and was reeuforced by importation of negroes from Africa. In 
course of time it was confined to the Southern States, and the negroes increased in 
numbers at a more rapid rate than did the whites, even after the slave trade was 
abolished and declared piracy. 

For a long time there was no general exclusion by law of the slaves from the priv 
ileges of education. The first prohibitory and punitive laws were directed against 
unlawful assemblages of negroes, and subsequently of free negroes and mulattoes, 
as their infiuence in exciting discontent or insurrection was de]irecated and guarded 
against. Afterwards legislation became more general in the South, prohilntiug 
meetings for teaching reading and writing. The Nat Turner insurrection in South- 
ampton County, Va., in 1831, awakened the Southern States to a consciousness of the 
perils which might environ or destroy them from combinations of excited, inflamed, 
and ill-advised negroes. 



1376 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95, 

As documeuts aud newspapers tending to inflame discontent and insnrrectiou were 
supposed to liave been the immediate provocation to tliis conspiracy for murder of 
whites and for i'reedom of the blacks, jaws were passed against publishing and cir- 
culating such documeuts amoug the colored poj)ulation, aud strengthening the pro- 
hibitions and penalties against education. 

Severe and general as were these laws they rarely applied, aud were seldom, if 
ever, enforced against teaching of individuals or of groups on x)lantatious or at tbo 
homes of the owners. It was often true that the mistress of a household or her 
children would teach the house servants, and on Sundays include a larger number. 
There Avero also Sunday schools in which black children were taught to read, notably 
the school in whicb Stonewall Jackson Avas a leader. It is pleasant to find recorded 
in the memoir of Ur. Boyce, a trustee of this fund from its origin until his death, 
that as an editor, a preacher, and a citizen he was deeply interested in the moral 
and religious instruction of the negroes. 

After a most liberal estiuiate for the efforts made to teach the negroes, still the fact 
exists that as a people they were wholly uneducated in schools. Slavery doomed 
the millions to ignorance, and in this condition they were when the war began. 

III. Almost synchronously with the earliest occupation of any portion of the 
seceding States by the Union army efforts were begun to give the negroes some 
schooling. In September, 1861, under the guns of Fortress Monroe, a school was 
opened for the " contrabands of war." In 1862 schools were extended to Washing- 
ton, Portsmouth, Norfolk, and Newport News, and afterwards to the Port Royal 
islands on the coast of South Carolina, to Newbern and Roanoke Island in North 
Carolina. The proclamation of emancipation, January 1, 1863, gave freedom to all 
slaves reached by the armies, increased the refngees, and awakened a iervor of reli- 
gious and philanthropic enthusiasm for meeting the physical, moral, and intellectual 
waTits of those suddenly thrown upon charity. In October, 1863, General Banks, 
then commanding the Department of the Gulf, created commissioners of enrollment, 
who established the first public schools for Louisiana. Seven were soon in opera- 
tion, with 23 teachers and an average attendance of 1,422 scholars. On March 22, 
1864, he issued General Order No. 38, which constituted a board of education "for 
the rudimeutal instruction of the freedmen" in the department, so as to "place 
within their reach the elements of knowledge." 

The board was ordered to establish common schools, to employ teachers, to acquire 
school sites, to erect school buildings Avhere no proper or available ones for school 
purposes existed, to purchase and provide necessary books, stationery, apparatus, 
and a Avell-selected library, to regulate the course of studies, and "to have the 
authority and perform the same duties that assessors, supervisors, and trustees had 
in tl)e Northern States in the matter of establishing and conducting common schools." 
For the performance of the duties enjoined the board was empoAvered to "assess 
and loA^y a school tax upon real and personal property, including crops of planta- 
tions." These taxes Avere to be sufficient to defray expense and cost of establishing, 
furnishing, and conducting the schools for the period of one year. When the tax 
list and schedules should bo placed in the hands of the parish proA'ost-marshal he 
was to collect and pay OA'cr Avithin thirty days to the school board. Schools pre- 
viously established were transferred to this board; others were opened, aud in 
December, 1864, they reported under their supervision 95 schools, 162 teachers, and 
9,571 scholars. This system continued until December, 1865, when the power to levy 
the tax Avas suspended. An official report of later date says: "In this sad juncture 
the freedmen expressed aAvillingness to endure and even petitioned for increased 
taxation in order that means for supporting their schools might be obtained." 

On December 17, 1862, Col. John Eaton was ordered by General Grant to assume a 
general supervision of freedmen in the Department of Tennessee and Arkansas. In 
the early autumn of that year schools had been establisbed, and they weremultiiilied 
during 1863 and 1864. In the absence of responsibility and supervision there grew 
Up abuses and complaints. By some "parties engaged in tbe work" of education 
"exorbitant charges Avere made for tuition," and agents and teachers, "instead of 
making conunon cause for the good of those they came to benefit, set about detract- 
ing, perplexing, and A^exing each other." "Parties and conflicts had arisen." 
"Frauds had appeared in not a few instances — evil-minded, irresponsible, or incom- 
petent persons imposing upon those not prepared to defeat or check them." "Bad 
faith to fair promises had deprived the colored people of their jnst dues."' 

On Septemlier 26, 1864, the Secretary of War, through A<l.)utant-General Thomas, 
issued Order No. 28, in which he said: "To preA'ent confusion aud embarrassment 
the general superintendent of freedmen Avill designate officers, subject to his orders, 
as superintendents of colored schools, through Avliom he Avill arrange the location of 
all schools, teachers, occupation of houses, aud other details pertaining to the educa- 
tion of the freedmen." In accordance Avith this order Colonel Eaton removed his 

'Seereport of Chaplain "Warren, 1864, relating to colored schools. 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1377 

headquarters from Vicksbnrg to Memphis. On October 20, 1864, he issued sixteen 
rules and regulations tor the guidauce of superintendents and teachers of colored 
Bchools in his supervision. These instructions to subordinates were wise and pro- 
vhled for the opening of a sufficient number of schools, for the ]>ayment of tuition 
fees from 25 cents to $1.25 per month for each scholar, according to the ability of the 
parents; for the admission free of those who could not pay and the fnruisliiug of 
clothing by the aid of industrial schools, for the government of teachers in connec- 
tion with the societies needing them, etc. The "industrial schools " were schools in 
which sewing was taught, and in which a large quantity of the clothing and mate- 
rial sent from the North was made over or made up for freedmen's use, and were 
highly " useful in promoting industrious habits and in teaching useful arts of house- 
wifery." The supervision under such a competent head caused great improvement 
in the work, but department efforts were hindered by some representatives of the 
benevolent societies who did not heartily welcome the more orderly military super- 
vision. An assistant superintendent, March 31, 1865, reports, in and around Vicks- 
bnrg and Natchez, 30 schools, 60 teachers, and 4,393 pupils enrolled; in Memphis, 
1,5'JO impils, and in the entire supervision, 7,360 in attendance. 

General Eaton submitted a report of his laborious work, which is full of valuable 
information. Naturally, some abatement must be made from conclusions Avhich 
Avere based on the wild statements of excited freednien, or the false statements of 
interested persons. "Instinct of unlettered reason " caused a hegira of the blacks to 
camjis of the Union army, or Avithin protected territory. The "negro population 
floated or was kicked about at Avill." Strict superAUsion became urgent to secure 
"contraband information" and service and jirotect the ignorant, deluded people 
from unscrupulous harpies. "Mental and moral enlightenment" was to be striven 
for, even in those troublous times, and it was fortunate that so capable and faithful 
an oilicer as General Eaton Avas in authority. 

All the operations of the supervisors of schools did not give satisfaction, for the 
inspector of schools in South Carolina and Georgia, on October 13, 1865, says: "The 
bureau does not receive that aid from the Government and Government of36cialsit 
had a right to expect, and really from the course of the military officials in this 
department you might think that the only enemies to the GoA'^ernment are the agents 
of the bureau." 

IV. By act of Congress, March 3, 1865, the Freedmen's Bureau was created. The 
scope of its jurisdiction and Avork extended far beyond education. It embraced aban- 
doned lands and the supply of the negroes with food and clothing, and during 1865 
as many as 148,000 Avere reported as receiving rations. The Quartermaster and Com- 
missary Departments were placed at the service of the agents of the bureau, and, in 
addition to freedom, largesses were lavishly giA^en to "reach the great andimpera- 
tiA'e necessities of the situation." Large and comprehensive powers and resources 
were placed in the hands of the bureau, and limitations of the authority of the Gov- 
ernment were disregarded in order to meet the gravest problem of the century. 
Millionsof recently enslaA'ed negi'oes, homeless, penniless, ignorant, were to besaA^ed 
from destitution or perishing, to be prepared for the sudden boon of political equal- 
ity, to be made self-supporting citizens and to prevent their freedom from becoming 
a curse to themselves and their liberators. The commissioner was authorized "to 
Beize, hold, use, lease, or sell all buildings and tenements and any lands appertain- 
ing to the same, or otherwise formally held, under color of title by the late Confed- 
erate States, and buildings or lands lield in trust for the same, anil to use the same, 
or appropriate the proceeds derived therefrom to the education of the freed people." 
He was empowered also to "cooperate Avith private benevolent associations in aid of 
the freednien." The bureau was attached to the War Department, and Avas at first 
limited in duration to one year, but Avas afterwards prolonged. Gen. O. O. Howard 
was appointed commissioner, with assistants. He says he was invested with "iilmost 
unlimited authority," and that the act and orders gave "great scope and liberty of 
action." "Legislative, judicial, and executive poAvers weie combined, reaching all 
the interests of the freedmen." On June 2, 1865, the President onlered all otticers of 
the United States to turn over to the bureau "all property, funds, lands, and records 
in any way connected with freedmen and refugees." This bestowment of despotic 
power Avasuot considered unwifce because of the peculiar exigencies of the times and 
the condition of the freedmen, who, being suddenly emancipated by a dynamic pro- 
cess, were without schools, or teachers, or means to procure them. To organize the 
work a superintendent of schools was appointed for each State. Besides the reg- 
ular appropriation by Congress the military authorities aided the bureau. Trans- 
portation was furnished to teachers, books, and school furniture, and material aid 
was given to all engaged in education. 

General Howard used his large powers to get into his custody the funds scat- 
tered in the hands of many officers, which could be made available for the freed- 
men. Funds bearing different names were contributed to the work of "colored 
ED 95 44 



1378 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1894-95. 

education." ^ During tlie war some of tlio States sent money to officers serving in tlio 
South to buy substitutes from among tlie colored people to fill up their quota under 
the draft. A portion of the bounty money thus sent, by an order of General B. F. 
Butler, August 4, 1864, 'was retained in the hands of officers who had been superin- 
tendents of negro affairs, and by the President's order of June 2, 1865, was turned 
over to the disbursing officers of the Bureau of Freedmen. After the organization 
of the bureau. General Hovrard instructed agents to turn money held by them over 
to the chief disbursing officer of the bureau. This "was in no sense public money, 
but belonged to individuals enlisted as contraband recruits to fill the State quotas. 
What Avas unclaimed of •what vs^as held in trust imder General Butler's order was 
used for educational purposes. 

In the early part of 1867 the accounting officers of the Treasury Department ascer- 
tained that numerous frauds "were being perpetrated on colored claimants for boun- 
ties under acts of Congress. Advising with General Howard, the Treasury officials 
drew a bill which Congress enacted into a law, devolving upon the commissioner 
the ijayment of bounties to colored soldiers and sailors. This enlarged responsi- 
bility gave much labor to General Howard, in his already multifarious and difficult 
duties, and made more honorable the acquittal which he secured when an official 
investigation was subsequently ordered upon his administration of the affairs of the 
bureau. 

The act of Congress of July 16, 1866, gave a local fund, which was esx^ended in 
the district in which it accrued, and besides there were general appropriations for 
the support of the bureau, which were in part available lor schools. 

Mr. Ingle, writing of scliool affairs in the District in 1867 and 1868, says: 

" Great aid was given at this period by the Freedmeu's Bureau, which, not limit- 
ing its assistance to schools for primary instruction, did much toward establishing 
Howard University, in which no distinction was made on account of race, color, or 
sex, though it had originally been intended for the education of negro men alone." 

The monograph of Edward Ingle on ''The negro in the District of Columbia," 
one of the valuable Johns Hopkins University studies, gives such a full and easily 
accessible account of the education of the negroes in the District, that it is needless 
to enlarge the pages of this x^aper by a repetition of what he has so satisfactorily done. 

The bureau found many schools in localities which had been within the lines of the 
Union armies, and these, with the others established by its agency, were placed 
Tinder more systematic supervision. In some States schools were.carried on entirely 
by aid of the funds of the bureau, but it had the cooperation and assistance of vari- 
ous religious and benevolent societies. On July 1, 1866, Mr. Alvord, inspector of 
schools and finances, reported 975 schools in 15 States and the District, 1,405 teachers, 
and 90,778 scholars. He mentioned as worthy of note a change of sentiment among 
better classes in regard to freedmen's schools, and that the schools were steadily 
gaining in numbers, attainments, and general influence. On January 17, 1867, Gen- 
eral Howard reports to the Secretary of V/ar $115,261.56 as iised for schools, and the 
Quartermaster's Department as still rendering valuable help. Education "was 
carried on vigorously during the year," a bettter feeling prevailing, and 150,000 
freedmen and children "occupied earnestly in the study of books." The taxes, which 
had been levied for schools in Louisiana, under the administration of T. W. Conway, 
had been discontinued, but $500,000 were asked for schools and asylums. In 1867 
the Government appointed Generals Steedman and Fullerton as inspectors, and from 
GeneralHoward's vehement reply to their report — which the War Departmentdeclines 
to ijermit an inspection of — it appears that their criticisms were decidedly unfavor- 
able. Civilians in the bureau were now displaced by army officers. In July, 1869, 
Mr. Alvord mentions decided progress in educational returns, increasing thirst for 
knowledge, greater public favor, and the establishment of 39 training schools for 
teachers, with 3,377 puiiils. Four months later General Howard says, "hostility to 
schools and teachers has in great measure ceased." He reported the cost of the 
bureau at $13,029,816, and earnestly recommended "the national legislature" to 
establish a general system of free schools, "furnishing to all children of a suitable 
age such instruction in the rudiments of learning as would fit them to discharge 
intelligently the duties of free American citizens." Solicitor Whiting had xireviously 
recommended that the head of the Freedmen's Bureau should bo a Cabinet officer, 
but this was not granted, and the bureau was finally discontinued, its affairs being 
transferred to the War Department by act of Congress, June 10, 1872. It is apparent 
from the reports of Sprague, assistant commissioner in Florida, and of Alvord in 
1867 and 1870, that the agents of the bureau sometimes used their official position 
and influence for oi'ganizing the freedmen for party politics and to control elections. 
A full history of the Freedmen's Bureau would furnish an interesting chapter in 
negro education, but a report from Inspector Shriver, on October 3, 1873, says the 
department has "no means of verifying the amount of retained bounty fund;" and 

1 See Spec. Ed. Eep., District of Columbia, p. 259. 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



1379 



on DocemLer 4, 1873, tlie department complains of ''the incomplete and disordered 
condition of the records of the late bureau." (See Ex. Doc. No. 10, Forty-third Con- 
gress, first session, and House Mis. Doc. No. 87, Fortj^-second Congress, third session.) 

That no injustice may he done to anyone, the answer of the "Record and Pension 
Office, War Department," May 21, 1894, to my application for statistics drawn from 
the records, is embodied in this paper. So far as the writer has been able to inves- 
tigate, no equally full and official account has heretofore been given. 

The following consolidated statement, prepared from records of superintendents 
of education of the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, shows 
the number of schools, teachers, and pupils in each State, under control of said 
bureau, and the amount expended for schools, asylums, construction and rental of 
school buildings, transportation of teachers, purchase of books, etc. : 



Tear. 


Scliools. 


Teachers. 


Puijils. 


Espendetl 
bureau. 


Eeceivecl 

from 
freedmen. 


ReooiTed 
from benev- 
olent asso- 

ciationa. 


1805 GO 


1,261 
1,673 
1,733 
],942 
1,900 


1,795 
2,032 
2,104 
2,472 
2,376 


111,193 
109, 245 
102, 562 
108, 485 
108, 135 


$225, 722. 94 
415,330.00 
909, 210. 20 
591, 267. 56 
480, 737. 82 


$18,500.00 
17, 200. 00 
42, 130. 00 
85, 72G. 00 
17, 187. 00 


$83, 200. 00 
65 087 00 


1807 


1868 


154 736 50 


1869 


27, 200. 00 


1870 


4, 240. 00 



"This statement or statistical table is made up from the reports of the superin- 
tendents of education of the several States under the control of the bureau from 
1865 to 1870, Avhen Government aid to tlio freedmen's schools was withdrawn. It 
embraces the number of schools established or maintained, the number of teachers 
emidoyed, the number of pupils, and the amount expended for school purposes in 
each State and the District of Columbia. The expenditures also include the amounts 
contributed by the bureau for the construction and maintenance of asylums for the 
freedmen, which can not be separated from the totals given. 

"The table is based upon the reports of the school superintendents, and has been 
prepared with great care. The results thus obtained, however, differ in some mate- 
rial respects from the figures given by the commissioner of the Freedmen's Bureau 
in his annual reports. These discrepancies, which this department is unable to 
reconcile or explain, will be seen by a comparison of the tablo with the following 
statement made ii'om the reports of the commissioner : 



Schools. 



18G6 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1870 



1,839 
1,831 
2,118 
2,677 



Teacher."?. 



Pupils. 



1,405 
2, 087 
2,295 
2, 455 
3,300 



90, 778 
111,442 
104, 327 
114, 522 
149, 581 



Di3l)ursem.eiit8 for .school purposes. 



By bureau. 



j By benevo- 
lent asisoci- 
ationa. 



$123, 059. 39 
531,345.48 
965, 896. 67 
924, 182. 16 
976, 853. 29 



By freed- 
men. 



Total. 



82.200.00 $18,500.00 $224,359.39 

65.087.01 17,200.00 I 013,632.49 
700,000.00 la360, 000.00 ;2, 025, 896. 67 
365,000.00 :al90,000.00 |1, 479, 182. 16 
300,000.00 ja200,000.00 jl, 536, 853. 29 



a£iitimated. 

" It has been found impracticable to ascertain the amounts expended by the Freed- 
men's Bureau for Howard and Fisk Universities, and the schools at Hampton, 
Atlanta, and New Orleans, the items of expenditure for these schools not being sep- 
arated in the reports from the gross expenditures for school purposes." 

A committee of investigation upon General Howard's use of the bui'eau for his 
pecuniary aggrandizement were divided in opinion, but a largo majoritj- exonerated 
him from censure and commended him for the excellent perform.ance of difficult 
duties. An equally strong and unanimous verdict of approval was rendered by a 
court of inquiry. General Sherman presiding, which was convened under an act of 
Congress, February 13, 1874. 

V. It has been stated that the bureau was authorized to act in cooperation with 
benevolent or religious societies in the education of the negroes. A number of these 
organizations had done good service before the establishment of the bureau and con- 
tinued their work afterwards. The teachers earliest in the field were from the 
American Missionary Association, Western Freedmen's Aid Commission, American 
Baptist Home Mission Society, and the Society of Friends. After the surrender of 
Vicksburg and the occupation of Natchez, others were sent l)y the United Presbyte- 
rians, Reformed Presbyterians, United Brethren in Christ, Northwestern Freedmen's 



1380 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1894-95. - 

Aid Commission, and the National Freedmen's Aid Association. The first colored 
school in Vicksburg was started in 1863 by the United Brethren in the basement of 
a Methodist church. 

The American Missionary Association was the chief body, apart from the Govern- 
ment, in the great enterprise of meeting the needs of the negroes. It did not 
relinquish its philanthropic work because army officers and the Federal Government 
were working along the same line. Up to 1&66 its receipts were swollen by "the 
aid of the Free Will Baptists, the Wesleyans, the Congregationalists, and friends in 
Great Britain." From Great Britain it is estimated that '' a million of dollars in 
money and clothing were contributed through various channels for the freedmen." 
The third decade of the association, 1867-1876, was a marked era in its financial his- 
tory. The Freedmen's Bureau turned over a large sum, which could be expended 
only in buildings. A Congressional report says that between December, 1866, and 
May, 1870, the association received $243,753.22. Since the association took on a more 
distinctive and separate denominational character, because of the withdi'awal of 
other denominations into organizations of their own, it, along with its church 
work, has prosecuted, with unabated energy and marked success, its educational 
work among the negroes. It has now under its control or support — 

Chartered institutions 6 

Normal schools 29 

Common schools 43 

Totals : 

Schools 78 

Instructors 389 

Pupils 12, 609 

Pupils classified: 

Theological 47 

Collegiate 57 

College preparatorv 192 

Normal ". 1,091 

Grammar 2, 378 

Intermediate 3, 692 

Primary 5, 152 

Some of these schools are not specially for negroes. It would be uujust not to 
give the association much credit for Atlanta University and for Hampton Normal 
and Industrial Institute, which are not included in the above recapitulation, as the 
latter stands easily first among all the institutions designed for negro development, 
both for influence and usefulness. During the war and for a time afterwards the 
school work of the association was necessarily primary and transitional, but it grew 
into larger proportions, with higher standards, and its normal and industrial work 
deserves special mention and commendation. From 1860 to October 1, 1893, its expend- 
itures in the South for freedmen, directly and indirectly, including church extension 
as well as education, have been $11,610,000. 

VI. In 1866 was organized the Freedmen's Aid and Southern Society of the Meth- 
odist Episcoj)al Church. Under that compact, powerful, well-disciplined, enthusi- 
astic organization more than $6,000,000 have been expended in the work of education 
of negroes. Dr. Hartzell said before the World's Congi'ess in Chicago that Wilber- 
force University, at Xenia, Ohio, was established in 1857 as a college for colored 
people, and ''continues to be the chief educational center of African Methodism in 
the United States." He reports, as under various branches of Methodism, 65 insti- 
tutions of learning for colored people, 388 teachers, 10,100 students, $1,905,150 of 
property, and $652,500 of endowment. Among these is Meharry Medical College, of 
high standard and excellent discipline, with dental and pharmaceutical departments 
as well as medical. Near 200 students have been graduated. The school of mechanic 
arts in Central Tennessee College, under the management of Professor Sedgwick, 
has a fine outfit, and has turned out telescopes and other instruments which com- 
mand a ready and remunerative market in this and other countries. 

VII. On April 16, 1862, slavery was abolished in the District of Columbia. By 
November 13,000 refugees had collected at Washington, Alexandria, Hampton, and 
Norfolk. Under an unparalleled exigency, instant action was necessary. The lack 
of educational privileges led Christian societies to engage in educational work — at 
least in the rudiments of learning— for the benefit of these people, who were eager 
to be instructed. Even where education had not previously been a part of the 
functions of certain organizations, the imperative need of the liberated left no 
option as to duty. With the assistance of the Baptist Free Mission Society and of 
the Baptist Home Mission Society, schools were established in Alexandria as early 
as January 1, 1862, and were multiplied through succeeding years. After Appo- 
matox the Baptist Home Mission Society was formally and deliberately committed 
to the education of the blacks, giviug itself largely to the training of teachers and 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1381 

preacliers. In May, 1892, the society liad uuder its management 24 schools -with 216 
instructors, 4,861 pupils, of whoii' 1,756 wero preparing to teach, school proi>erty 
worth $750,000 and endowment funds of $156,000. Probably not less than 50,000 
have attended the various schools. Since 1860 $2,451,859.56 have been expended for 
the benefit of the negroes. The superintendent of education says : "The aggregate 
amount appropriated for the salaries of teachers from the time the society com- 
menced its work until January, 1883, was: District of Columbia, $59,243.57; Vir- 
ginia, $65,254.44; North Carolina, $41,788.90; South Carolina, $2;»,683.71; Florida, 
$3,164.16; Georgia, $26,963.21; Alabama, $4,960.37; Mississippi, $6,611.05; Louisiana, 
$39,168.25; Texas, $2,272.18; Arkansas, $150; Tennessee, $57,898.86; Kentucky, 
$1,092.54; Missouri, $300. The following gives the aggregate amount appropriated 
for teachers and for all other purjioses, such as land, buildings, etc., from January, 
1883, to January, 1893: Districtof Columbia, $103,110.01 ; Virginia, $193,974.08; North 
Carolina, $142,861.95; South Carolina, $137,157.79; Florida, $55,923.96; Georgia, 
$314,061.48; Alabama, $35,405.86; Mississippi, $86,019. 0; Louisiana, $33,720.93; 
Texas, $131,225.27 ; Arkansas, $13,206.20 ; Tennessee, $164,514.05 ; Kentucky, $49,798.56 ; 
Missouri, $6, .543. 13. Until January, 1883, the appropriations for teachers and for 
lands, buildings, etc., were kept as separate items. I have already given the appro- 
priations for the teachers up to that date. For grounds and buildings $421,119. .50 
were ap])ropriated." In connection with the Spelman Seminary and the male school 
in Atlanta, there has been established, under intelligent and discriminating rules, 
a first-class training department for teachers. A new, commodious structure, well 
ada|}ted to the purpose, costing $55,000, was opened in December. At Spelman 
there is an admirable training school for nurses, where the pupils have hos])ital 
practice. Shaw University, at Raleigh, has the flourishing Leonard Medical School 
and a well-e<iuip]ied pharmacy. 

VIII. The Presbyterian Church at the North in May, 1865, adopted a deliverance 
in favor of special efi'orts in behalf of the "lately enslaved African race." From 
the twenty-eighth annual report of the Board of Missions for Freedmen it appears 
that, besides building churches, special exertions have been jiiit forth "in establish- 
ing parochial schools, in planting academies and seminaries, in equipping siud sup- 
porting a large and growing university." The report mentions 15 schools — 3 in 
North Carolina, 4 in South Carolina, 3 in Arkansas, and 1 in each of the States of 
Texas, Mississippi, Virginia, Georgia, and Tennessee. One million two hundred and 
eighty thoiisand dollars have been spent. "In the high schools and parochial 
schools we have (May, 1893) 10, .520 students, who are being daily molded under Pres- 
byterian educational influence.'' The United Presbyterian Church reports for May, 
1893, an enrollment in schools of 2,558. The Southern Presbyterians have a theo- 
logical seminary in Birmingham, Ala., which was first opened in Tuscaloosa in 1877. 

IX. The Episcopal Church, through the Commission on Church Work among the 
Colored People, during the seven years of its existence (1887-1893) has expended 
$272,068, but the expenditure is fairly api>ortioned between ministerial and teaching 
purposes. The schools are parochial, " with an element of industrial training," and 
are located in Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Alabama; but 
the "reports" do not give the number of teachers and scholars. The Friends have 
some well-conducted schools, notably the Schofield in Aiken, S. C. They have 
sustained over 100 schools and have spent $1,004,129. In the mission work of the 
Roman Catholic Church among the negroes school work and church work are .so 
blended that it has been very difficult to make a clear separation. Schools exist in 
Baltimore, Washington, and all the Southern States, but with how many teachers 
and pupils and at what cost the report of the commission for 1893 does not show. 
A few extracts are given. " We need," says one, " all the help possible to cope with 
the i)nblic schools of Washington. In fact, our school facilities are poor, and unless 
we can do something to invite children to our Catholic schools many of them will 
lose their faith." Another person writes : " Next year we shall have to exert all the 
influence in our power to hold our school. Within two doors of our school a large 
public-school building is being erected; this new public-school building will draw 
pupils away from the Catholic school unless the latter be made equally efficient in 
its work." 

X. On February 6, 1867, George Peabody gave to certain gentlemen $2,000,000 in 
trust, to be used "for the promotion and encouragement of intellectual, moral, or 
industrial education among the young of the more destitute portions of the South- 
western States of our Union." This gift embraced both races, and Dr. Barnas Sears 
was fortunately selected as the general agent, to whom was committed practically the 
administration of the trust. In his first report he remarked that in many of the cities 
aided by the fund provision was made for the children of both races, but said that 
as the subject of making equal provision for the education of both races was occupy- 
ing public attention, he thought it the safer and Aviser course not to set up schools 
on a ])recarious foundation, but to confine help to public schools and make efforts in 
all suitable ways to improve or have established State systems of education. Still, 



1382 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



■■i-vSjes 



in some localities aid was judiciously given, and the United States superintendent of 
education for the negroes in North Carolina gave testimony that hut for the Peahody 
aid many of the colored schools would be closed. "Our superintendents have aided 
laro-ely in distributing the Peabody fund in nearly all the States." "Great good has 
thereby been accomplished at very little added expense." The Peabody fund bent 
its energies and directed its policy toward securing the establishment of State sys- 
tems of education which should make adequate and permanent i^rovision for universal 
education. State authorities Avould have more power and general influence than 
individuals or denominational or private corporations. They represent the whole 
people, are held to a strict accountability, protected "from the charge of sectarianism 
and from the liability of being overreached by interested parties." State systems, 
besides, have a continuous life and are founded on the just principle that property 
is taxable for the maintenance of general education. The fund now acta exclusively 
with State systems, and continues support to the negroes more efficiently through 
such agencies. 

XI. Congress, by land grants since 1860, has furnished to the Southern Stales sub- 
stantial aid in the work of agricultural and mechanical education. On March 2, 1867, 
the Bureau of Education was established for the collection and diffusion of informa- 
tion. This limited sphere of work has been so interpreted and cultivated that the 
Bureau, under its able Commissioners, especially under the leadership of that most 
accomplished American educator, Dr.W. T. Harris, has become one of the most efficient 
and intelligent educational agencies on the continent. To the general survey of the 
educational field and comparative exhibits of the i)ositiou of the United States and 
other enlightened countries have been added discussions by specialists and papers on 
the various phases of educational life produced by the incorporation of diverse races 
into our national life or citizenship. The annual reports and circulars of information 
contain a vast mass of facts and studies in reference to the colored people, and a 
digest and collaboration of them wovild give the most complete history that could be 
prepared. 

The Bureau and the Peabody education fund have been most helpful allies in mak- 
ing suggestions in relation to legislation in school matters, and giving, in intelligible, 
practical form, the experiences of other States, home and foreign, in devising and 
perfecting educational systems. All the States of the South, as soon as they recov- 
ered their governments, i)ut in operation systems of public schools which gave equal 
opportunities and privileges to both races. It would be singularly unjust not to con- 
sider the difficulties — social, political, and pecuniary— which embarrassed the South 
in the efforts to inaugurate free education. It required unusual heroism to ada]3t to 
the new conditions, but she was equal in fidelity and energy to what was demanded 
for the reconstruction of society and civil institutions. The complete enfranchise- 
ment of the negroes and their new political relations, as the result of the war and 
the new amendments to the Constitution, necessitated an entire reorganization of 
the systems of public education. To realize what has been accomplished is difficult 
at best — imi)ossible, unless we estimate sufficiently the obstacles and com^iare the 
facilities of to-day with the ignorance and bondage of a generation ago, when some 
statutes made it an indictable offense to teach a slave or free person of color. Com- 
parisons with densely populated sections are misleading, for in the South the sparse- 
uess and poverty of the population are almost a i)reventive of good schools. Still 
the results have been marvelous. Out of 448 cities in the United States with a 
population each of 8,000 and over, only 73 are in the South. Of 28 with a popula- 
tion from 100,000 to 1,500,000, only 2 (St. Louis being excluded) are in the South. 
Of 96, with a population between 25,000 and 100,000, 17 are in the South. The 
urban population is comparatively small, and agriculture is the chief occupation. 
Of 858,000 negroes in Georgia, 130,000 are in cities and towns and 728,000 in the 
country; in Mississippi, urban colored population 42,000, rural 700,000; in South 
Carolina, urban 74,000, rural 615,000 ; in North Carolina, urban 66,000 against 498,000 
Tur.al ; in Alabama, 65,000 against 613,000 ; in Louisiana, 93,000 against 466,000. The 
schools for colored children are maintained on an average 89.2 days in a year, and 
for white children 98.6, but the preponderance of the white over the black race in 
towns and cities helps in part to explain the difference. While the colored popula- 
tion supplies less than its due proportion of pupils to the public schools, and the 
regularity of attendance is less than with the white, yet the difference in length of 
school term in schools for white and schools for black children is trifling. In the 
same grades the wages of teachers are about the same. The annual State school 
revenue is apportioned impartially among white and black children, so much per 
capita to each child. In the rural "districts the colored people are dependent chiefly 
upon the State apportionment, which is by law devoted mainly to the payment of 
teachers' salaries. Hence, the schoolhouses and other conveniences in the country 
for the negroes are inferior, but in the cities the appropriation for schools is gen- 
eral and is allotted to white and colored, according to the needs of each. A small 
proiaortion of the school fund comes from colored sources. All the States do not 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



1383 






discriminate iu assessments of taxable property, but in Georgia, where the owner- 
ship is ascertained, the negroes returned in 1892 $14,809,575 of taxable property 
against $448,884,959 returned by white owners. The amount of property listed for 
taxation in North Carolina in 1891 was, by white citizens, $234,109,568; by colored 
citizens, $8,018,446. To an inquiry for official data, the auditor of the State of Virginia 
says : "The taxes collected in 1891 from white citizens were $2,991,646.24 and from the 
colored $163,175.67. The amount paid for public schools for whites, $588,564.87; for 
negroes, $309,364.15. Add $15,000 for colored normal and $80,000 for colored lunatic 
asylum. Apportioning the criminal expenses between the Avhite and the colored peo- 
jilo in the ratio of convicts of each race received into the penitentiary in 1891, and 
it shows hat the criminal expenses put upon the State annually by the whites are 
$55,749.57 and by the negroes $204,018.99." 

Of the desire of the colored people for education the proof is conclusive, and of 
their capacity to receive mental culture there is not the shade of a reason to support 
an adverse hypothesis. The Bureau of Education furnishes the following suggestive 
table : 

Sixteen former slave States and the District of Columhia. 



Tear. 


ComTOon-scliool en- 
rollment. 


Expendi- 
tures (both 
races) . 


Tear. 


Common-scliool en- 
rollment. 


Expendi- 
tures (both 




White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 




1870-77 


1, 827, 139 

2, 034, 946 
2, 013, 084 
2 215,074 
2, 234, 877 
2, 249, 203 
2,370,110 
2, 540, 448 
2, 676, 911 


571,500 
675, 150 
085, 942 
784, 709 
802, 374 
802, 982 
817, 240 
1, 002, 313 
1, 030, 463 


.$11,231,073 
12, 093, 091 
12, 174, 141 
12,678,085 
13,656,814 i 
15,241,740 1 
16,363,471 ! 
17, 884, 558 
19, 253, 874 


1885-86 

1886 87 


2, 773, 145 

9. 97.'; 77.-! 


1,048,659 
1, 118, 550 
1, 140, 405 
1, 213, 092 
1,296,959 
1, 329, 549 
1,354,316 
1,367,515 
1, 424, 995 


$20, 208, 113 
20 8'1 969 


1877 78 


1878 79 


1887-88 3,110,606 

18S8 89 3 107. R.RO 


21 810 158 


1879 80 


23 171 878 


1880-81 

1881-82 


1889-90 

1890-91 

1891-92 

1892-93 

1893-94* 


3, 402, 420 
3, 570, 624 
3, 007, 549 
3, 097, 899 
3, 835, 593 


24, 880, 107 
26 69U 310 


1882 83 


27 691 488 


1883-84 


28 535 738 


1884-85 


29, 170, 351 



* Approximately. 

Total amount expended in 18 years, $353,557,559. 

In 1890-91 there were 79,962 white teachers and 24,150 colored. To the enrollment 
in common schools should be added 30,000 colored children who are in normal or sec- 
ondary schools. The amount expended for education of negroes is not stated sep- 
arately, but Dr. W. T. Harris estimates that there must have been nearly $75,000,000 
expended by the Southern States iu addition to what has been contributed by mis- 
sionary and philanthropic sotirces. In Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Florida, 
Alabama, llississipi^i, Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas annual grants are made for 
the support of colored normal and industrial schools. 

The negroes must rely very largely upon the public schools for their education, 
and so they should. They are and will continue to be the most efficient factors for 
uplifting the race. The States, at immense sacrifice, with impartial liberality, have 
taxed themselves for a population which contributes very little to the State reve- 
nues, and nothing could bo done more prejudicial to the educational interests of the 
colored peoijle than to indulge in any hostility or indifference to or neglect of these 
free schools. Denominations and individuals can do nothing more harmful to the 
race than to foster opposition to the public .schools. 

XII. A potential agency in enlightening public opinion and in working out the 
problem of the education of the negro has been the John F. Slater fund. "In view 
of the apprehensions felt by all thoughtful persons," when the duties and iDrivileges 
of citizenship were suddenly thrust upon millions of lately emancipated slaves, Mr. 
Slater conceived the purijose of giving a large sum of money to their proper educa- 
tion. After deliberate reflection and much conference, he selected a board of trust 
and placed in their hands $1,000,000. This unique gift, originating wholly with him- 
self, and elaborated iu his own mind in mo.st of its details, was for "the ujjliftingof 
the lately emancipated population of the Southern States and their posterity, by 
conferring on them the blessings of Christian education." "Not only for their own 
sake, but also for the sake of our common country," he sought to provide "the 
means of such education as shall tend to make them good men and good citizens," 
associating the instruction of the mind "with training in just notions of duty toward 
God and man, in the light of the Holy Scriptures." Leaving to the corporation the 
largest discretion and liberty in the prosecution of the general object, as described 
in his letter of trust, he yet indicated as "lines of operation adapted to the condi- 
tion of things" the encouragement of "institutions as are most effectually useful in 
promoting the training of teachers." The trust was to be administered "in no par- 
tisan, sectional, or sectarian apirit, but iu the iuterest of a generous patriotism and 



1384 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



an enlightened Christian spirit." Soon after organization tlie trustees expressed 



pations," that the pupils might obtain an intelligent mastery of the indispensable 
elemeuts of industrial success. So repeated have been similar declarations on the 
part of the trustees and the general agents that manual training, or education in 
industries, may be regarded as an unalterable policy; but only such institutions 
were to be aided as were, "with good reason, believed to be on a permanent basis." 
Mr, Slater explained " Christian education," as used in his letter of gift, to' be teach- 
ing, "leavened with a predominant and salutary Christian influence," such as was 
found in "the common school teaching of Massachusetts and Connecticut," and that 
there was "no need of limiting the gifts of the fund to denominational institutions." 
Since the first appropriation near fifty different institutions have been aided, in 
sums ranging from $500 to $5,000. As required by the founder, neither principal nor 
income is expended for land or buildings. For a few years aid was given in buying 
machinery or apparatus, but now the income is applied almost exclusively to paying 
the salaries of teachers engaged in the normal or industrial work. The number of 
aided institutions has been lessened, with the Aaew of concentrating and making 
more effective the aid and of improving the instruction in normal and industrial 
work. The table appended presents a summary of the appropriations which have 
been made from year to year. 

Cash disbursed hy John F. Slater fund as appropriations for educational institutions. 



To— 


Amount. 


To— 


Amount. 




$24, 881. 66 
30,414.19 
38,724.98 
39, 816. 28 
46, 183. 34 
43, 709. 98 
41, 560. 02 


April 30, 1891 


$50, 650. 00 


April 30 1885 


April 30, 1892 


45,816.33 


April30 1886 


April 30, 1893 


37, 475. 00 


April 30 1887 


April 30, 1894 


40, 750. 00 


April 30 1888 


Total 




April 30 1889 


439, 981. 78 


April 30, 1890 











III. 

OCCUPATIONS OF THE NEGROES. 

[By Henry Gannett, of the United States Geological Survey.] 

The statistics of occupations used in this paper are from the census of 1890, and 
represent the status of the race on June 1 of that year. The census takes cognizance 
only of "gainful" occupations, excluding from its lists housewives, school children, 
men of leisure, etc. Its schedules deal only with wage earners, those directly engaged 
in earning their living. 

GENERAL STATISTICS. 

In 1890, out of a total population of 62,622,250, 22,753,884 persons, or 34.6 per cent, 
were engaged in gainiui occupations. Of the negroes, including all of mixed negro 
blood, numbering 7,470,040, 3,073,123, or 41.1 per cent were engaged in gainful occu- 
pations. The proportion was much greater than with the total population, This 
total population, however, was composed of several diverse elemeuts, including, 
besides the negroes themselves, the foreign born (of which a large proportion were 
adult males), and the native whites. The following table presents the proportions 
of each of these elements which were engaged in gainful occupations: 

Per cent. 

Total population 34. 6 

Whites 35. 5 

Native whites 31.6 

Foreign born 55. 2 

Negroes 41.1 

The diagram No. I sets forth these figures in graphic form. The total area of the 
square represents the population. This is subdivided by horizontal lines into rec- 
tangles representing the various elements of the population, and the shaded part of 
each rectangle represents the proportions engaged in gainful occupations. 

The proportion was greatest among the foreign born because of the large propor- 
tion of adults, and particularly of males, among this element. Next to that, the 
proportion was greatest among the negroes, being much greater than among the 
whites collectively, and still greater than among the native whites. 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



1385 



Classifying the wage earners of the country in respect to race and nativity, it 
appears that 64.5 per cent were native whites, 22 p^r cent were of foreign birth, and 
13.5 per cent were negroes. 

Analyzing the statistics of occupation by sex, it is discovered that the proportion 
of native white males who had occupations was 53.4 and of females 9.4 per cent. 
The corresponding proportion of male negroes was 56.3 per cent and of female negroes 
26 per cent. The male negroes were slightly more fully occupied than were the 
native whites, while among females the proportion of wage earners was much greater. 
The diftereuce between native whites and negroes in the proportion of wage earners 
was, therefore, due mainly to the fuller occupation of women. To put it in another 
form: Out of every 100 native whites Avho pursued gainful occupations, 85 were males 
and 15 were females; of every 100 negroes, 69 were males and 31 were females. 
Indeed, a larger proportion of women pursued gainful occupations among negroes 
than in any other class of the population. 

CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONS. 

The primary cl&,8sification of occupations made by the census recognized five great 
groups, as follows: (1) Professions, (2) agriculture, (3) trade and transportation, 
(4) manufactures, (5) personal service. These titles are self explanatory, with the 
possible exception of the last class, which is mainly composed of domestic servants. 

The following table shows the proportion of the negro wage earners engaged in 
each of these groups of occupations. In juxtaposition, for comparison, are placed 
similar figures for the native white and the foreign born : 





Native 
white. 


Poreign 
born. 


Negro. 


Professions 


Per cent. 

5.5 

41.0 

17.0 
22.9 
13.6 


Per cent. 
2.2 
25.5 
14.0 
31.3 
27.0 


Per cent. 
1 X 




57 2 




4 7 




5 6 




31 4 






Total 


100.0 


100 ! inn n 









Similar facts are shown by diagram No. 2. In this the total area of the square 
represents the number of persons in the country pursuing gainful occupations. This 
is divided into rectangles by horizontal lines, the rectangles being j)roportioned 
respectively to the numbers of the native whites, the foreign born, and the negroes. 
The subdivision of these rectangles by vertical lines indicates the proportion in 
each group of wage earners. 

The most striking facts brought out by this table and diagram are that only a 
trifling proportion of the negroes were in the professions, that much more than one- 
half were farmers, and nearly one-third were engaged in personal (mainly domestic) 
service. Indeed, over seven-eighths of them were either farmers or servants. The 
proportions engaged in trade and transportation and in manufactures were very 
small. In respect to the farming class, thej'^ contrasted sharply with the foreign 
born. In trade and transportation and in manufactures the contrast was even 
greater, in the contrary direction. The foreign born contained a much larger pro- 
portion of professional men. 

Comparing the negroes with the native whites, equally interesting contrasts 
appear. Professional men were much more numerous among whites than among 
negroes. The proportion of the farming class, although much smaller, Avas nearer 
that of the negroes than was the same class among the foreign born. In trade and 
transportation and in manufactures the native whites had much greater proportions, 
while in personal service the proportion was much less than that of the negroes. 

MALE AND FEMALE WAGE EARNERS. 

It will be interesting to analyze these figures further. The following tably clas- 
sifies negro wage earners by occupation and by sex, giving for each sex the percent- 
age engaged in each group of occupations : 



Profe.ssions 

Agriculture 

Trade and transportation . 

Manufactures 

Personal service 

ED 95 44 




Female. 



0.9 
44.0 



2.8 
52.1 



1386 



EDUCATION KEPOET, 1894-95. 



DiAGKAM No. 1. — Proj^ortion of tlie j^ojmlation and its elements^ which were engaged in 

gainful occihi^ations in 1890. 




WAGE-LARNERS.. 



Diagram No. 2. — Classification of the wage-earners hg race and nativity and iy occu- 

jyations. 




jlllJI AGRICULTURE 

Rrm TRADE AND TfiANSPOK- 

&■ ~ jation'. 



MANUFACTURES 
PERSONAL 2ERYICL 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



1387 



These figures are also illustratecT by diagram No. 3, tlio area of which represents 
all negro wage earners. The two rectangles into which it is diA'icled represent the 
males and females; each of these is subdivided intorectangles representing tlie num- 
ber in each group of occupations. Of the male negro wage earners, more than 
three-fifths were farmers and a little less tlian one-fourth were servants. The two 
classes jointly accounted for nearly 85 per cent of all. 

Diagram No. 3. — Classification of nccjro wage-earners li/ sex and occiqKiiion. 




PCRSONAL Sew/CE. 



TPADE ANO 

TRANSPORTATION. 



Of the females, considerably less than one-half were farmers and more than one- 
half were servants — tlie two classes together accounting for 95 per cent of all. This 
large proportion of female negro farmers was doubtless made up in the main of 
women and female children emi^loyed in the cotton fields. 



1388 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



NUMBER OF WAGE EARNERS. 



The followiDg table, abstracted from the census publications, shows the number 
of negroes in all occupations and in each of the hve great groups of occupations by 
sex and by States and Territories : 



State or Territory. 



The United States. 



Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Iflorida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

Now Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

New York 

North Carolina 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Khode Island 

South Carolina 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

"West Virginia 

Wisconsin , 

Wyoming , 



All occupations. 



Males. Females 



2, 101, 233 



192, 

i, 

86, 

4, 

2, 

4, 

9, 

21, 

46, 

246, 

19, 
U, 
3, 
13, 
76, 
159, 

63, 

7, 

5, 

1, 

198. 

43, 



16, 



23, 
148, 



37. 

2 

ise! 



121. 
123. 



169, 
11, 



322 



091 
8(il 
301 
765 
064 
334 
238 
302 
913 
83 
270 
648 
615 
889 
411 
180 
409 
166 
593 
065 
719 
531 
940 
971 
741 
130 
242 
143 
888 
272 
370 
146 
085 
958 
536 
534 
337 
714 
284 
016 
395 
298 
322 
343 
902 
,478 
855 
563 



971, 890 



101, 085 



71 

30, 115 
1,041 

792 
1,964 
3,016 

18, 770 

19, 071 
122, 352 

23 

4,713 

4,210 

730 

3,400 

31, 255 
83, 978 

145 

32, 642 
3,435 
1,329 

383 

105, 306 

16, 715 

140 

959 

22 

107 

7,738 

156 

13, 664 

68, 220 

23 

7,791 

125 

99 

15, 704 

1,362 

102, 836 

43 

44, 701 

46, 691 

51 

109 

71,752 

153 

2,623 

205 

75 



Agriculture, fisher- 
ies, and mining. 



Males. Females. 



1, 329, 584 



427, 835 



146,361 66,123 



29 

68, 219 

1,084 

180 

879 

4,157 

553 

23, 690 

172, 496 

16 

4,323 

3,273 

973 

4,171 

38, 456 

111, 820 

104 

29, 510 

601 

1,458 

72 

167, 995 

15, 757 

41 

242 

"41 

60 

4,106 

163 

3, 031 

106, 493 

35 

6,201 

635 

106 

4,602 

270 

149,915 

33 

72,316 

85, 824 

21 

112 

93, 745 

250 

4,790 

168 

141 



19, 069 

14 

4 

1 

34 

16 

7,629 

54, 073 

1 

134 

37 

11 

110 

1,013 

49, 428 

2 

743 

4 

45 

2 

77, 925 

324 



29 
3 

25 
33, 790 



108 

17 

2 

29 

2 

73, 588 

1 

12, 510 

20,758 



1 

10, 164 

2 

50 
4 



Professional service. 



Males. Females. 



25, 171 



1,471 



3 

1,226 

86 

75 

61 

97 

390 

776 

2,122 



330 

78 

357 

1,406 

1,251 

8 

640 

162 

115 

57 

1,970 

897 

25 

63 



5 

287 

10 

571 

1,619 

7 

617 

22 

23 

584 

38 

1,513 

1 

1,736 

2, 031 

1 

3 

1, 6.54 

16 

106 

27 

58 



,829 
491 



238 

21 

13 

10 

32 

335 

223 

958 



116 

126 

11 

69 

420 

355 

2 

275 

57 

39 

13 

775 

337 

4 

7 



135 
565 



246 
3 

5 

197 
18 
506 
2 
592 
583 



911 

2 

03 

11 

1 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



1389 



Table showing the number of negroes in all occupations, etc. — Coutiuued. 



State or Territory. 



The United States. 



Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizoua 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District of Columbia . 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebrp.ska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

Nev/ Mexico 

New York 

North Carolina 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texa.s 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Vh-ginia 

Wisconsin : . . 

Wyoming 



Domestic and per- 
sonal service. 



Males. Females, 



457, 002 



25, 426 



505, 898 



33, 380 



Trade and transpor- 
tation. 



Males. 



143, 350 



9,147 



Females. 



2,399 



140 



Manufacturing and 
mechanical indus- 
tries. 



Males. 



146, 126 



9,917 



Females. 



26, 929 



951 



034 
22G 
316 
702 
925 
631 
680 
229 
294 

57 
865 
950 
966 
898 
649 
609 
174 
014 
296 
495 
286 
209 
899 
815 
743 

67 

81 
715 
651 
151 
580 

90 
814 
231 
328 
505 
161 
554 
115 
606 
360 
248 
143 
425 
480 
515 
481 
313 



67 

10, 506 

897 

715 

1,781 

2,878 

16, 734 

10,421 

65, 025 

21 

4,061 

3,849 

672 

3,077 

28, 916 

31, 292 

128 

30, 406 
2,914 
1,102 

315 

25, 729 
15, 614 

122 

881 

18 

84 

7,339 

150 

12, 445 

31, 393 

22 

6,955 

102 

81 

14, 297 

1,169 

26, 213 

35 

30, 333 

24, 840 

48 

102 

55, 941 

134 

2,462 

161 

71 



13 

2,787 

457 

406 

634 

633 

4,776 

4,106 

16, 397 

8 

1,994 

1, 426 

289 

1,148 

7,381 

6,045 

68 

7,538 

1,402 

448 

216 

5,671 

4,862 

45 

323 

17 

24 

2,111 

40 

4,231 

7,564 

10 

3,027 

28 

42 

5,213 

546 

6,860 

121 

10, 954 

6,386 

14 

33 

15, 655 

69 

2,080 

74 

31 



27 

3 

5 

7 

21 

195 

52 

372 



41 
23 
1 
20 
66 
129 
2 

144 

34 

6 

5 

74 

44 

1 

4 

1 



54 
106 



40 
1 
1 

104 
3 

188 
1 

125 

69 

1 



12 

3,403 

358 

402 

565 

816 

2,839 

4,501 

16, 604 

2 

1,602 

1,669 

309 

1,315 

6,519 

8,455 

55 

4,458 

1,132 

549 

88 

5,686 

3,525 

45 

370 

5 

72 

1,864 

24 

2,288 

12, 114 

4 

3,426 

42 

37 

4,630 

322 

9,842 

14 

10, 404 

5,794 

14 

31 

18, 864 

87 

927 

105 

20 



4 

275 

106 

55 

165 

51 

1,490 

746 

1,924 

1 

361 

175 

35 

124 

840 

2,774 

11 

1,074 

426 

137 

48 

303 

393 

13 

64 

2 

23 

263 

3 

1,006 

2,360 

1 

442 

2 

10 

1,077 

170 

2,341 

4 

1,141 

461 

2 

6 

4, 483 

15 

41 

28 



1390 



EDUCATION KEPORT, 1894-95._ 



DiAGRAiM No. 4. — Proj}ortion of negro wage-earners to negro ]}o;pulaUon. 



Per cent 




ARizora. 

Montana 

VVyowins 

Washimgtcn 

Nevada 

South Dakota 

Utah.-.-- 

Colorado. 

MiNfiiESOTA 

New Hamf 
New York 
Oregon 

Idaho 

Nebraska 

District OF Columbia. _ 

Mew Jersey 

Mev^ Mexjco.— 

Massachusetts 

Pennsylvania.-, 

Rhode Island 

Connecticut. 

Califorhia 

Maine 

North Dakota 

Maryland. 

Delaware 

Louisiana. 

Vermont., 

AlABAMaV 

Georsia. 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Indiana. 

Michigan 

Ohio, 

South Carolina. 

Mississippi 

Missouri. 

Florida. 

Illinois. 

Iowa 

Kentucky. 

North Carolina 

Tenmessee. 

Virginia. 

Arkansas 

Oklahoma... 

Kamsas 

Texas 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1391 



DiAGR.\.:\r No. 5. — frronplnj of the States and Territories. 




Diagram No. G.— Proportions of male and female wage-earners. 

PeTcenl 10 20 30 40 "SO 60 70 80 SO lOd 



Northeastern. 
Southeastern. 
North Central 
South Central... 
I Western. 



\Mal£S. 




1392 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. - 

PROPORTION OF WAGE BARKERS TO POPULATION. 

The foregoing diagram No. 4 sliows by the length of the bars the proportion which 
the negro wage earners bore in 1890 to the negro population of each State. Thia 
proportion was greatest in the States and the Territories of the West. Following 
these are the Northeastern States, while the lower part of the column is made up of 
the States in the Upper Mississippi Valley and those of the South. 

OCCUPATIONS BY GROUPS OF STATES. 

The distribution of wage earners among the five occupation groups differed widely 
in different parts of the country. To study it, it will be sufficient to group the 
States and analyze the statistics of each group. 

The groups which will be used here are those which have been in use in the last 
two censuses, namely, the Northeastern and Southeastern, North Central and South 
Central, and Western groups. The States and Territories of which each group is 
composed are shown in map No. 5. 

Examination of the States forming the above groups will show that the groups are 
in many respects very characteristic. The Southeastern and South Central groups 
contain nine-tenths of the negroes of the country. These States may be said to 
constitute the home of the negro, while in the Northern and Western States he is an 
immigrant. 

OCCUPATIONS BY SEX AND STATE GROUPS. 

Diagram No. 6 shows the distribution by sex and by groups of States of the negro 
wage earners. It appears that in the Northeastern, Southeastern, and South Central 
groups two-thirds of the wage earners were males and one-third were females, while 
in the North Central and Western groups about live-sixths were males and one-sixth 
only were females. This is in part due to the disproportionate number of males in 
these parts of the country. 

Diagram No. 7 shows the distribution of the negro wage earners, classified by sex, 
among the five occupation groups and by groups of States. The length of each bar 
represents 100 per cent, and each bar is divided proportionately among the different 
occupation groups. Thus from it we read that in the Northeastern States 15 per 
cent of the male wage earners were engaged in agriculture, 56 per cent in personal 
service, 16 per cent in trade and transportation, 12 per cent in manufactures, and 2 
per cent in the professions. 

It is seen that a far larger proportion of male wage earners were engaged in agri- 
culture in the Southern States than in the Northern and Western States, the propor- 
tion in the two groups of the former States being 64 and 71 per cent, while in the 
Northeastern States only 15 per cent were engaged in agriculture, in the North Cen- 
tral States 26 per cent, and in the Western States 17 per cent. 

In trade and transportation the highest proportion was found in the Northeastern 
States, where it was 16 per cent; in the North Central States it was 14, and in the 
Western States 10 per cent, while in the Southeastern States it was 7 per cent and 
in the South Central States 7 per cent. 

Of course, the magnitude of the proportion in the Northeastern States is due to 
the fact that this is the commercial and manufacturing section of the country, where 
a large proportion of all the population is engaged in these avocations. The same 
is the case, though in less degree, in the North Central States, while the Southern 
States are almost purely agricultural. The figures relating to manufacturing occu- 
pations show similar characteristics. It will be noted that in the Northern and 
Western States the occupations of the negroes were more diversified than in the 
Southern States. Agriculture and personal service in the Northeastern States occu- 
pied but 71 per cent of all wage earners, in the North Central States they occupied 
75 per cent, and in the Western States 81 per cent, while in the Southeastern States 
these two occupation groups comprised 84 per cent and in the South Central 88 
per cent of all. 

The diagram shows in a similar manner the distribution of the female negro wage 
earners. There were engaged in agriculture in the Northern and Western States but 
a trifling proportion of negro women, while in the Southern States as a whole nearly 
one-half of the female negro wage earners were engaged in that avocation. On the 
other hand, personal service occupied fully nine-tenths of the female wage earners 
in the Northern and Western States, while in the Southern States less than one-half 
were engaged in it. Indeed, 94 per cent of the female wage earners of the West were 
engaged in personal service, 91 per cent in the Northeastern States, and 87 per cent in 
the North Central States. In trade and transportation the proportion was trifling 
and in manufactures it was small, although much larger in the North and West than 
in the South. 



SLATER FUND AND. EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



1393 



Diagram No. 7. — Pistribution of occupations by sex and sections of the country. 

Percent. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 




\ Professions. 
\Agriculture. 
WANurAcw/fes. 



Diagram No. 8. — Proportions of males and females among the negro wage-earner. 



Per cent. 



West Virginia. 

Delaware 

Arkansas 

Missouri 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Kentucky. 

Florida 

North Carolina 

Georgia 

Maryland 

Louisiana 

South Carolina 

Mississippi 

Alabama 

District of Columbia 



20 30 40 50 60 . 70, 80 90 100 




Femaus. 



1394 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1894-95. 

Here also we see that agriculture and personal service occupied nearly all wage 
earners — 91 per cent in the Northeastern States, 86 per cent in the Southeastern 
States, 89 per cent in the North Central States, 97per cent in the South Central States, 
and 95 per cent in the Western States. Occupations Avere slightly more diversified 
in the North and West than in the Southern States, as was the case with the males. 

OCCUPATIONS KT STATES. 

It will now bo of interest to extend this study in detail by States, but in doing so 
the study will be confined to the Southern, the former slave States, which are in a 
sense the home of the negro and in which more than nine-tenths of them live. In 
most of the Northern States the number of negroes is so small that any conclusions 
draAA'n from statistics regarding them are worthless and are likely to be misleading. 

Diagram No. 8 shows the distribution by sex of the negro wage earners of those 
Southern States. The total length of the bar represents in each case all the wage 
earners, the white portion representing the males and the shaded portion the females. 

This diagram shows that the greatest proportion of female wage earners is in the 
District of Columbia, where it is nearly one-half of all negro wage earners, and the 
least in West Virginia, where it is less than one-fifth of all. In most of the cotton 
States it ranges from one-fourth to one-third of all negro wage earners. 

Diagrams Nos. 9 and 10 present the proportion of male and of female negro wage 
earners who are engaged in agriculture, personal service, and other occupations in 
the Southern States. 

The first of these diagrams, representing male wage earners, shows that agriculture 
and personal service accounted for from 63 to 94 per cent of all male wage earners. 
Indeed, excluding the District of Columbia from consideration^ from 73 to 93 per 
cent were accoun'ted for by these two occupations. 

Again, excluding the District of Columbia, which is not a farming community, the 
male wage earners who were farmers constituted in the difierent States proportions 
varying from 36 per cent in Missouri to 85 per cent in Mississippi. The proportion of 
farmers was highest in the cotton States and decidedly less in the border States. On 
the other hand, the proportion of males engaged in personal service was least in the 
cotton States and increased decidedly in those farther north. 

The second diagram, illustrating the occupations of female wage earners, has cer- 
tain features in common with that relating to males, but these features are more 
accented. In the cotton States a large proportion of the female wage earners worked 
in the fields and Avas therefore reported as engaged in agriculture, while in the bor- 
der States but a small proportion was found there. On the other hand, domestic 
.service claimed nearly all female wage earners in the border States, but in the cotton 
States a relatively small proportion. 

Both the diagrams, and especially the first, show an important feature. In the 
cotton States wage earners Avere almost entirely either farmers or those engaged in 
personal service, but in the States farther north these classes were relatively smaller 
and occupations were somewhat more A^aried. 

OAVNERSniP 01? FARMS AND HOMES. 

The statistics of farm and home ownership and of mortgage indebtedness of the 
Eleventh Census throw some light upon the pecuniary condition of the negro race. 

The total number of farms and homes in the country in 1890 Avas 12,690,152, of 
which the negroes occupied 1,410,769, or 11.1 per cent. The proportion of negroes to 
the total population was at that time 12.20 per cent, showing a deficiency in the pro- 
Ijortion occuxiying homes and farms when compared with the population. 

The number of' farms in the country was 4,767,179. Of these 549,642, or 11.5 per 
cent, were occupied by negroes, being a proportion greater than that of farms and 
homes combined. 

The number of homes, as distinguished from farms, in the country was 7,922,973, 
of Avhich 861,137, or 10.9 per cent, were occupied by negroes, being a proportion less 
than that of farms and homes combined. 

Of the 549,632 farms in the country occupied by negroes 120,738, or 22 per cent, 
were owned by their occupants. The corresponding proportion for whites was 71.7 
per cent. Of course, as regards tenants, the reverse Avas the case, the proportions 
being for whites 28.3 per cent and for negroes 78 per cent. More than three-fourths 
of the farms occupied by negroes were rented ; in other words, more than three- 
fourths of the negro farmers were tenants, while less than one-fourth of the white 
farmers were tenants. 

Of the farms owned by negroes 90.4 per cent were without incumbrance. Of those 
owned by Avhites 71.3 were Avithout incumbrance, showing a much larger proportion 
incumbered than among those owned by negroes. 

Of 861,137 homes occupied by negroes in 1890, 143,550 were owned by their occu- 
pants and 717,587 were rented, the proportions being 19 per cent and 81 per cent. 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



1395 



DiACUiAM No. 9. — ProporUons of male negro iragc-earners engaged in agi-lcultuj-e, personal 
service, and other occupations. 



Per cent. 




Mississippi 

South. Carolina 

Arkansas 

Alabama" 

North Carolina 

Georgia 

Louisiana 

Texa ' 

Tennessee 

Virginia.- - 

Florida 

Kentucky. 

Maryland.- 

Delaware ,--_:_,._ 

West Virginia. ____ 
Missouri 



District ofColumbia., 



\AGRicuLTuae' 



DiAGKAM No. 10. — Tropori'xons of female negro toage-earners engaged in personal service, 
agriculture, and other occupations. 



Per cenf. 



40 SO 60 70 



wmm^m^mmmm^mm 



Delaware. 

Missouri 

West Virginia... 

Maryland. 

Kentucky. 

District oflCplumbia. 

Virginia. ,.. 

Tennessee _ 

Florida .... 

Georgia 

Texas., 

North Carolina 

Louisiana^ 

Arkansas!-- - 

Alabama: 

South Carolina 

Mississippi 




\PeRSONAL SmY'OE. 




Other Occupations. 



1396 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1894-95. 



Corresponding proportions for whites were 39.4 per cent and 60.6 per cent. Of the 
houses owned by negro occupants 126,264, or 87.7 per cent, were free, and 12.3 
incumbered. Corresponding figures for whites were 71.3 and 28.7 per cent, showing, 
as before, a much greater proportion of free holdings among negroes than among 
whites. 

Diagrams Nos. 11 and 12 summarize the above facts in graphic form. The total 
areas of the squares represent the number of farms and homes, respectively, those 
occupied by whites and negroes, respectively, being represented by the rectangles 
into which the squares are divided by horizontal lines. The vertical lines subdivide 
these rectangles into others proportional to the numbers occupied by owners without 
and with incumbrance, and by renters. 

The male negroes occupied in agriculture numbered, in 1890, 1,329,584. Of these 
510,619 occupied farms, the remainder, 818,965, being presumably farm laborers. 
The negro farmers — i. e., occupants of farms — constituted 38.3 per cent of the male 
negroes engaged in agriculture, leaving 61.7 per cent of the number as laborers. The 
corresponding figures for whites were 60.4 per cent and 39.6 per cent. The propor- 
tion of negroes engaged m agriculture who were farmers — i. e., occupied farms — was, 
therefore, much smaller than that of the whites. In spite of this low comparative 
showing, however, it must be agreed that, considering all the attendant circum- 
stances, the proportion of negro farm occupants — more than one-third of all negroes 
engaged in agriculture — is unexpectedly large. 

Summing up the salient points in this paper, it is seen that in the matter of occu- 
pations the negro is mainly engaged either in agriculture or personal service. He 
has, in a generation, made little progress in manufactures, transportation, or trade. 
In these two groups of occupations males are in greater proportion engaged in agri- 
culture and females in domestic service. They have, however, during this genera- 
tion, made good progress toward acquiring projDcrty, especially in the form of homes 
and farms, and, in just so far as they have acquired possession of real estate, it is 
safe to say that they have become more valuable as citizens. The outlook for them 
is very favorable as agriculturists, but there is little prospect that the race will 
become an imi^ortaut factor in manufactures, transijortation, or commerce. 

IV. 

A STATISTICAL SKETCH OF THE NEGEOES IN THE UNITED STATES. 

[By Henry Gannott, of the United States Geological Survey.] 

From the time of the earliest settlement upon these shores the United States has 
contained two elements of population, the white race and the negro race. These 
two races have together jieopled this country, increasing partly by accessions to their 
numbers from abroad and partly by natural increase, until to-day (1894) the white 
race numbers probably 61,000,000 and the negroes 8,000,000. _ The history of the lat- 
ter race, thus brought into close association with a more civilized and stronger people 
for two and three-fourths centuries, is one of surpassing interest. Unfortunately, 
however, this history, for tho earlier part of the period, is, Avith the exceptioiv of a 
few fragments, utterly lost. For the last century, however, since tho year 1790, the 
date of'the first United States census, we have, at ten-year intervals, pictures of the 
distribution of the race and considerable information regarding its social condition. 



SLAVE TRADE. 

Tho slave trade flourished actively up to the close of the last century, and indeed 
it did not entirely ceaso until the year 1808. It was mainly in the hands of tho 
English, including their North American colonies. It Avas a large and flourishing 
business for the shipoAvners of New England. 

Of the number of slaves brought from Africa to this country, either directly or by 
way of the West India Islands, we have very little information. Prior to 1788 there 
are no records, and since that time the records of the slave trade do not distinguish 
between the slaves brought to the United States and those to other parts of America. 

Of tho number of slaves in this country in colonial times the information is almost 
equally scanty, consisting of little more than estimates by different historical writers. 
Of these, Bancroft's are x^erhaps as reliable as any. His estimates of the number of 
negroes at different times are as follows : 



1750 220, 000 

1754 260,000 

1760 310,000 



1770 462, 000 

1780 562,000 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



1397 



DiAGKAM No. 11. — Farms. 




Diagram No. 12. — Homes. 




1398 



EDUCATIOiS[ EEPORT, 1894-95.^ 



NUMBERS OF EACH RACE. 

lu 1790 we have the first reliable data regarding the number and distribution of 
the negroes. The total number of each race at this and each succeeding decennial 
enumeration is shown in the following table : 



Census year. 


Wliite. 


ISTogro. 


Census year. 


WMte. 


Negro. 


1790 


3, 172, OOG 

4, 306, 446 

5, 862, 073 
7, 862, 166 

10, 537, 378 
14, 195, 805 


757, 208 
1, 002, 037 
1, 377, 808 

1, 771, 656 

2, 328, 642 
2, 873, 648 


1850 


19, 553, 068 
26, 922, 537 
33, 589, 377 
43, 402, 970 
54,983,890 


3, 638, 808 


3800 


1860 


4, 441, 830 


1810 


1870 


4, 8S0, 009 


1820 


1880 


G, 580, 793 


1830 


1890 


7, 470, 040 


18i0 











From this it appears that the whites have increased in a century from a little over 
3,000,000 to nearly 55,000,000, and the negroes from three-fourths of a million to 
about 7,500,000. The whites Avere in 1890 nearly eighteen times as numerous as in 
1790, the negroes nearly ten times as numerous. 

The diagram constituting Plate I presents the same facts in graphic form. In 
each case the total length of the bar is proportional to the total j)opulation in the 
year indicated. The white portiou of each bar represents the white population of 
the country, while the shaded portion represents the negro pox:)ulation. 

The tables and diagram illustrate the raj)id growth of the country in population, 
both of its white and its negro element. 

PEOrORTIONS OE EACH RACE. 

The followiug table shows the proi^ortions in which the total population was 
made up of these two elements at each census, expressed in percentages of the total 
population : 



Census year. 


WMte. 


Negro. 


Census year. 


White. 


Negro. 


1790 ... . ... 


80.73 
81.12 
80.97 
81.61 
81.90 
83.16 


19.27 

18.88 
19.03 
18.39 
18.10 
16.84 


1850 


84.31 
85.62 
87.11 
86.54 
87.80 


15.69 


1800 


1860 


14.13 


1810 


1870 


12.66 


1820 


1880 


13.12 


1830 


1890 


11.93 


1840 











This table and Plate II show that on the whole the negroes have diminished 
decidedly in projiortion to the whites. In 1790 they formed 19.27 per cent, or very 
nearly one-fifth of the whole population. At the end of this century they consti- 
tuted only 11.93 per cent, or less than one-eighth of the jiopiilation. At the end of 
the century their proportion was less than two-thirds as large as at the beginning. 
Moreover, this diminution in the proportion has been almost unbroken from the 
beginning to the end of the century. The proportion of the negroes has apparently 
increased in only two out of eleven censuses, namely, in 1810, immediately after the 
cessation of the slave trade, and in 1880. I say apparently, because in the latter 
case the increase is only apparent, due to a deficient enumeration of this race in the 
census preceding, namely, that of 1870. 



RATES OF INCREASE, 



The following table and the diagram accompanying it show the rates of increase 
of the negroes during each of the ten-year periods for the last century, and placed 
in juxtaposition therewith for comparison are the rates of increase of the whites of 
the entire country : 



Decade. 


Percentage of in- 
crease. 


Decade. 


Percentage of in- 
crease. 




White. 


Negro. 


White. 


Negro. 


1790 to 1800 


35.76 
36.12 
34.12 
34.03 
34.72 


32.33 
37.50 
28.59 
31.44 
23.40 


1840 to 1850 

1850 to 1860 


37.74 
37.69 
24.76 
29.22 
26.68 


26.63 


1800 to 1810 


22.07 


1810 to 1820 


1860 to 1870 


9.86 


1820 to 1830 


1870 to 1880 


34.85 


1830 to 1840 


1880 to 1890 


13.51 









SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGKO. 



1399 



This table and diagram sliow that, witli tlio exceptiou of two teu-year periods, 
namely, those from 1800 to 1810 and 1870 to 1880, the negro element lias in every case 
increased at a less rajjid rate than the "white element, and iu many cases its rate of 
increase has been very much smaller. 

Thns a comparison of the numerical progress of the negroes with that of the wliites 
iu the country, as a whole, shows that the former have not held their own, hut have 
constantly fallen behind. They have not increased as rapidly as the whites. 

It may be said that this is due to the enormous immigration which certain parts 
of the country have received, an immigration composed entirely of whiles. This sug- 
gestion can easily bo tested. White immigration on a considerable scale began about 
1817. Prior to that time it was not of importance. Wo may then divide the century 
into two equal parts and contrast the relative rates of increase of the races during 
those half centuries. Between 1790 and 1840 the whites increased 4.5 times, the 
negroes 3.8 times. The latter element had diminished in relative importance in this 
half century from about one-fifth of the population to one-sixth. 

In the succeeding lifty years the whites had increased 3.9 times, and the colored 
2.6 times only. In other words, the greater increase of the whites has not been 
dependent upon immigration, since their rate of increase was greater than that of 
the negroes before immigration set in. 

Hates of increase of white and negro population. 



Pen Cent. 

'■ 

20] 
O 




1 1 




1 


1 






























































































































































































































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V 









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tWf^ 


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l-\ — 




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\ 






















































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1 
1 


1840-1850 
1650-1860 


1 

5 


1 1 



These figures, and the conclusions necessarily derived from them, should set at 
rest forever all fears regarding any possible coutiict between the two races. We 
have before us the testimony of a century to show us that the negroes, while in no 
danger of extinction, while increasing at a rate probably more rapid than in any 
other part of the earth, are yet increasing less rajjidly than the white people of the 
country, and to demonstrate that the latter will become more and more numerically 
the dominant race in America. Whether the negro will, through an improvement in 
his social condition, become of greater imiiortanoo relatively to his numbers is a 
matter to be discussed later. 

CEXTKR OF POPULATION. 

The center of poiiulatiou, as it is called, may be described as the center of gravity 
of the inhabitants as they are distributed at the time under consideration, each, 
inhabitant being supposed to have the same weight and to press downward with a 
force proiiortional to his distance from this center. 

The center of j)opulation of all the inhabitants of the United States has been com- 
puted for each census. At the time of the first census, in 1790, the center of popu- 
lation was found to be in Maryland, on the eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay, nearly 
o2iposite Baltimore. The general westward movement of population has caused a 
corresponding westward movement of this center, such movement following very 



1400 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1894-95 



1790 
ISOO 
ISIO 
IS^ 
1830 
18J,0 
1850 
1880 
1870 
1S80 
1890 



iS 



mm 



E^ 



m^ 



Pjlate I. — Total population and white and negro elements. 

Millions. 

10 20 SO M 5£. _j;2. 



cp 



Plate II. — Proportion of the negro element to the total ])opulation. 

10 W Percent. 

1790 
1800 
1810 t 
1820 i 




SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



1401 



nearly the line of the thirty-ninth parallel of north latitude. lu 1880 the center of 
the total population was found ou the south bank of the Ohio River, nearly opposite 
Cincinnati, and in 181)0 it w;i8 found in southern Indiana, 20 miles east of Columbus, 
in latitude 39^ 12' and in longitude 85° 33'. 

The center of the negro population lias been computed in 1880 and in 1890. At the 
first of these dates it was found in latitude 34*^ 42' and in longitude 84° 58'. This 
position is in the northwestern corner of Georgia, not far from Dalton. In 1890 it 
was found to have moved southwestward into latitude 34° 26' and longitude 85° 18', 
biiug not far from the boundary between Alabama and Georgia and a few miles west 
of Rome, Ga. The longitude of the center of the negro population was very nearly 
the same as that of the total population, but in latitude it was nearly 5 degrees, or 
more than 300 miles, south of it. The positions of the center of total population and 
of the negro population in 1880 and in 1890 are shown upon the map which consti- 
tutes Plate VI. 

The movements of the center of i)opulation are the net resultant of all the move- 
ments of ])()pulation. During the past decade the negroes have moved in all direc- 
tions, nortli, south, east, and west; but, as indicated by tlie movement of the center, 
the net resultant of their movements h;is been toward the southwest. As a whole 
this element moved in a southwesterly direction a distance of about 25 miles. 

P^KKE NEGROES AND SLAVES. 

Prior to 1870 the negro element, as returned by the successive censuses, was made 
up of two parts, free negroes and slaves. The proportions of these elements differed 
at different times, as is shown by the following table : 





1790. 


1800. 


1810. 


1820. 


1830. 


1840. 


1850. 


1860. 


Per cent wTiicli free negroes hore to all negroi s 

Per cent of all free negroes found in former slave 


8 

55 
45 


U 

56 
44 


13.5 

5H 
42 


13 

57 
43 


14 

57 
43 


13 

56 
44 


12 

55 
45 


11 

54 


Per cent of all free negroes found in free States 


46 



From this it appears that the free negroes constituted in 1790 only 8 per cent of all 
negroes, that the proportion increased rapidly to 1830, when they constituted not less 
than 14 per cent, and from that time the proportion diminished, until in 1860 they 
constituted 11 per cent of all negroes. 

Moreover, the proportions of the free negroes found within tlio slave States and 
the free States differed at different times. More than halt of the free negroes were 
found within the former slave States and less than one-half within the free States, 
and the proportion of free negroes found in the former slave States ranged from 54 
per cent in 1860 to 58 per cent in 1810. 



DISTKinUTlON OF THE NEGRO ELEMENT. 

The negroes are distributed very unequally over the country. While they are 
found in every State and Territory and in almost every county of the land, the vast 
body of Ihem are found in the Southern States, in those States lying south of Mason 
and Dixon's line, the Ohio River, the northern boundary of Missouri, and westward as 
far as Texas and Arkansas. The two maps on Plate 111 illustrate their distribution, 
State by State, over the country. One of these maps shows their density — that is, 
the average number in each square mile. It is an absolute measure of their numbers 
in different parts of the country. It is seen that they are the most plentiful in 
Maryland, Virginia, South Carolina, and Mississippi, and secondarily in North Caro- 
lina, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, and Louisiana. On the other hand, in nearly all 
the Northern and Western States they are very sparsely distributed, there being in 
these States, with scarcely an exception, less than four of them to a square mile, while 
in many of them there is less than one to a square mile. 

The other map shows the proportion which the negro element bears to the total 
population. State by State. This is a measure of its importance relative to the whites. 
From this map it is seen that in three States, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Caro- 
lina, more than half the people are negroes. Indeed, in South Carolina three out of 
every five of the inhabitants are of this race. It is seen further that in all the States 
along the Atlantic and Gulf, from Virginia to Louisiana, together with Arkansas, 
more than one-fourth of the people are negroes, while, on the other hand, throughout 
the entire North and West the ])roportiou of negroes is less than 5 per cent, and in 
many of the States it is less than 1 per cent of the total population. 



1402 



EDUCATION EEPOET, 1894-95. 



PKOPORTION OF THE NEGROES IN THE SLAVE STATES. 

The distribution of the negro race may "be still more closely characterized by tlie 
statement that in 1890 there were found in the former slave States not less than 92 
per cent of all negroes. This proportion has diifered at different times during the 
last century, as is shown in the following table : 

Proportion of total negro clement comprised in former slave States. 





Year. 


Per cent. 


year. 


Per cent. 


Tear. 


Per cent. 


1790 


91 
91 
92 
93 


1830 


93 
94 
95 

05 


1870. 
1880 . 
1890. 




93 


1800 


1840 




9o 


1810 


1850 






IS'^O 


1860 













From this table it will be seen that at the commencement of this history the former 
slave States contained 91 per cent of the negroes of the country. As time wore on 
this proportion increased, until in 1850 and 1860 they comprised 95 per cent, or nine- 
teeu-twentiethsof all, while since that date, i. e., during the period of freedom of the 
race, it has shown a slight tendency northward, the i:)ropovtiou in the former slave 
States having become reduced, as above stated, to 92 per cent. 

THE NEGROES OF THE SLAVE STATES. 

In the above pages the history of the negroes has been traced in a broad, general 
way, and compared with that of the entire population and the white element of the 
country. The history is more or less complicated with the results of immigration, 
and with other disturbing factors, which have aifected mainly the North and West. 
We may now, without serious error, confine our study of the race to the Southern 
States, the former slaveholding States, in which are found more than nine-tenths of 
the whole number of the negroes. The movement of these people from the South 
into the North has been inconsiderable, and there has been but little movement of 
the whites in either direction across the boundary line between the sections. The 
South has received little immigration either from the North or from Europe, and the 
emigration from it has been unimportant. So far as emigration and immigration are 
concerned, it has been throughout our history almost isolated from the rest of the 
world. So we may, without serious error, study therelations of the whites and blachs 
of this region by itself, without reference to other parts of the country. 

PROPORTIONS OF THE RACES. 

The following table and accompanying diagram (PI. lY) show the i>roportions in 
which the population of this part of the United States was composed at each census 
for the past hundred years. 

Proportions in which the population of former slave States was made up. 



Census year. 


Wliito. 


Kegro. 


Census year. 


"White. 


Kegro. 


1790 


65 
05 
63 
63 
63 
63 


35 
35 
37 
37 
37 
37 


1850. 
1860. 
1870. 
1880. 
1890. 




64 
66 
68 
67 
69 


3G 


1800 




34 


1810 




32 


1820 . 




33 


1830 .. 








1840 . . 











It appears from the above table that a century ago tlie population of the South 
was made up of whites and negroes in the proportions of 65 and 35 per cent, and that 
in 1890 the proportions were 69 and 31 per cent. The proportion of negroes increased 
from 1790 to 1810, when it reached 37 per cent, leaving only 63 per cent as the pro- 
j)ortion of the whites, and remained practically stationary for three decades. Since 
1840 the proportion of negroes has dimiuished. 

RATES OF INCREASE. 

The following table, showing the rates of increase of the two races for each ten- 
year period during the past century, leads to a similar conclusion — that is, that for a 
half century the negroes increased more rapidly than the whites, while during the 
last half century they have increased less rapidly. 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1403 



Pi.-VTi; III. — Froi>ortion of iie'jrocs io iotal impnlaiion in 1S90. 




White less than 5%Q 5-25. [^ 25-50 ^ Over 50 



TJensitij of negro popttlat'ion in ISOO. 




Less than I to sq. m. W^ 1-4 |1| 4-a 



15-25 



1404 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1894-95. 

Bates of increase of ivhite and negro elements of former slave States. 



Proni- 



1790 to 1800 
1800 to 1810 
1810 to 1820 
1820 to 1830 
1830 to 1840 



White. Kesrro, 



Prom — 



1840 to 1850 
1850 to 18G0 
1860 to 1870 
1870 to 1880 
1880 to 1890 



White. Neiiro 



THK NEGROES IN CITIES. 

It is well known that as the population of a State or country increases such 
increase goes in constantly rising proportion into its cities; in other words, that 
urban population increases at a more rapid rate than the total population, especially 
after the population has passed a certain average density. This country presents an 
excellent example of this tendency of population toward the cities. At the time of 
the first census only S-J- per cent of the total population Avas in cities of 8,000 iuhah- 
itants or more, while in 1890, a century later, the proportion in cities had increased 
to over 29 per cent. The total population of the' country had hecome very nearly 
16 times as great, while its urban element had become 139 times as great. The latter 
had increased more than 8 times as rapidly as the former. 

Having thus illustrated the general tendency of the people toward cities, it will 
be instructive to see how the negroes have behaved in this regard. In measuring 
their appetency for urban life I shall consider only the population of the former 
slave States, and shall contrast the negro with the white element of those States in 
this regard. I shall follow the practice of the Census Office also in considering as 
urban the inhabitants of cities of 8,000 or more. 

In cities of 8,000 inhabitants or more there were found in 1860 only 4.2 per cent of 
the negroes of these States, while of the Avhites 10.9 per cent Were found at that time 
in these cities. The violent social changes attendant upon the war produced, among 
other results, an extensive migration of negroes to the cities, so that in 1870 the i>ro- 
portion of them found in cities had more than doubled, being no less than 8.5 per 
cent, while of the whites there were found 13.1 per cent. In 1880 the proportion of 
negroes in cities had diminished to 8.4 per cent, while that of the whites had also 
diminished, being 12.4 per cent. 

The census of 1890 shows a decided increase in the proportion of each race in the 
cities, that of the negroes being 12 per cent, and. that of the whites being 15.7 per 
cent. 

Thus it is seen that the proportion of the negroes in the cities has in every case 
been less than that of the whites, but that they have gained upon the whites in this 
regard. This gain is, however, very slight and is probably not significant. While 
the negro is extremely gregarious and is by that instinct drawn toward the great 
centers of population, on the other hand, he is not fitted either by nature or educa- 
tion for those vocations for the pursuit of which men collect in cities — that is, for 
manufactures and commerce. The inclinations of this race, drawn from its inher- 
itance, tend to keep it wedded to the soil, and the probabilities are that as cities 
increase in these States in number and size, and with them manufactures and com- 
merce develop, the great body of the negroes will continue to remain aloof from them 
and cultivate the soil as heretofore. 

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 

The geographical environment of the negro has been made a subject of careful 
study by the Census Office, and many interesting facts regarding its distribution with 
reference to topographv, altitude, rainfall, and temperature have been developed. 

It is found that more than 17 per cent of them live in the low, swampy regions of 
the Atlantic Coast and in the alluvial region in the Mississippi Valley. This pro- 
portion contrasts sharply with that of the total population, of which only 4 per 
cent are found in these regions. Upon the Atlantic plain the proportion of negroes 
is also much greater than that of the total population, and, generally speaking, it 
may be said that they seek low, moist regions and avoid mountainous country. This 
peculiarity of their distribution is brought out more forcibly in their distribution 
with reference to elevation above sea level. At an altitude less than 100 feet above 
the sea there are found nearly one-fourth of the negroes, while only about one-sixth 
of the total population is in these regions. Below 500 hundred feet are found seven- 
tenths, while nearly two-fifths of the total population are found at this altitude. 
Again, below 1,000 feet there are found 94. 5 per cent of all the negroes of the country, 
•while of the total population there are found only 77 per cent below that altitude. 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



1405 



Plate IV. — Proimrtion which negroes of former slave States bore to pojiidation of those 

States. 

Per cent. 
20 




Platb V. — Fro])ortion of negroes to total population in 1890. 
Per cent. 10 20 30 JLO 50 




Mi&souri 
West Virginia 



1406 ED¥CATION REFOET, 1894-95. 

It is, of course, well known tliat the negroes prefer liiglier temperatures than the 
white race. A measure of this is given by the statement that while the total popu- 
lation lives, on an average, under a mean annual temperature of 53° F., that under 
which the negro lives is, on an average, 61°, or not less than 8° higher. The great 
hody of the negroes live where the mean annual temperature ranges from 55° to 70°, 
very nearly 85 per cent of this element being found within the region thus defined. 

Nothing jierhaps more sharply characterizes the difference in the habitat of the 
negroes and the element of foreign birth than the difference in temperature condi- 
tions under which they are found, a difference Avhich may be characterized by the 
following statement : In those regions where the annual temx^erature exceeds 55° are 
found seven-eighths of the negroes. On the other hand, in those regions v*^herc the 
temperature isless than 55° are found nine-tenths of the foreign born. 

Those who are aco[uainted with the relations between the distribution of popula- 
tion and rainfall over the surface of the country are aware that the great body of the 
negroes is found inregious of heavy rainfall. Indeed, more than nine-tenths of their 
numbers are found where it exceeds 40 inches annually, and more than three-fifths 
where it exceeds 50 inches. These figures are greatly in. excess of those concerning 
the total population. 

HISTORY OF THE jSTEGEO IX EACH SiAVE STATE. 

Thus far the distribution and history of the race have been considered broadly. 
It will now be of interest to take up each of the former slave States individually and 
trace the history of the race within its limits. This is summarized in the following- 
table and group of diagrams (PI. V), which present in each of the former slave 
States the proportion which the negro element bore to the total population at each 
census. 

For economy of space the black bars representing the proportions in the diagrams 
are not extended to their full length, so the lengths of the bars do not represent the 
absolute percentage which the negroes bear to the total population. Since we are 
interested mainly m the relative lengths of the different bars of each State, and not 
in comparing those of one State with those of another, this is a matter of no 
consequence. 

In Delaware the proportion of negroea in 1790 was about 22 per cent. This pro- 
portion increased gra,dually until 1840, when it was 25 per cent. Since then it has 
diminished, and in 1890 was about 17 per cent. In Maryland over one-third of the 
iDopulation were negroes in 1790. The proportion increased and reached a maximum 
in 1810, when it was 38 per cent. Since then it has diminished, and in 1890 was but 
21 per cent. In the District of Columbia the proportion of negroes in 1800, the first 
year of record, was about 29 per cent. It reached its maximum with 33 per cent in 
1810, and from that time steadily diminished until the opening of the civil war. In 
1860 the proportion was 19 per cent. During the war large numbers of negroes took 
refuge within the cajoital, increasing: the propoxtion. to about one-third of the total 
population, which ratio has been maintained. 

In Kentucky one-sixth of the pox)ulation were negroes in 1790. The proportion 
increased until 1830, when it was about one-fourth of the population, since which 
time it has diminished and is at present but 14 per cent. 

In Tennessee only one-tenth of tlie population were negroes at the time of the 
first census. That proportion steadily increased for 90 years, reaching its maximum 
in 1880, when it slightly exceeded one-fourtlt of the population. In the last ten 
years it has diminished a trifle. 

The first report of population regarding Missouri was made in 1810. At that time 
about one-sixth of the inhabitants were negroes. In 1830 the proportion was slightly 
greater. Since then it has diminished rapidly, and in 1890 the negroes constituted 
less than 6 per cent of the population. 

In the State of Virginia the negroes constituted in 1790 not less than 41 per cent 
of the inhabitants, and their proportion increased slightly for twenty years, reach- 
ing a maximum in 1810 of over 43 per cent. Since that time it has diminished 
steadily, and in 1890 constituted but 27i per cent, taking the States of Virginia and 
West Virginia together. 

All the above are border States, and all, with the exception of Tennessee and the 
District of Columbia, show a similar history. They show an increase in the propor- 
tion for two, three, or four of the earlier decades, and then a constant and great 
diminution in the proportion. The other States show a very different history. 
North Carolina, starting with 27 per cent, has increased slowly and with some slight 
oscillations up to 1880, when the proportion reached 38 per cent. In the last decade 
it has diminished. South Carolina, starting with 44 per cent, increased her propor- 
tion until 1880, when more than three-fifths of the population were negroes. Siuce 
then there has been a trifling diminution. Georgia started with 36 per cent, and with 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



1407 



some slight oscillations contiuued to increase until 1880. Within the last ten years 
there has been a slight reduction. In Florida the oscillations have been consider- 
able. The history commenced with 1830, when 47 jier cent of the iiopiilation were 
negroes. It reached a maximum of 49 per cent at the next census, folio ^yed by a 
diminution for two decades. Then in 1870 it rose again to 49 per cent, since which 
time it has diminished rapidly, especially during the decade between 1880 and 1890. 
The history of Alabama commenced in 1820, when one-third of her people were 
uegrocs. The proportion increased up to 1870, and since then has diminished. 
Mississippi's history began in 1800, when 41 per cent other jieoplo were negroes, and 
with some slight oscillations the proportion has increased uj) to the present time. 
The history of Louisiana commenced in 1810, when 55 per cent of her population 
were negroes. Her history has been a diversified one, the maximum proportion of 
this race being reached in 1830, with 59 per cent. Since that time it has, on the 
whole, diminished, and in 1890 half the jieople of the State Avero negroes. The 
history of Texas began in 1850, when 28 per cent of her people were negroes. The 
jiroportiou increased for two decades, wlieu it reached 31 iier cent. Since that time 
it has diminished rapidly, owing largely to inunigration to the central parts of the 
State. The history of Arkansas begins in 1820, when a little less than one-eighth 
of its people were negroes. The proportion lias increased almost continuously from 
that time to the present, and in 1890 the negroes formed 27 per cent of the total 
liopulation. 

Tlius it is seen that in the cotton States the proj)ortiou of the negro element has in 
nearly all cases increased until a very recent time. Indeed, in two or three of them 
it has increased up to the time of the last census, while in most of them the only 
diminution in the proportion has occurred during the last ten years. All this indi- 
cates in the most unmistakable terms a general southward migration of this race. 
As compared with the whites, the border States have lost in lirojiortion of negroes 
for the past half century, while the cotton States have continued to gain until very 
recently. 

Fcrcentage of negroes to total population. 



State. 



Dolaw.aro 

Marylaiirt 

District of Columbia 

Kentucky 

Tcniicsseo 

Missouri 

Virginia and "West 

Virginia 

Nortli Carolina , 

South Carolina 

Georgia 

rioriila 

Alabama 

Missi8si])pi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 



1G.85 
20. C9 
32.80 
14.42 
24.37 
5. Gl 

27.51 

34.67 
59.85 
40.74 

42.46 
44.84 
57.58 
49. 99 
21.84 
27.40 



1870. 



18.04 
22. 49 
33. 55 
16.46 
26.14 
G. 70 

30.85 
37.96 
60.70 
47.02 
47.01 
47.53 
57.47 
51.46 
24.71 
26.25 



18.23 
22. 46 
32.96 
16.82 
25.61 
0.86 

31.84 
36.56 
58.93 
46.04 
48.84 
47.69 
53.65 
50. 10 
30.97 

0.1, oo 



1800. 



19.27 
24.91 
19.07 
20.44 
25.50 
10. 03 

34.39 
36.42 
53.59 

44. 05 
44.63 

45. 40 
55. 28 
49.49 
30. 27 
25.55 



1850. 



28.32 
26.59 
22.49 
24.52 
13.20 

37.06 
36.36 
58.93 
42. 44 
46.02 
44.73 
51.24 
50. G5 
27.54 
22.73 



1840. 



25.00 
32.30 
29.87 
24. 31 
22.74 
15.58 

40.23 
35.64 
50.41 
41.03 
48.71 
43.20 
52. 33 
55.04 



1830. 



24. 95 
34.88 
30.81 
24.73 
21.43 
18.33 

42.69 
35.93 
55.63 
42.57 
47.06 
38.48 
48.44 
58.54 



20.91 15.52 



24.01 
36.12 
31.. 55 
22.95 
19.60 
15.78 

43. 38 
34.38 
52.77 
54.41 



33.19 
44.10 
52.01 



23.82 
38.22 
33.07 
20.24 
17. 52 
17.23 

43.41 
32. 24 
48.40 
42. 40 



42.94 

55.18 



1800. 1790, 



22.44 
36.66 
28.57 
18.59 
13.10 



41.57 
29.35 
43.21 
37.14 



41.48 



21.64 
34.74 



17.03 
10. 59 



40.86 
20.81 
43. 72 
35.93 



DETAILS OF MOVEMENTS OE NEGROES BETWEEN 18S0 AND 1890. 



The map on PI. VI shows the movements of this race in detail during the ten years 
between 1880 and 1890, within the former slave States. The northern part of Mis- 
souri and Avcsteru Texas are not represented upon this map, inasmuch as the number 
of negroes in these regions is not large. 

The areas uxion this mail which have the darkest shade are those in which the 
number of negroes has absolutely diminished during the decade in question. The 
areas in the lightest tint arc. those in which the negroes have increased, but at a rate 
less than the increase of the same element in the country at largo. The areas of 
medium tint are those in w^hich the negroes have increased more rapidly than in the 
country at large. 

It is seen at once that the areas in which the negroes have decreased are mainly 
comprised in the northern of these States, principally in Delaware, Maryland, Vir- 
ginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, and secondarily in Tennessee and North Carolina. 
There are also areas of decrease in Texas and small areas in the other States, but 
these are of little importance in comparison with the great areas of the border 
States in which the number of negroes has actually diminished. 



1408 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95 



Per cent. 



Plate V. — Percentage of negroes to total population in 
10 20 30 -id 




Arkansas. 



Texas, 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1409 



each of the Southern States at each census, 1790 to 1890. 

20 20 30 20 30 10 SO 




Louisiana. 



Mississippi. 



EU 95 45 



1410 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 




SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



1411 



ai 




jJomA'^^'W O 



\n S Y L, v\a N I a. 
',vrg 






1412 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 



Ou tlie other liand, the areas iu which the negroes liave increased more rapidly 
than iu the country at large are found mainly in the southern parts of South Carolina, 
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and eastern Texas, with nearly all of Arkansas and 
Florida. In other words, the most rapid increase of the race has been iu the south- 
ern and western parts of the rei;ion under consideration. There does not appear to 
be any decided movement into the "Black Belt/' which traverses the central part of 
South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. Indeed, the heaviest increase 
is south of this region. 

CONJUGAL CONDITION. 

The conjugal condition of the negroes is set forth for the first time in the reports 
of the Eleventh Census. With the exception of the matter of divorce, it is sum- 
marized in the following diagram (PL VII). This shows the proportion of males and 
females at various ages who were single, married, or widowed. It shows that under 
the age of 15 there are practically no marriages among the race. Between 15 and 20 
a small proportion, perhaps about 1 per cent, of males were married and 14 per cent 
of the females. At ages between 20 and 25 a third of the males and nearly three- 
fifths of the females were married, and Avith advancing age a constantly increasing 
proportion of both sexes is either married or widowed. It is evident, however, that 
the women marry much younger than men. The proportion of widowed first becomes 
appreciable between the ages of 20 and 25 years. It increases much more rapidly 
among females than among males, and altogether the x^roportiou of widows is many 
times greater than that of widowers, showing that many more widowers remarry 
than widows, and that they marry largely unmarried Avomen. 

Comparison of conjugal statistics of the negroes with those of the whites develops 
two jjoints of diiference: First, that the negroes marry younger than the whites; 
second, that the proportion of widows at most ages is greater than among whites. 
The first of these facts is in accord with the shorter life period of the race; the sec- 
ond is a result of the greater death rate of the race. 

Statistics of diA^orce show more frequent severance of conjugal relations among 
the negroes than among the whites. The proportion of divorced persons to married 
persons iu the United States at large among the native whites was 0.59 of 1 per cent, 
while among the negroes it was 0.67 of 1 per cent. 

MORTALITY. 

There is no question but that the rate of mortality among the negro population is 
considerably greater than among the whites. It is not easy, howcA^er, to obtain an 
accurate measure of the relative death rates of the two races. The census statistics 
upon this subject are unreliable, since the returns from which they are derived are 
by no means complete. Were the omissions uniformly distributed between the two 
races we might still deriA^e a comparison from them regarding the death rates of the 
two races, but unfortunately there is every probability that theomissions are much 
greater proportionally among the negroes than among the Avhites. It is only in a 
few large Southern cities which maintain a registration of deaths that reliable figures 
are to be had. In these cities the relative death rates during the census year (1890) 
are shown in the following table : 





Death rate per 1,000. 




Total pop- 
ulation. 


Native 
Avliites. 


Negroes. 




19 

25 
28 
26 
22 


17 
22 
22 
19 

18 


35 




36 




37 




38 




32 







From these figures it appears that in the large cities the annual death rate of the 
negroes is very nearly if not quite double that of the native whites. It is probable 
that in the rural districts the disproportion among the death rates is not as great, 
since it is probable that a rural environment is better suited to the negroes than the 
environment of a large city. However this may be, there is no reasonable question, 
as stated above, that the death rate of the negroes is much larger than that of the 
whites. 

CRIMINALITY. 

The proportion of criminals among the negroes is much greater than among the 
whites. The statistics of the last census show that the white piisouers of native 
extraction confined in jails at the time the census was takeli Avere in the proportion 
of 9 to each 10,000 of all whites of native extraction, while the negro prisoners Avere 



SLATEE FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



1413 



in the proportion of 33 to each 10,000 of the negro population. Thns it appears that 
the proportion of negroes was nearly four times as great as for the Avhites of native 
extraction. It should ho added, however, that the commitments of negroes are for 
petty offenses in much greater proportion than among the whites. 

PAUPERISM. 

In respect to pauperism, the investigations of the census have heen confined to 
paupers maintained in almshouses and have not heen extended to those persons 
receiving outdoor relief, either i>ermanent or temporary. The uuniher of white 
paupers of native extraction in almshouses was found to be in the proportion of 8 
to every 10,000 whites of native extraction, while the negro paupers were in the 
same proportion. Lest these figures .should mislead, however, it must he added to 
this statement that in the South hut little provision is made in the form of alms- 
houses for the relief of the poor, this provision being confined almost entirely to the 
northern part of the country, a fact which in itself explains the small i)roportion of 
the negro paupers in almshouses. On the other hand, it is a matter of common 
knowledge to any resident of a Southern city that the negroes form a disproportion- 
ately large element of the recipients of outdoor charity. 

ILLITERACY AND EDTTCATION. 

Of the progress of the negro race in education, the statistics are by no means as 
full and comprehensive as is desirable. Such as we possess, however, go to indicate 
a remarkably rapid progress of the race in the elements of education. During the 
prevalence of slavery this race was kei)t in ignorance. Indeed, generally, through- 
out the South it was held as a crime to teach the negroes to read and write, and 
naturally when they became freemen only a trifling proportion of them were 
acquainted with these elements of education. In 1870, five j^ears after they became 
free, the records of the census show that only two-tenths of all the negroes over 10 
years of age in the country could write. Ten years later the proportion had increased 
to three-tenths of the whole number, and in 1890, only a generation after they were 
emancipated, not less than 43 out of every 100 negroes, of 10 years of age and over, 
were able to read and write. These figures show a remarkably rapid progress in 
elementary education. 

In 1860 the number of negroes who were enrolled in the schools of the South was 
absolutely trilling. Since the abolition of slavery the number has increased with 
the greatest rapidity. This is shown in the following table, which relates only to 
the inhabitants of former slave States. The first column shows the ijroportion which 
the number of white children enrolled in the public schools bore to the white popu- 
lation, and the second column the proportion which the number of negro children 
in the public schools bore to the total negro j^opulation of these States. 



1870 
1880 
1890 




Negro. 



3.07 
13.07 
18.71 



It is seen from the above table that in 1870 the white pupils constituted 13.5 per 
cent of the white population, and that in 20 years this proportion increased to nearly 
22 per cent. On the other hand, the negro school children constituted in 1870 only 
3 per cent of all negroes, but that in 20 years it has increased to nearly 19 per cent 
of all negroes. The proportion of negro school children increased at a far more 
rapid rate than that of the white school children, and in 1890 had nearly reached it. 

The following table shows the proportion of such enrollment to population in 1890 
in each of these states : 

Per cent of school enrollment io popidation in 1800. 



State- 



Delaware 

Maryland 

District of Columbia 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida 



White. 



19.12 
17.93 
15.24 
2L59 
25. 58 
19.79 
19.49 
21.40 
24.37 



Negro. 



16.38 
16.69 
17.61 
19.20 
20.04 
20.80 
16.46 
15.51 
21.85 



State. 



Kentncky. 

Tennessee. 
Alabama . . 
Mississippi 
Louisiana . 

Texas 

Arkansas . 
Missouri . . 



White. 



22.27 
26.49 
22.40 
27.71 
13.43 
21.06 
19.98 
23. 24 



Negro. 



20.40 

23. 53 
17.10 

24. 00 
8.82 

22. 21 
19.22 
21.76 



1414 



EDUCATION KEPORT, 1894-95 



g 




SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



1415 



An oxamiiiation of tliis table shows tliat in tlie District of Columbia, North Car- 
olina,- antl Texas the proportional enrollmeut of negroes was greater than that of 
the whites, while in other States it was less. 

The following table shows the rate of increase in the enrollment in each of these 
States from 1880 to 1890 : 



State. 


"WTiite. 


Negro. 


State. 


Wliite. 


ITegro. 




Per cent. 
10.75 
20.07 
27.62 
44.44 
33.68 
29.51 
45.64 
39.09 
98.07 


Per cent. 
108. 42 
35.78 
67.34 
78.77 
59.72 
22.97 
55.33 
53.81 
132. 71 


Kenfcuckv 


Per cent. 
34.44 

53.88 
66.99 
30.75 
61.73 
179.36 
101. 08 
27.18 


Per cent. 
89.20 










Alabama 


53 52 




50 66 






42 re 






143. ' 5 
121 29 










36.42 


Florida ' 











From this table it appears that in all excepting four States, namely, North Caro- 
lina, Alabama, Louisiana, and. Texas, the enrollmeut of negro children in the public 
schools has increased more rapidly than that of the whites. 

Summing up this article in a paragraph, the following conclusions may be stated: 
The negroes, while increasing rajiidly in this country, are diminishing in numbers 
relative to the whites. They are moring southward from the border States into 
those of the south Atlantic and the Gulf. They prefer rural life rather than urban 
life. The proportion of criminals among the negroes is much greater than among 
the whites, and that of paupers is at least as great. In the matter of education, the 
number of negro attendants at school is far behind the number of whites, but is 
gaining rapidly upon that race. 

Only one generation has elapsed since the slaves were freed. To raise a people 
from slavery to civilization is a matter, not of years, but of many generations. The 
progress which the race has made in this generation in industry, morality, and edu- 
cation is a source of the highest gratification to all friends of the race, to all except- 
ing those who expected a miraculous conversion. 



V. 
MEMORIAL SKETCH OF JOHN F. SLATER. 

John Fox Slater, of Norwich, Conn., who gave a generous fund to promote the 
education of tho freedmcn, was a quiet, thoughtful, well-trained man of business, 
who rose by industry, sagacity, and prudence to the possession of a fortune. His 
chief occupation through life was the manufacturing of cotton and woolen goods in 
Connecticut and Rhode Island. In recent years, as his means increased, he was 
interested in many enterprises, some of them established in New York and others in 
the West. He was a close observer of the social, political, and religious progress 
of the country, and a frequent, unostentatious contributor to benevolent undertak- 
ings, especially such as were brought to his attention in the town where he resided 
and in the church which he attended. From all positions which made him conspic- 
uous ho was inclined to withdraw himself, and he probably underrated the influence 
which he might have exerted by tbe more public expression of his opinions; but 
whenever he did participate in public affairs he showed tho same independence, 
sagacity, and resolution which marked the conduct of his business. Under thes.e 
circumstances the story of his life is simply that of a private citizen who was faith- 
ful to tho responsibilities which devolved upon him, and who gradually acquired 
the means to contribute liberally toward the welfare of others. Notwithstanding the 
well-known unwillingness of Mr. Slater to attract the attention of tho public, those 
who are concerned in the administration of his trust desire to put on record the 
characteristics of his long and useful life. 

For three generations the Slater family has been engaged, either in England or the 
United States, in the improvement of cotton manufactures. Their English home 




engaged as a partner of Sir Richard Arkwright, in the business of cotton spinning, 
then just becoming one of the great branches of industry in England. 

Samuel Slater, fifth son of William Slater, was apprenticed to Mr. Strutt, and near 
the close of his service was for some years general overseer of tlie mill at Milford. 
Having completed his engagement he came to this country in 1789, and brought with 



1416 EDUCATION REPORT^ 1894-95. 

liim sucli an accurate knowledge of the business of cotton spinning, that without 
any written or printed descriptions, without diagrams or models, he was able to 
introduce the entire series of machines and processes of the Arkright cotton manu- 
facture in as perfect a form as it then existed in England. He soon came into rela- 
tions with Moses Brown, of Providence, and through him with his son-in-law and 
his kinsman, William Almy and Smith Brown. With the persons last named he 
formed the partnership of Almy, Brown & Slater. For this firm Samuel Slater 
devised machinery and established a mill for the manufacture of cotton, at Paw- 
tucket, E. I., in the year 1790, but as this proved an inadequate enterprise, he con- 
structed a larger mill at the same place in 1793. 

A few years later, about 1804, at the invitation of his brother Samuel, John Slater, 
a younger son of William, came from England and joined his brother in Rhode 
Island. The village of Slatersville, on a branch of the river Blackstone, was pro- 
jected in 1806, and here until the present time the Slaters have continued the manu- 
facture of cotton goods. 

John F. Slater, son of John and nephew of Samuel, was born in the village just 
named, in the town of Smithfield, E. I., March 4, 1815, and received a good educa- 
tion in the academies of Plainfleld, in Connecticut, and of Wrentham and Wilbra- 
ham, in Massachusetts. At the age of 17 (in connection with Samuel Collier) he 
began to manage his father's woolen mill at Hopeville, in Griswold, Conn., and there 
he remained until he became of age. In 1836 he took full charge of this factory, 
and also of a cotton mill at Jewett City, another village of the same town, where he 
made his home. Six years later he removed to Norwich, with which Jewett City 
was then connected by railway. Here he married. May 13, 1844, a daughter of Amos 
H. Hubbard, and here his six children were born. Only two of them, the eldest and 
the youngest, a daughter and a son, survived the period of infancy, and of these the 
son alone is living. Norwich continued to be Mr. Slater's home until he died there, 
at the beginning of his seventieth year. May 7, 1884. 

Before his last great gift, Mr. Slater made generous contributions to religious and 
educational enterprises. He was one of the original corporators of the Norwich 
Free Academy, to which he gave at different times more than $15,000. To the con- 
struction of the Park Congregational Church, which he attended, he gave the sum 
of $33,000, and subsequently a fund of $10,000, the income of which is to keep the 
edifice in repair. At the time of his death he was engaged in building a jpublic 
library in Jewett City, which will soon be completed, at a cost of $16,000. His pri- 
vate benefactions and his contributions to benevolent societies were also numerous. 
During the war his sympathies were heartily with the Union, and he was a large 
purchaser of the Government bonds when others doubted their security. 

Some years before his death, Mr. Slater formed the purpose of devoting a large 
sum of money to the education of the freedmen. It is believed that this humane 
project occurred to him, without suggestion from any other mind, in view of the 
apprehensions which all thoughtful persons felt, when, after the war, the duties of 
citizenship were suddenly imposed upon millions of emancipated slaves. Certainly, 
when he began to speak freely of his intentions, he had decided upon the amount of 
his gift and its scope. These were not open questions. He knew exactly what he 
wished to do. It was not to bestow charity upon the destitute, nor to encourage a 
few exceptional individuals; it was not to build churches, schoolhouses, asylums, or 
colleges; it was not to establish one strong institution as a personal monument; it 
was, on the other hand, to help the people of the South in solving the great problem 
which had been forced ujion them, how to train, in various places and under difter- 
ing circumstances, those who have long been dependent, for the duties belonging to 
them now that they are free. This purpose was fixed. In respect to the best mode 
of organizing a trust, Mr. Slater sought counsel of many experienced persons — of 
the managers of the Peabody educational fund in regard to their work; of lawyers 
and those who had been in official life, with respect to questions of law and legisla- 
tion; of ministers, teachers, and others who have been familiar with charitable and 
educational trusts, or who were particularly well informed in respect to the condi- 
tion of the freedmen at the South. The results of all these consultations, which 
were continued during a period of several years, were at length reduced to a satis- 
factory form, and were embodied in a charter granted to a board of trustees by the 
State of New York, in the spring of 1882, and in a carefully thought-out and care- 
fully written letter, addressed to those who were selected to administer the trust. 

The characteristics of this gift were its Christian spirit, its patriotism, its munifi- 
cence, and its freedom from all secondary purposes or hampering conditions. In 
broad and general terms, the donor indicated the object which he had in view; the 
details of management he left to others, confident that their collective wisdom and 
the experience they must acquire would devise better modes of procedure, as the 
years go on, than any individual could propose in advance. * * * 

On the 18th of May, 1882, Mr. Slater met the board of trustees in the city of New 
York and transferred to them the sum of $1,000,000, a little more than half of it 



SLATEE FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1417 

being already iuvested, and the remainder being casb, to be invested at the discre- 
tion of tbe board. On that occasion tlio trnstees addressed bim a letter acl<n owl- 
edging bis generosity, and they invited bim always to attend their nieetiugs ; bnt he 
never met with them again, and declined to guide in any way their subsequent 
action. 

The gift of Mr. Slater was acknowledged by expressions of gratitude from every 
part of the country, and especially from those who were watching with anxiety the 
future of the blacks. The echoes of gratitude came also from distant lands. 
Henceforward, in tbe annals of Christian philanthropy, tbe name of John F. Plater 
will be honored among those who have given wisely, freely, and in their lifetime, 
to enlighten tbe ignorant and to lift up the depressed. 

MEMOIR. 

[By Rev. Dr. S. H. Howe, pastor of the Park Church, Norwich, Conn.] 

Mr. Jobn Fox Slater, founder of the fund that bears bis name, was born in Rhode 
Island, March 4, 1815. His family came a generation before from England, and was 
identified with manufacturing interests in the countries both of its birth and its 
adoption. Ho who was to be associated in the public mind with industrial education 
among one of the races on the continent was born to the inheritance of a name which 
has held high eminence for its relation to industrial progress. One of bis near rela- 
tives has been called tbe "father of American manufactures." Family tradition and 
family prominence along these lines early determined for him the career of a manu- 
facturer, by which he laid tbe foundations of tbe fortune which be ultimately 
amassed. He early developed rare business aptitudes, as was evidenced by the 
intrustment to him of one of the mills of bis father at tbe age of 17. From this early 
period be continued in the career of a manufacturer until his death, maintaining and 
enlarging the plant covered by bis sole ownership not only, but also identified with 
other large manufacturing corporations as sbarebolder and director. Starting from 
the solid foundation of a good academical education, be found in business life i^ train- 
ing and discipline which fitted him to gra])ple, with the band of a mastei', with tbe 
largest (questions in business and finance, and to achieA^o success where others failed. 
He had large experience in business life, and developed rare powers for the grasp of 
its intricate problems. His bitsiuess successes were not due to the chances of trade, 
or the fluctuations of values, or to tbe daring and tbe ventures of speculation, but 
were tbe fruit of tbe sagacious and alert use of the opportunities which were in his 
own as in other men's reach. He possessed profound insight and exhaustive knowl- 
edge of affairs and men, with mental grasp and business training, some have believed, 
sufficient to have wisely controlled the financial interests of a nation. His. judgment 
and counsel were sought by great corporations in the management of enterprises and 
industries which represented large investments and a vast outlay of capital. It is 
not strange that his ventures were so largely successful, and that his failures and 
losses were exceptional and rare. 

Then bis sagacity in business, which amounted to genius, was allied to honorable 
methods and to inflexible business integrity. Few men have had an aversion so 
severe and uncompromising to unfairness and to doubtful practices. His opjiortuni- 
ties for speculation were many, but be carefully held himself aloof from all but the 
legitimate channels of trade. He gathered fortune by honorable methods — a fact of 
some significance to those who handle bis munificent trust, and a significant fact to 
those who arc helped to manhood and citltitre by it. Tbe hands which created this 
noble foundation were clean bands. 

Mr. Slater, as may be inferred from what has been said, was a man of wide intelli- 
gence, pecttliarly receptive and hospitable to truth. To his strong Puritan sense of 
right and devotion to principle, he added that larger interest in tbe world and the 
ago in which he lived, which gives scope and breadth to thought, and defends against 
mere local and provincial sympathies. And yet he was a public-spirited citizen in 
his adopted city, jealous of its good name, generotis toward its charities. Toward 
his country he was patriotic and loyal, interested in its politics and its legislation. 

He was a man of strong, pronounced personality; of fine fiber and of genuine 
manliness — a gentleman by instinct and training and habit; reserved and self- 
respecting, though genuinely sympathetic toward and accessible to all classes of 
men. He was sensitive concerning and deeply averse to that adulation which goes 
after great fortune for its own sake. It is the testimony of a friend who saw him 
most frequently through a long period of years and shared bis confidence in a larger 
sense than others that in all his interQourse with him he had not heard a sentence 
that suggested the pride of fortune. He wished to be estimated for what he was- 
and not for what be possessed. And this rule governed bim in the estimate which 
he placed upon others. He was modest and unostentatious to the last degree. While 
ED 95 45* 



1418 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

lie was toucliccl and gratified "by tlio lienor wMcli came to him iu connection witli 
Ms great gift to licnovolence, lie did nothing to invoke it or to stimulato it. He 
remained amidst it all the same quiet, reserved, nnostentations citizen. He v^as to 
those who Icnew him Avell a most delightful and resourceful conversationalist. His 
breadth of view, his versatility, his familiar acquaintance with affairs and men, with 
questions of finance, politics, and religion, his taste for art, his knoAvledge of the 
world gained from travel, made his corapanionsbip delightful to those who shared, it. 

His interest in and gifts to benevolence antedated his later beneficence. Great 
gifts are never a bit of pure extemporization. Great things are not done ou the 
spur of the moment. Those who develop unexpected resources on great occasions 
or show themselves capable of conspicuous sacrifices or services have had in advance 
their rehearsals. The noblest philanthropies are not extemporized or wrung forcibly 
from their authors by the stern importunity of death. Even legacies have generally 
a background of practical benevolence. Mr. Slater has given wisely and generously 
to objects that commended themselves to him. Many of these gifts were in the 
public eye, but it is the testimony of his nearest friends that ho gave with larger 
liberality than the public could be aware of, with sim]ilicity, and without ostenta- 
tion, responding to cases of distress and suflering generously, but in such fashion as 
to conceal the giving hand. 

But the conspicuous act of his life with which the public had most concern is of 
course the creation of the foundation for industrial education among the freedmeu. 
Much that had gone before in his life had been leading up to this iiriucely gift. He 
had always manifested a profound interest in education, had given largely, and had 
projected generous measures for educational work in the community, which, how- 
ever, were yielded in the interest of his larger iiurpose. His interest iu local educa- 
tion has been most worthily commemorated by the splendid memorial building 
erected in his honor by his son in connection with the !Norwich Free Academy. Mr. 
Sla,ter realized, and as his fortune grew was oppressed with, the sense of the respon- 
sibility of wealth, and planned long in advance to give in bulk to some worthy object 
of benevolence; and ho resolved to execute this purpose iu life rather than by 
bequest. The issues of the great cIa^I war which unloosed the fetters of the slave, 
but which did not qualiiy him for the responsible duties of citizenship, gave Mr, 
Slater his great opportunity. Ho thought this problem through. He had been, 
loyal, patriotic, and generous in his gifts when the struggle was upon the nation, 
and he rejoiced in thosuccessful outcome; but hero was a now field and an unlimited 
opportunity which he resolved to apiiropriate. His plan originated wholly and 
without suggestion from others with himself, and was elaborated to its minutest 
detail iu adv.ance of its publicity. Standing at this distance and looking through 
the experimental test of more than a decade of its working, it is impossible to resist 
the conviction that it was statesmanlike, patriotic, and Christian in its conception 
and spirit. Mr. Slater was wise to see what we have been learning, that the exigent 
want for the emancipated race was practical and industrial education. The higher 
education has its offices to take iu exceptional instances, but for the masses of the 
race, so long submerged and held down to the low levels of intelligence where 
emancipation found it, the wisest, most practical, and resultful plan for its elevation 
was that devised by the founder of this educational fund. It was the instinct of 
patriotism and of practical statesmanship to go to the weakest spot in the body 
politic to strengthen it, as it was the imijulso of Christian thought to place the 
ladder of ascent within reach of the foot of the lowest man, who Avas most hopeless 
of self-recovery. Perhaps this is occasion for surprise. Mr. Slater might have been 
patrician in his sympathies, cxclusiA^e and reseiwed in his associations. Ho had 
aptitudes and opportunities for aloofness from other than the privileg^ed classes; ho 
might haA'O been exclusive in hi:i syrai^athies rather than iuclusi\'e. ' But his sym- 
pathies swept him around to the opposite polo from that on which he stood. He 
crossed theVhoIe diameter of society to find the lowest grooA-e in our social and 
national life that he might do this conspicuous act of beneficence to the poorest of 
this nation's poor. Such examxiles of Avise beneficence, Avhich express the sj'mpathy 
of the privileged for the unprivileged classes, do much to lighten the strain of self- 
goA^ernment iu a nation like ours. They do much to allay the antagonisms of society 
and to bridge the chasm Avliich oj^ens between those zones of enormous wealth ou 
the one hand and a degrading poA-erty which are drawn across the map of our modern 
life. When wealth consents after this fashion to reach out helping hands toAvard 
the nation's poor and gives aid toAvard self-help, theu many of the perplexing prob- 
lems of modern socialism will be solved. 

The wisdom of this foundation in its intent and aim can not easily be oA^erstated. 
Not to create the conspicuous institution, that by concentration of forces focuses 
the public eye upon the giA^er, but rather aiid more wisely to distribute aid oA'er a 
wide area, among a score or more of institutions ; not to do the premature thing of 
providing foundations for university training for which the race has and for gener- 
ations Avill have such scant preparation, but rather to make proAasiou for training 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1419 

alonfj tlioso practical and industrial lines, wliicli is tbo exigent need, in order to self- 
help toward the creation of tlio homo and an ordered life in the social community. 
The verdict of his fellow-workers in this field of philanthropic effort, after watching 
the experiment for a decade, is "Well done, good and faithful servant,"' and wo may 
well believe that in these words we hear a higher verdict than man's. 

The reflex influence of Mr. Slater's beneficence, we are persuaded, has been great. 
AVe can not estimate tlie good we do when we do good. The effect of this splendid 
bcneiiceuco in stimulating philanthropic enterprise, passing as it has into the cur- 
rency of popular thouglit as a quickening inspiration, its impetus to the noble army 
of workers for the uplifting of the race, has been enormous. Its inspiration and 
influence uiion this greatest decade of giving in all the history of the world has been 
immense we are confident. Other millions have gotten into the wake of this one; 
and we believe other men to whom God has given great -wealtli, and into Avhoso 
hearts the passion of the cross has been poured, are to be moved by it to the break- 
ing of their costly boxes of alabaster in the presence of the world's Christ. Such 
men are and are to bo the saving and the enduring forces of the world. They may 
disappear from the eye; they cease to be seen as visible personalities, but they be- 
come immortal in the "world as quickening influences. They "walk in uncrowned 
regality through the ages. Their gifts, their lives, will bo reduplicated as they 
spread by contagion the spirit of philanthropy among men ; passing for a sort of 
fresh incarnation into the minds and hearts of others, Avho catch their spirit, and go 
to spread it and give it fresh forms and embodiments. Over such lives even death 
can have no power. 

Mr. Slater only lived to see the genesis of the work he did, and of the forces he 
started in the world. His great gift, at that time almost an unprecedented one, 
awakened wide-spread interest. The news spread over the land and was borne 
across the sea. Hundreds of letters congratulatory and appreciative poured in upon 
him. His friends gave expression to their admiration. His city, to Avhose name his 
beneficence had imparted a fresh eminence and fame, made him aware of her appre- 
ciation of the honor he had bestowed upon her; but amid it all ho remained the 
same unostentatious, quiet citizen — grateful and .appreciative of the honor "^vhich 
had come to him, but accepting it rather as an unreckoned-upon accompaniment of 
his unselfish act. He remained in the routine of his accustomed business, and in the 
fellowshii? of friends and neighbors, as if ho had only done a duty or accepted a 
privilege which lay in the jiath of his accustomed living. Two years later the fatal 
disease laid its hand upon him, when in the faith of a Christian he girded himself 
to go unto his Father's house. To many of us it was the summons to the presence 
of Him who was and is ever the Supreme Friend of the poor and the lowly, to hear 
His commendation: "In as much as ye have done these things unto the least of these, 
my brethren, ye have done them unto me. Enter into the joy of thy Lord," 

VI. 

DOCUMENTS RELATING TO THE ORIGIN AND WORK OF THE SLATER 
TRUSTEES, 1882 TO 1894. 

Charter from the State of Xew Yorl-, approved April 38, 1882. 
AN ACT to incorpor.ate the trustees of tlio Johu F. Slater fnncl. 

Whereas Messrs. Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, Morrison R. Waite, of the Dis- 
trict of Columbia, William E. DodgCj'of Ne"w York, Phillips Brooks, of Massachu- 
setts, Daniel C. Gilman, of Maryland, John A. Stewart, of New York, Alfred II. 
Colquitt, of Georgia, Morris K. Jcsup, of New York, James P. Boyce, of Kentucky, 
and William A. Slater, of Connecticut, have, by their memorial, represented to the 
senate and assembly of this State that a letter has been received by them from John 
F. Slater, of Norwich, in the State of Connecticut, of which the following is a copy: 

[Hero the letter printed below is inserted.] 

And whereas said memorialists have further represented that they are ready to 
accept said trust and receive and administer said fund, provided a charter of incor- 
poration is granted by this State, as indicated in said letter; now, therefore, for the 
purpose of giving full effect to the charitable intentions declared in said letter; 

The people of the State of New York, represented in senate and assembly, do enact as 
follows : 

Sec. 1. Rutherford B. Hayes, Morrison R. AVaite, William E. Dodge, Phillips 
Brooks, Daniel C. Oilman, John A. Stewart, Alfred H. Colquitt, Morris K. Jesup, 
James P. Boyco, and William A. Slater are hereby created a body politic and cor- 
porate by the name of The Trustees of the John F. Slater Fund, and by that name 
shall have i)erpetual succession; said original corporators electing their associates 



1420 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1894-95. 

and successors, from time to time, so that the whole number of corporators may be 
kept at not less than nine nor more than twelve. 

Said corporation may hold and manage, invest and reinvest, all property which 
may be given or transferred to it for the charitable purposes indicated in said letter, 
and shall, in so doing, and in appropriating the income accruing therefrom, conform 
to and be governed by the directions in said letter contained; and such property 
and all investments and reinvestments thereof, excej^ting real estate, shall, while 
owned by said corporation and held for the purposes of said trust, be exempt from 
taxation of any and every nature. 

Sec. 2. Eutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, shall be the first president of the corpora- 
tion, and it may elect such other officers and hold such meetings, whether within or 
without this State, from time to time, as its by-laws may authorize or prescribe. 

Sec. 3. Said corporation shall annually file with the librarian of this State a printed 
report of its doings during the preceding year. 

Sec. 4. This act shall take effect immediately. 

Letter of the founder. 

To Messrs. Eutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio; Morrison R. Waite, of the District of 
Columbia; William E. Dodge, of New York; Phillips Brooks, of Massachusetts; 
Daniel C. Gilman, of Maryland; John A. Stewart, of New York; Alfred A. Col- 
quitt, of Georgia; Morris K. Jesup, of New York; James P. Boyce, of Kentucky, 
and William A. Slater, of Connecticut. 

Gentlemen : It has pleased God to grant me prosperity in my business, and to jiut 
it into my power to apply to charitable uses a sum of money so considerable as to 
require the counsel of wise men for the administration of it. 

•It is my desire at this time to appropriate to such uses the sum of $1,000,000; and 
I hereby invite you to procure a charter of incorporation under which a charitable 
fund may be held exempt from taxation, and under which you shall organize; and 
I intend that the corporation, as soon as formed, shall receive this sum in trust to 
apply the income of it according to the instructions contained in this letter. 

The genera] object which I desire to have exclusively j)ursued, is the uplifting of 
the lately emancipated population of the Southern States, and their posterity, by 
conferring on them the blessings of Christian education. The disabilities formerly 
suffered by these people, and their singular patience and fidelity in the great crisis 
of the nation, establish ajust claim on the sympathy and good will of humane and 
patriotic men. I can not but feel the compassion that is due in view of their pre- 
vailing ignorance, which exists by no fault of their own. 

But it is not only for their own sake, but also for the safety of our common country 
in which they have been invested with equal political rights, that I am desirous to 
aid in providing them with the means of such education as shall tend to make them 
good men and good citizens — education in which the instruction of the mind in the 
common branches of secular learning shall be associated with training in just notions 
of duty toward God and man, in the light of the Holy Scrii)tures. 

The means to be used in the proseciition of the general object above described I 
leave to the discretion of the corporation, only indicating as lines of operation 
adapted to the present condition of things, the training of teachers from amongthe 
people requiring to be taught, if, in the opinion of the corporation, by such limited 
selection the purposes of the trust can be best accomplished ; and the encouragement 
of such institutions as are most effectually useful in promoting this training of 
teachers. 

I am well aware that the work herein proposed is nothing new or untried. And 
it is no small part of my satisfaction in taking this share in it that I hereby asso- 
ciate myself with some of the noblest enterprises of charity and humanity, and may 
hope to encourage the prayers and toils of faithful men and women who have labored 
and are still laboring in this cause. 

I wish the corporation which you are invited to constitute to consist at no time of 
more than twelve members, nor of less than nine members for a longer time than 
may be required for the convenient filling of vacancies, which I desire to be filled by 
the corporation, and, when found practicable, at its next meeting after the vacancy 
may occiir. 

I designate as the first president of the corporation the Hon. Eutherford B. Hayes, 
of Ohio. I desire that it may have power to provide from the income of the fund, 
among other tilings, for expenses incurred by members in the fulfillment of this 
trust and for the expenses of such officers and agents as it may appoint, and, gener- 
ally, to do all such acts as may be necessary for carrying out the purposes of this 
triist. I desire, if it may be, that the corporation may have full liberty to invest 
its funds according to its own best discretion, without reference to or restriction by 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 1421 

any laws or rules, legal or equitable, of auy nature, regulating the mode of invest- 
ment of trust funds; only I wish that neither principal nor income be exi)ended in 
laud or buildiugs for auy other purpose than that of safe aud productive investment 
for income. And I liereby discliarge the corporation aud its individual members, so 
far as it is in my power so to do, of all responsibility, except for the faithful admin- 
istration of this trust according to their own honest understanding and best judg- 
ment. In particular, also, I wish to relieve them of auy pretended claim on the 
part of any person, party, sect, institution, or locality, to benefactions from this 
fund that may be put forward on any ground whatever, as I wish every exi»enditure 
to be d('termined solely by the convictions of the corporation itself as to the most 
useful disposition of its gifts. 

I desire that the doings of the corporation each year be printed and sent to each 
of the State libraries in the United States, and to the Library of Congress. 

In case the capital of the fund should become impaired, I desire that a part of the 
income, not greater than one-half, be invested, from year to year, until the capital be 
restored to its original amount. 

I purposely leave to the corporation the largest liberty of making such changes in 
the methods of applying the income of the fund as shall seem from time to time best 
adapted to accomplish the general object herein defined. But being warned by the 
history of such endowments that they sometimes tend to discourage rather than 
promote effort an<l self-reliance on the part of beneficiaries; or to inure to the 
advaniemcmt of learning instead of the dissemination of it; or to become a conven- 
ience to the rich instead of a help to those who need help, I solemnlj^ charge my 
trustees to use their best wisdom in preventing any such defeat of the s]>irit of this 
trust, so Ihat mj gift may continue to future generations to be a blessing to the poor. 

If at any time after the lapse of thirty-three years from the date of this foundation 
it shall appear to the judgment of three-fourths of the members of this corporation 
that, by reason of a change in social conditions, or by reason of adecjuate and equi- 
table public provision for education, or by auy other sufficient reason, there is no 
further serious need of this fund in the form in which it is at first instituted, I 
authorize the coriioration to apply the capital of the fund to the establishment of 
foundations subsidiary to then alreadj^ existing institutions of higher education, in 
such wise as to make the educational advantages of such institutions more freely 
accessible to poor students of the colored race. 

It is my wish that this trust be administered in no partisan, sectional, or sectarian 
spirit, but in the interest of a generous patriotism and an enlightened Christian faith; 
and that the corporation about to be formed may continue to be constituted of men 
distinguished either by honorable success in business, or by services to literature, 
education, religion, or the State. 

I am encouraged to the execution in this charitable foundation of a long-cherished 
purpose by the eminent wisdom and success that has marked the conduct of the 
Peabody education fund in a field of operation not remote from that contemplated 
by this trust. I shall commit it to your hands, deeply conscious how insufficient is 
our best forecast to provide for tlie future that is known only to God, but humbly 
hoping that the administration of it may be so guided by divine wisdom as to be in 
its turn an encouragement to philanthropic enterprise on the part of others, and an 
enduring means of good to our beloved country and to our fellow-men. 
I have the honor to be, gentlemen, your friend aud fellow-citizen, 

John F. Slater. 
Norwich, Conn., March 4, 1S82. 

Letter of the trustees accepting the gift. 

New York, May 18, 1882. 
John F. Slater, Esq., Norwich, Conn.: 

The members of the board of trustees whom you invited to take charge of the 
fund whieh you have devoted to the education of the lately emancipated people of 
the Southern States and their posterity, desire, at the beginning of their work, to 
place on record their appreciation of your purpose, and to congratulate you on hav- 
ing completed thiswise aud generous gift at a period of your life when you may hope 
to observe for many years its beneficent infiuence. 

They wish especially to assure you of their gratification in being called upon to 
administer a work so noble and timely. If this trust is successfully managed, it 
may, like the gift of George Peabody, lead to many other benefactions. As it tends 
to remove the ignorance of large numbers of those who have a vote in public affairs, 
it will promote the welfare of every ])art of our country, and your generous action will 
receive, as it deserves, the thanks of good men and women in this and other lands. 

Your trustees unite in wishing you long life aud health, that you may have the 
satisfaction of seeing the result of your patriotic forecast. 



1422 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

The thanks of Congress. 

JOINT EESOLTTTIOK of the Seuato and House of Eepresentatives of tlio United States, approved 

February C, 1883. 

Resolved hy the Senate and House of Reprcseniativcs of the United States of America in 
Congress assembled, That the thanks of Congress be, and they hereby are, presented 
to John F. Slater, of Connecticut, for his great lieneficence in giving the large sum 
of $1,000,000 for the purpose of ''uplifting the lately emancipated population of the 
Southern States and their posterity by conferring on them the blessings of Christian 
education." 

Sec. 2. That it shall be the duty of the President to cause a gold medal to be struck 
with suitable devices and inscriptions, which, together witli a copy of this resolu- 
tion, shall be presented to Mr. Slater in the name of the people of the United States. 

JOIA'"T EESOLTTTIOlSr of the Senate and House of Eeprescntatives of the United States, approved 

April 9, 1S96. 

Resolved hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in 
Congress assembled, That the sum of one thousand dollars, or so much thereof as may 
be needed, is hereljy aj)propriated out of any moneys in the Treasury not otherwise 
appropriated, to defray the cost of the medal ordered by public resolution numbered 
six, approved Februarj'' sixth, eighteen hundred and eighty-three, to be presented to 
John F. Slater, of Connecticut, then living, but now deceased. 

Sec. 2. That said medal and a copy of the original resolution aforesaid shall bo 
presented to the legal representatives of said John F. Slater, deceased. 

By-laws adopted May IS, 1882, and amended from time to time. 

1. The officers of the board shall be a president, a vice-jiresident, a secretary, and 
a treasurer, chosen from the members. These officers shall serve until death, resigna- 
tion, or removal for cause, and vacancies, when they occur, shall be filled by ballot. 

2. There shall be appointed at each annual meeting a finance committee and an 
executive committee. The finance committee shall consist of three, and the execu- 
tive committee of five, the president of the board being, ex officio, one of the five, 

3. There shall also be an educational committee consisting of six persons, three of 
whom shall be appointed by the board and three of whom shall be ex officio members, 
to Avit, the president, the treasurer, and the secretary of the board. 

4. The annual meeting of the board shall be held at such j)lace in the city of I\ew 
York as shall be designated by the board, or the jiresident, on the second Wednesday 
in Ai^ril in each year. Special meetings may be called by the president or the execu- 
tive committee at such times and places as in their judgment may be necessar^^ 

5. A majority of the members of the board shall be a quorum for the transaction 
of business. 

G. In case of the absence or disability of the president, the vice-president shall 
perform his duties. 

7. The secretary shall keep a record of the proceedings of the board, which shall 
be annually published for general distribution. 

8. The executive committee shall be charged with the duty of carrying out the 
resolutions and orders of the board as the same are from time to time adopted. Three 
shall constitute a quorum for business. 

9. The finance committee, in connection with the treasurer, shall have charge of 
the moneys and securities belonging to the fand, with authority to invest and reinvest 
the moneys and dispose of the securities at their discretion, subject, however, at all 
times to the instructions of the board. 

All securities belonging to the trust shall stand in the name of "the trustees of 
the John F. Slater fund," and be transferred only by the treasurer when authorized 
by a resolution of the finance committee. 

10. The secretary of the board shall be, ex officio, secretary of the executive 
committee. 

11. In case of the absence or disability of the treasurer, the finance committee 
shall have power to fill the vacancy temporarily. 

12. Vacancies in the board shall be filled by ballot, and a vote of two-thirds of all 
the members shall be necessary for an election. 

13. These by-laws may be altered or amended at any annual or special meeting by 
a vote of two-thirds of all the iuembers of the board. 



SLATER FUND AND EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



1423 



Memhcrs of the hoard. 



Na'me. 



Kpsigncd 
or died. 



APPOINTED 

Eutherford P>. TIayes, of Ohio 

Morrison Jl. AVaite, of tlio District of Columbia. 

"William E. Doilgo, of Nc^v York 

Phillips Brooks, of Massachusetts 

Daniel C. Gilman, of Maryland 

John A. Stewart, of Ke wTork 

Alfred II. Colquitt, of Georgia 

Morris K. Jesup, of New York 

James V. Boyce, of Kentucky 

AVilliam A. Slater, of Connecticut 

ELECTED. 

William E. Dodge, jr., of New York 

Melville "W. Fuller, of the District of Columbia. 

John A. Broadus, of Kentucky 

Henry C. Potter, of New York 

J. L. M. Curry, of the District of Columbia 

"William J. Northen, of Georgia 

Ellison Capers, of South Carolina 

C. B. Galloway, of Mississippi 

Alexander E.Orr, of New York 



1S82 
1882 
1882 
1882 
1882 
1882 
1882 
1882 
1882 
1882 



1S33 
18SS 
1880 
1889 
1891 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1895 



*1803 
■-■ 1888 
*1S83 
tl889 



• 1894 
•1888 



tl895 



•Died in office. 



tPesigned. 



From 1882 to 1891 the general ageut of tlio trust Ayas Ecv. A. G. Haygood, D. D., 
of Georgia, Ayho resigned the office Avhen he hecaiuo a bishop of the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church South. Siuce 1891 the duties of a general agent have been discharged 
by Dr. J. L. M. Curry, of AVashiugtou, D. C, chairmau of the educational com- 
luittcc. 



Ii€)narls of President Ilaijes on ilie death of Mr, Slater. 

Ocnilcmen of the Board of Trustees of the John F. Slater Fund: 

Our first duty at this the fifth mcetiug of the tru.stecs of the John F. Slater fund 
for the education of freedmen is devolved ui^on us by the death, since our last meet- 
ing, of the founder of this trust. 

John F. Slater died early AVeduesday morning, the 7th of Blay last, at his home in 
Norwich, Conn., at the age of 69. Ho had suffered severely from chronic complaints 
for several months, and his death was not a surprise to his family or intimate friends. 

Two of tlie members of this board of trustees, Mr. Morris K. Jesup and myself, 
had the melancholy privilege of representing the board at the impressive funeral 
services of Mr. Slater at his homo, at the Congregational Church, and at the cemeterj'^ 
in Norwich, on the Saturday following his death. 

When he last met this board, his healthful appearance and general vigor gave 
promise of a long and active life. It v.'as with great confidence that wo thou ex- 
pressed to hiin our conviction that his wise and generous gift for the education of 
the emancipated people of the Soutli and their posterity Ayas made at a period of 
his life when he might reasonably hope to observe during many years its beneficent 
inllueuce. But in the providence of God it has been otherwise ordered, and the life 
which we fondly wished would last long enough to yield to him the satisfaction of 
seeing the results of his patriotic forecast has been brought to a close. 

Ho had a widely extended and well-earned reputation for ability, energy, integrity, 
and success as a manufacturer and as a man of affairs. He was a philauthropist, a 
patriot, a good citizen, aud a good neighbor. He was a member of the Park Con- 
gregational Society iu Norwich for many years and was warmly and strongly attached 
to the denomination of his choice. His church relations did not limit his sympa- 
thies, nor narrow his views of duty. In his letter establishing this trust is tiie fol- 
fowing clause : 

" '1 he general object which I desire to have exclusively pursued is the Tiplifting 
of the lately emancipated population of the Southern States, and their posterity, 
by conferring on them the blessings of Christian education." 

When asked the precise meaning of the phrase "Christian education," he replied 
that "the phrase Christian education is to be taken in the largest and most gen- 
eral sense — that, in the sense which he intended, the common-school teaching of 



1424 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1894-95. 

Massacliusetts and Connecticut was Clai'istiau education. That it is leavened Avitli a 
predominant and salutary Christian iniluence. That there was no need of limiting 
the gifts of the fund to denominational institutions. That, if the trustees should be 
satisfied that at a certain State institution their beneficiaries would be surrounded 
by wholesome influences such as would tend to make good Christian citizeus of them, 
there is nothing in the use of the phrase referred to to hinder their sending pupils 
to it." 

I forbear to attempt to give a full sketch of Mr. Slater. Enough has perhaps been 
said to bring to your attention the great loss which this trust has sustained in the 
death of its founder, and the propriety of placing on our records and giving to the 
public a worthy and elaborate notice of his life, character, and good deeds. 



CHAPTER XLIL 
EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



References to preceding reports of the United States Bureau of Education, in which 
this subject has been treated: In annual reports — 1870, pp. 61, 337-339; 1871, 
pp. 6, 7, 61-70; 1873, pp. xvii, xviii; 1873, p. Ixvi; 1875, p. xxiii; 1876, p. xvi; 
1877, pp. xxxiii-xxxviii; 1878, pp. xxviii-xxxiv; 1879, pp. xxxix-xlv; 1880, 
p. Iviii; 1881, p. Ixxxii; 1882-83, pp. liv, xlviii-lvi, xlix, 8.5; 1883-84, p. liv; 
1884-85, p. Ixvii; 1885-86, pp. 596, 650-656; 1886-87, pp. 790, 874-881; 1887-88, 
pp. 20, 21, 167, 169, 988-998; 1888-89, pp. 768, 1412-1439; 1889-90, pp. 620, 621, 
624, 634, 1073-1102, 1388-1392, 1395-1485; 1890-91, pp. 620, 624. 792, 808, 915, 
961-980, 1469; 1891-92, pp. 8. 686, 688, 713, 861-867, 1002, 1234-1237; 1892-93, 
pp. 15,442,1551-1572, 1976; 1893-94, pp. 1019-1061; 1894-95, pp. 1331-1424; also 
in Circulars of Information— No. 3, 1883, p. 63; No. 2, 1886, pp. 123-133; No. 3, 
1888, p. 122; No. 5, 1888, pp. 53, 54, 59,60, 80-86; No. 1, 1892, p. 71. Special 
Report on District of Columbia for 1869, pp. 193, 300, 301-400. Special report. 
New Orleans Exposition, 1884-85, pp. 468-470, 775-781. 

The estimated number of persons 5 to 18 years of age in the sixteen Southern 
States and the District of Columbia for the scholastic year 1895-96 was 8,562,970. 
Of this number 5,768,680 were white and 2,794,290 were Qolored. The total enroll- 
ment in the public schools of the South was 5,291,013, the enrollment in the white 
schools being 3,861.300, or 66.93 per cent of the white children of school age, and 
the enrollment in the colored schools 1,429,713, or 51.16 per cent of the colored 
children of school age. While the colored children constitute 32.63 per cent of 
the school population of the South, they make but 27 per cent of the school enroll- 
ment. In the District of Columbia and in Kentucky the per cent of colored 
children enrolled is higher than, for the white children. In Alabama and South Car- 
olina the per cent of attendance is higher for the colored than for white children. 
For the entire South the average daily attendanc3 was 68. 28 per cent of the enroll- 
ment for the whit9 children and 62.04 per cent of the enrollment for the colored 
children. Those statistics for each of the sixteen Southern States and the District 
of Columbia are given in Table 1 on the following page. 

The total expenditure for public schools in the South for 1895-96 was $30,729,819. 
In only one or two States are separate accounts kept of the expenditure of money 
for the colored schools, but at a low estimation the cost of public schools for the 
colored race for 1895-96 was not less than §6,500,003. Table 2 shows that from 
1870 to 1896 the cost of public schools in the South was ^5483,777,467. Between 
$90,000,000 and $95,000,000 of this sum must have been expended for the education 
of the colored children. The same table shows the enrollment in the white and 
colored schools for each year, and also the total expenditure for each year from 
1870-71 to 1895-98. 

SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION. 

For the year 1895-96 this Bureau received reports from 178 schools for the second- 
ary and higher education of the colored race. Three of these schools are in Penn- 
sylvania, two in Ohio, two in Indiana, one in Illinois, and one in New Jersey. All 
the others are within the boundaries of the former slave States. Table 3 shows 
the number of these schools in each State and the number of teachers and stu- 
dents for each State. The total enrollment in these 178 schools was 40,127. The 
number in the elementary grades was 25,032, in the secondary 13,563, and in the 
collegiate grades 1.455. The number of teachers employed was 1,626. The statis- 
tics of these schools are given in detail in Tables 9 and 10. 

ED 90 60 2081 



2082 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

Table 1. — Common school statistics, classified by race, 1S95-DG. 



State. 


Estimated number 

of persons 5 to 18 

years of age. 


Percentages of 
the whole. 


Pupils enrolled in 

the public 

schools. 


Per cent of per- 
sons 5 to 18 years 
enrolled. 




White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 




338, 700 
336, 700 
39, 850 
44,800 
89, 130 
369, 000 
557, 400 
203, 400 
363,300 
313, 700 
881, 300 
389, 700 
174,300 
475, 100 
800, 500 

338. roo 

374, 300 


381, 600 

136, 700 

8, 980 

34,640 

70, 670 
346, 300 

95, 400 
216, 700 

75, 900 
309, 800 

53, 600 
333, 700 
392,200 
160, 300 
245,500 

24i;ooo 

11, 300 


53. 85 
72.06 
81.60 
64.51 
55. 79 
51.59 
85.38 
48.42 
77. 62 
40.71 
■ 94.26 
63.53 
37.34 
74.77 
76. 55 
58.43 
96.04 


46.15 
37.94 
18.40 
35.49 
44.31 
48.41 
14.63 
51.58 
22.38 
59.39 

5.74 
37.48 
63.66 
25.23 
33.45 
41.57 

3.96 


a 198, 710 

318,399 

38,316 

37,389 

63,586 

353,516 

337, 618 

98, 400 

179, 408 

163, 830 

631,9.57 

244,376 

109,159 

377,626 

481,419 

240, 356 

308,435 


a 130, 810 
78,276 
4,858 
15, 175 
36,787 
170, 370 
02, 508 
65, 917 
39,954 
187, 785 
33,990 
126,544 
123,178 
100, 499 
135,149 
121, 777 
7,230 


a&O. 45 
68.82 
71.05 
60.91 
71.35 
68.70 
60. 57 
48.38 
68.14 
76.56 
71.72 
62.70 
62.67 
79.48 
60.13 
70.96 
76.00 


a 43. 90 




61.79 


Delaware (1891-92) 

District of Columbia . . 


54.09 
01.59 
53.06 




49.16 




65.54 




30.44 


Maryland 

Mississippi (1894-95) - . . 


52. 65 
60.61 
61.54 


Nortli Carolina 


54.14 
42.15 


Tennessee (1894^95) .-.- 


63.70 
55.05 


Virginia -._..- - 


50.53 
63.97 






Total 


5, 768, 680 
65,133,948 


3 

62, 


794, 290 


67.37 


33.63 

33.85 


3,861,300 
3,403,430 


1,429,713 
1,296,959 


66. 93 

66.28 


51.16 


Total, 1889-90 


510,847 67.15 


51.66 


State. 


Average daily attend- 
ance. 


Per cent of enroll- 
ment. 


Number of teachers. 




White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


Alabama 


a 134, 300 
138, 460 
a 19, 746 

30, 858 

41, 993 
154, 896 
247, 203 

fO, 373 
103, 798 

99, 048 

« 415, 368 

1.55, 899 

78, 391 
370,983 
349, 913 
141, 835 
136,614 


o 79, 700 
43, 488 

«3,947 
11, 395 
34, 143 
99,346 
39,658 
44,943 
19, 439 

103, 635 

« 31, 030 
75, 826 
91, 810 
67,348 
90, 336 
67,703 
4,467 


a 62. 56 
58.84 

69.74 
76.43 
66.03 
61.11 
73. 23 
71.53 
57.86 
60.81 

a 65. 73 
63.79 
71.83 
71.77 
73.70 
59.01 
65.54 


a 65. 98 
55.55 

a 60. 66 
74.43 
65. 63 
58.29 
63. 44 
68.11 
48.63 
55.19 

a 63. 71 
59.93 
74.53 
67.00 
66.85 
55. 60 
61.79 


4,831 
5; 335 
734 
688 
1,939 
5,868 
8,727 
3,576 
3,892 
4.591 

14,114 
5, 129 
2,688 
7,048 

10,470 
6, 330 
0,219 




3,350 
1,448 


Delaware (1891-93) 

District of Columbia , . 


106 
343 
579 




3,053 




1,483 




961 




731 


Mississippi (1894^95) . . . 


3,364 

730 


North Carolina 

South Carolina . . _ 

Tennessee (1894^95) 

Texas - 


.2,756 
1,7.59 

1,865 
3,747 




2,097 




235 






Total 


3, 559, 666 


886. 994 


66.38 
63.83 


63.04 


91,049 




- 26,499 


Total, 1889-90 


3, 165, 2 


49 


81S 


,710 


63.43 


7 


5, 903 


24,073 



a Approximately. 



6 United States Census. 



Table 2. — Sixteen former slave States and the District of Columbia. 



Year. 



1870-71. 
1871-73. 
1872-73. 
1873-74. 
1874-75. 
1875-76. 
1876-77. 
1877-78. 
1878-79. 
1879-80- 
1880-81. 
1881-83. 
1883-83. 
1883-84. 



Common school 
enrollment. 



White. Colored 



1,837,139 
3,034,946 
3,013,684 
3,215,674 

3,334,877 
3,349,263 
2,370,110 
2,546,448 



571, 506 
675, 150 
085, 942 
784, 709 
803,374 
803, 983 
817, 240 
1,002,313 



Expend- 
itures 
(both 
races). 



$10, 385, 464 
11,633,338 
11,176,048 
11,833,775 
1.3,031,514 
12,033,865 
11,331,073 
13,093,091 
13, 174, 141 
13, 678, 685 
13, 6.56, 814 
15,341,740 
16, 363, 471 
17,884,558 



Year. 



1884-85 . 
1885-86 . 
1886-87 . 
1887-88 . 
1888-89 . 
1889-90 . 
1890-91 . 
1891-93 . 
1892-93 . 
1893-94 . 
1894-95 . 
1895-96 . 



Total. 



Common school 
enrollment. 



White. Colored. 



2,676,911 
2,773,145 
2, 975, 773 
3, 110, 606 
3, 197, 830 
3,403,420 
3, 570, 624 
3,607,549 
3, 697, 899 
3,835,593 
3,845,414 
3,861,300 



1,030,463 
1,048,659 
1, 118, 556 
1, 140, 405 
1,213,093 
1,396,959 
1,329,549 
1,354,316 
1,367,515 
1,434,995 
1,441,383 
1,429,713 



Expend- 
itures 
(both 

races). 



$19,2.53,874 
20,308,113 
30,831,969 
31,810,158 
33,171,878 
34,880,107 
36,690,310 
37,691,488 
38,535,738 
29, 223, 546 
29, 373, 990 
30, 739, 819 



483, 777, 467 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. ' 2083 

Table 4 shows that, in the 178 schools there were 1,494 students in classical 
courses, 1,345 in scientific courses, 9,139 in English courses, and 398 in business 
courses. Table 5 shows that 4.672 students were in normal courses. There were 
836 graduates from high school courses, 966 from normal courses, and 161 from 
collegiate courses. 

Table 6 is an exhibit of the number of students in professional courses in the 
colored schools. The total number in professional courses was 1,319, only 126 of 
these being females. There were 703 students and 76 graduates in schools and de- 
partments of theology, 124 students and 20 graduates in law, 286 students and 30 
graduates in medicine, 32 students and 6 graduates in dentistry, 48 students and 
13 graduates in pharmacy, and 126 students and 40 graduates in nurse training. 

Table 7 is a siimmary of the statistics of industrial training in the 178 colored 
schools. The number receiving industrial training was 12,341, the number of 
males being 4,476 and of females 7,865. The table shows that the number being 
trained in farm and garden work was 1,098, in carpentry 1,821, in bricklaying 254, 
in plastering 165, in painting 257, in tin and sheet-metal work 126, in forging 327, in 
machine-shop work 223, in shoemaking 165, in printing 565, in sewing 6,302, in 
cooking 2,455, and in other trades not named 1,677. The details of the statistics of 
industrial training are given in Table 10. 

The financial statistics of the colored schools of secondary and higher grade are 
stimmarized in Table 8. These schools received in benefactions during the scho- 
lastic year 1895-96 the sum of $323,718. The income of these schools aggregated 
$1,117,569. Of this amount the suni of §289,845 was derived from public funds, 
§92,297 from pi'oductive funds, and §124,481 from tuition fees. The sources of the 
unclassified income of §610,946 are uncertain. Many schools reported only total 
incomes for 1895-96. 

IXTERVIEWS WITH LEADING EDUCATORS OF THE COLORED RACE. 

Interviews with bishops of the African Methodist Church and with leading edu- 
cators of the colored race were printed in the New Orleans Times-Democrat of 
January 24, 1897. Those who read, in the Report of the United States Commis- 
sioner of Education for 1894-95, the two chapters on the Education of the Colored 
Race will be interested in these interviews. The Times- Democrat made the fol- 
lowing editorial comment: 

'•Education for the Negro. 

' ' We publish elsewhere interviews with the presidents of the several colored 
colleges of this city, the bishoi^s of the African Methodist Church now in New 
Orleans, and others interested in the education of the colored race, upon a sub- 
ject, than which there is none more important before the South and the country 
to-day. It is a part — and the most important part — of the great negro problem of 
the United States. What is better for the education of the negro — a classical edu- 
cation or an industrial and mechanical education? Shall we tarn his ambition in 
the direction of the learned professions rather than toward the indiTstries? 

"When we consider that there are 8,000,000 negroes in this country, that they 
constitute one-ninth of its population, and in several of the Southern States are in 
a majority, Ave can form some idea of the importance of this matter of educating 
them and making them useful and v-aluable citizens. 

"A great deal of work has been done alreadj'. Over §80,000,000 have been ex- 
pended on colored schools and colleges since 187G alone. Thirty- three j-ears have 
passed since the emancipation proclamation— a full generation — and we ought by 
this time to gather some fruit from the millions expended on the education of the 
negro. What do the results show — that a classical education or an industrial or 
mechanical one is better for the present condition and needs of the negro and for 
the South? 

'•The two sides of the case are well stated by Prof. Booker T. Washington, presi- 
dent of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, of Alabama, on the one 
hand, and President Edward Gushing Mitchell, of Leland University, in this city, 
on the other. 
_ "'President Mitchell takes a very decided stand against simple industrial educa- 
tion. He calls attention to the fact that the Northern colleges, which in many cases 
began with inaniial labor schools, have abandoned this appendage to their curric- 
tilum. ■ Ought we to insist,' he asks, ' upon putting a yoke upon the necks of our 
brethren in black which neither we nor our fathers were able to bear? ' And he 
calls attention to the fact that the report of the Bureau of Education for 1889-90 
shows that the graduates of 17 colored schools in which industrial instruction is 



2084 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

Table 3. — Teachers and students in institutions for the colored race in 1SD5-96. 





"o 
O 

u 

a 


Teachers. 


Students. 




Is 


6 

a 


"3 
o 


Elementary. 


Secondary. 


Collegiate. 


Total. 


State. 




6 

a 
© 


3* 

o 




,2 
Is 

a 


Is 
o 


Is 


1 


Ts 


6 
1 


c5 
Is 

a 

(a 


rt 
t 
H 


Alabama 

Arkansas --- 


11 

7 
1 
4 
7 

23 
1 
2 
7 
7 
5 

10 
6 
1 

27 
2 

3 
12 
15 
11 
13 

3 


91 

20 

8 

5 

19 
67 
1 
3 
80 
32 
13 
39 
20 
2 
91 
11 
15 
41 
48 
40 
76 
10 


95 
27 



4 

27 

151 

1 

3 
48 
38 
18 
49 
24 

4 
93 
10 

7 

71 
104 
55 
108 

9 


186 

47 

3 

9 

46 

218 

2 

6 

78 

70 

31 

88 

44 

6 

187 

21 

22 

112 

152 

95 

184 

19 


1,118 
565 


1,294 

667 


2,412 

1,232 


860 
246 

32 

9 

188 

558 

11 

45 
200 
106 

79 

375 

160 

8 


795 

242 

6 

2 

201 

847 

23 

70 

330 

148 

219 

485 

204 

18 


1,655 

488 

38 

11 

389 

1,405 
34 
115 
530 
254 
298 
860 
364 
26 

2,a31 
171 
199 
968 

1,273 
804 
990 
360 


39 
13 
10 


12 
3 



48 
16 
16 


2,0.56 

822 

42 

98 

438 

2,564 

11 

341 

784 

535 

176 

1,033 

391 

a5 

2,274 
202 
291 

1,596 

1,715 
948 

1,469 
162 


2,059 

914 

12 

63 

553 

3,799 

23 

408 

1,090 

739 

372 

972 

426 

40 

2,893 

160 

189 

1,859 

2,194 

1,301 

1,837 

241 


4,115 

1,736 

54 




89 

307 

1,842 



296 

566 

411 

58 

530 

213 

24 

927 

77 

47 

1,178 

1,058 

536 

959 

22 


01 

295 

2,901 



338 

744 

543 

134 

421 

233 

25 

1,C74 

63 

- 64 

1,292 

1,343 

-869 

1,287 

21 


150 

602 

4,743 



634 

1,310 

954 

192 

951 

446 

49 

2,601 

140 

111 

2,470 

2,401 

1,405 

2,246 

43 


161 










991 


Georgia 


167 


32 
88 
34 
118 


48 



2 
28 

7 
76 




215 


34 
66 
41 
194 
7 


6,363 


Illinois - 


34 




749 


Kentucky 

Louisiana a 

Maryland 

Mississippi 


1,874 
1,274 

548 
2,005 

817 


New Jersey 

North Carolina-. 
Ohio 


75 


l,1.59il,172 
64i 107 


163 
43 

170 
13 

164 

23 

65 




72 
8 

4 
71 
17 
5 



235 
51 

170 
17 

235 

40 

70 




5,167 
363 


Pennsylvania -.. 
South Carolina.. 

Tennessee 

Texas 


74 
402 
548 
377 
395 
140 


125 
566 
725 
427 
595 
220 


480 
3,455 
3,909 
2,249 




3,306 


West V^irginia... 


403 


Total 


178 


680 


946 


1,626 


10,823 


14,269 25,092 6,036 7,52? 

1 1 1 


13,583 


1,096 


3591,455 


17,983 


22,144 


40, 127 



a Two schools not reporting. 
Table A.— Classification of colored students, by courses of study, 1SD5-9G. 





Stiidents in 
classical course. 


Students in sci- 
entific courses. 


Students in 
English course. 


Students in 
business course. 


State. 


6 

'cS 


6 
a 

a 


"cS 

o 


6 

"cS 


6 

a 


o 


Is 


6 

a 

CD 
fa 


"cS 

4J 

o 
Eh 


d 
'cs 


05 

"cS 

a 

a> 


3 

o 




17 

28 



109 


4 

24 

1 

235 


21 

52 

1 

335 


12 
17 
10 
56 


12 

22 

5 

194 


24 
39 
15 

250 


472 

224 

32 

56 

230 

432 

11 



113 

207 

102 

251 

4a 

10 

489 

77 

19 

317 

395 

82 

347 

32 


.518 

141 

6 

75 
321 
045 

23 

245 
269 
248 
344 

55 

14 
653 

62 

15 
442 
513 
186 
379 

42 


990 
365 

38 

1.31 

551 

1,077 

34 

358 
476 
350 
595 
100 

24 

1,142 

139 

34 
759 
908 
268 
726 

74 


10 
8 


8 
4 


18 




13 


Delaware . _ - - - 

District of Columbia 




05 


51 


116 


Georgia 


86 



45 

7 

32 
34 
70 
15 
10 
75 
22 
115 
40 
139 
2 
19 
18 


54 


70 


16 
7 

36 
9 

12 

20 
4 


17 

67 



44 


140 


115 
7 

48 
41 

106 
24 
22 
95 
26 

115 
57 

206 
2 
19 
62 


21 




8 




29 








20 








15 

10 













15 




12 





12 


30 








57 
47 
8 
80 
15 


53 
108 

10 
125 

7 


no 

155 

18 

205 

22 










28 


33 


61 








21 
9 
6 

31 


14 

6 

8 

41 


35 


Ohio _-- - 


15 




14 


South 'Carolina 


21 
35 
99 
30 


24 

19 

172 

66 


45 

54 

371 

96 


73 






Texas 


4 







10 

























Total 


874 


620 


1,494 


520 


825 


1,345 


3,943 


5,193 


9,139 


■ 202 


196 


398 







EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 2085 

given in carpentering, farming, slioeniaking, etc. , have generally drifted off into tlie 
professions. Ont of 1,243 graduates of these schools C93 are teachers, 117 ministers, 
163 physicians, 116 lawyers, while only 12 are farmers, and 5 following mechanical 
pursuits (2 printers, 1 carpenter, and 2 unclassitied). From these facts, President 
Mitchell reaches the concliision that industrial education is not what the negro 
needs, but the same higher or classical education provided for the whites. 

" We think President Mitchell altogether wrong in his conchisioiis. It is the 
same mistake that was made when the suffrage was given the negro. Those who 
gave it so hastily and prematurely imagined that the fifteenth amendment would 
immediately make the negro a valuable citizen and endow him with all the polit- 
ical experience which it has taken the white race centuries— and centuries of 
struggle, too— to secure. There could have been no more unfortunate mistake for 
the negro and the South. The saturnalia that prevailed between 1868 and 1872 in 
consequence of conferring of the franchise on a people not yet fitted for it not only 
cost the South millions of dollars and thousands of lives, but did the negro race a 
serious injustice, setting back its civilization, arousing old prejudices, and causing 
even its most ardent friends to doubt its ability for the higher development and 
civilization. 

" Mr. Mitchell would have us do in education what was attempted in politics, 
but failed. He himself recognizes that the white race began with industrial 
schools, and as it advanced, steadily elevated its schools, widened its curriculum, 
and raised the standard of education. He would have the negro at the very start 
try to do what the whites have taken centuries to reach. He would begin with 
classical education, a policy which will cause only discontent and failure. It is 
not what we should offer a race only just struggling to the front, steeped in igno- 
rance, the fruit of centuries of slavery. If it were proposed to establish a dozen 
great universities like Oxford and Cambridge in the heart of Africa, as a means 
of checking cannibalism and raising and developing the natives, and bringing 
them civilization and prosperity, it would cause a national protest as a pure 
waste of money, and yet this worild be only an exaggeration of President Mitchell's 
proposition. 

"His statistics, which are the strongest point of his argument, really prove 
nothing. It may be true that a large i)roportion of the negroes educated in the 
colored colleges have drifted into the iDrofessions. It is equally true that a con- 
siderable proportion of them drifted into politics in 1868-1872; but we must not con- 
clude from this that what the negro wants is a political instead of an industrial 
education. We see that among the college graduates there arc ten ministers to 
every one farmer. We will not accept this as iiroof that what the negroes need is 
more theology. There are a thousand negroes engaged m farming for every one 
who enters the church, and if the farmers were only better taught how to cultivate 
their lands they would be better off materially and morally. The poverty and 
the ignorance of the negro race are keeping up a sick rate, a death rate, and a 
prison rate which are preventing that advance it would otherwise make. 

' • It is natural that half the graduates of the colored normal and industrial schools 
should become teachers. In providing for a race whose education has been so long 
neglected, the first graduates will naturally devote themselves to teaching. Presi- 
dent Mitchell says that in giving an industrial education to a negro you help only 
the individual. His oviai statistics disprove this, for so far a majority of these 
graduates have devoted themselves to scattering among the race the information 
which they themselves have gained. The industrial schools are teaching not a few 
negroes better work, but through them the entire colored race. 

" In marked contrast are the views of Prof. Booker T. Washington, president of 
the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, one of the leading representatives 
of his i-ace, certainly in the field of education. Professor Washington has had 
the best opportunities of studying the question thoroughly and practically. The 
institute over which he presides has done good vs'ork for the negro, and its gradu- 
ates have carried the lessons learned there throughout the South. One of its best 
fruits is the conference now held_eacli year at Tuskegee of representatives of the 
negro race from all parts of the Jnion to discuss questions affecting its interests. 

" ' I am convinced,' says Professor Washington, ' that whether the negro receives 
much or little education, whether it be called high or low, we have reached the 
point in oiir development where a large proportion of those who are being educated 
should, while they are receiving their education or after they have received it, be 
taught to connect their education with some industrial pursuit.' 

"Professor Washington thinks, as we do, that in the present condition of the 
negro, the first thing for him to learn is how to secure an independent position in 
the industrial world, how to work and to Avork intelligently. If the colored col- 
leges drop industrial education and turn their attention solely to graduating theo- 
logians, lawyers, etc., he sees that the negro will very soon be crowded out of 



2086 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1895-96. 
Table 5. — Number of normal students and graduates in 1S95-9G. 





Students in 
normal course. 


Graduates 

of higii-sohool 

course. 


Graduates of 
normal course. 


Graduates 

of collegiate 

course. 


State. 


1 


6 

a 


o 




05 
-a 

a 


"3 
o 


CO 


6 

a 


3 

o 
Eh 




6 

a 






244 
39 


315 
15 


559 
44 


11 

8 


10 
5 


31 
13 


303 

7 


161 
5 


364 
12 




3 


1 




1 




3 






District of Columbia 

Florida 


19 
49 
96 


58 

50 

379 


77 

99 

475 


18 


38 


23 

4 
15 

2 
29 

5 


"38 

93 
3 
40 
19 
19 
11 
18 
13 


46 

130 
3 
63 
23 
34 
13 
47 
18 


25 

2 
7 


4 
18 
13 
44 
7 


30 

3 

31 





1 

39 

10 

55 

2 


55 
5 
88 


5 

45 

23 

99 

9 


1 

19 


3 
1 

39 
1 


7 

17 









8 

33 


Illinois .. 
















Kentucky 

Louisiana - -.- 


67 

10 

44 

93 

► 66 

3 

301 

50 

43 

101 

313 

100 

301 

60 


93 
55 
44 

75 

40 

5 

503 

57 

73 

333 

386 

310 

337 

64 


160 

65 

88 

168 

106 

8 

803 

107 

114 

333 

498 

316 

538 

124 


3 

1 
3 




35 


Missouri. 


1 




55 
11 


25 
34 
12 
33 

5 


33 
14 
1 
33 
55 
16 
96 
14 


77 
25 
1 
58 
79 
28 
139 
19 


39 

7 


48 
8 


87 
15 


13 
4 

31 
1 

33 


5 


1 


18 


Ohio . 


4 
21 




30 
11 

1 
33 

8 


38 
37 

6 
57 

9 


58 
48 
7 
80 
17 


3 


Tennessee 


24 


Virginia,- 


3 





3 










Total - 


1,793 2,879 


4,673 


318 


508 


836 


436 


530 


966 


133 


39 


161 



Table 6. — Colored prof essional students and graduates in 1S95-DG. 











• P 


rofessional students and graduates. 




in professional 
courses. 


Theol- 
ogy. 


Law. 


Medi- 
cine. 


Den- 
tistry. 


Phar- 
macy. 


Nurse 
train- 
ing. 


State. 


,3 


'3 

a 


as 
-(.^ 

Eh 


pi 


(D 



PI 

m 


C<3 
1 

C5 


m 


CO 
1 




d 

Q) 
!J1 




pi 

05 



pS 


PI 
1 

Ct5 




CO 

P! 

U 

C5 




43 

.53 

314 

4 

171 

19 

13 

C 

14 

9 

143 

10 

48 

43 

"19 

as 





33 


12 




54 


13 

15 






43 
52 

347 
4 

183 
19 
12 
6 
68 
9 

1.54 
35 
48 
43 

322 
19 
65 


43 
53 
66 

4 
171 
19 
13 

6 
14 

9 
76 
10 
48 
40 
49 
19 
65 


6 


10 


19 


6 



13 

I 



1 


10 












































District of Columbia 

Florida 


105 







8 


3 
8 




17 











3 




113 







47 




137 




9 








10 




11 

§ 


13 












19 




3 












3 




18 








11 




19 




5 







2 



6 




33 


13 




54 


13 

15 




13 






7 


Kentucky 










Maryland 


n 




16 


Missouri ... . 







n 


Ohio 


4 


Pennsylvania 




















Virginia 









Total 


1,193 


136 


1,319 


703 


76 


134 


20 


386 


30 


33 


6 


48 


13 


136 


40 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 2087 

the industries in the South, as he already is in the North. Even in slavery he was 
taught carpentering, blacksmithing, and kindred meciianical trades. If he abandon 
this field, he will close the avenues of employment to himself and drift into a con- 
dition of uselessness. It will be a bad thing for the race if it allows itself to be 
driven out of every industry upon which its living depends, and is satisfied with 
book learning alone, in which it is natiTrally at a great disadvantage in competi- 
tion with the whites, if for no other reason because the latter has had the advan- 
tage of centuries of schooling. It will be giving up the field where, because of his 
strength, the negro can compete most successfully for a field where he is at the 
greatest disadvantage. 

'' Professor Washington notes sadly the tendency of the negroes to neglect the 
very industry by which nine-tenths of them make their liA-ing— farming. To the 
advocates of 'the higher education,' it is hardly worth while to teach the negro 
how to farm intelligently and profitably, although thousands of white youths are 
learning scientific agriculture; and it is acttially pointed to with pride instead of 
sorrow that twenty negroes who receive a better education follow theology and 
law for one who follows agriculture, the profession with which his race has been 
connected for all time. 

" We are glad to see that nearly all the colored men interviewed by us, and par- 
ticularly those of Southern birth, agree with Professor Washington that what 
their race needs most is industrial education, rather than simple book learning. 

" They are right, and it is an auspicious sign to see them recognizing the potency 
of industry, and seeing the right road for the elevation of their race. The philan- 
thropy of the North has given millions of dollars to the education of the colored 
race. The spirit of justice of the Southern people has given ten times as much. 
The negroes constitute so large a proportion of the population of the South that 
their prosperity and morality, even their health, affect the entire body politic. 
It is in negro sections of our cities where the first rules of sanitation are defied 
that are bred the diseases which sweep through the white residential districts and 
carry off thousands — victims of negro ignorance and neglect; and the moral atmos- 
j)here of these negro Ghettos more or less permeates the whole community. 

"A few months ago the American Economic Association issued among its publi- 
cations, The Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro, by Frederick 
L. Hoffman, F. S. S,, statistician of the Prudential Insurance Company of America. 
It is the best book yet issned on the subject, the fruit of years of close study of the 
subject and absolutely free of bias; yet the conclusion Mr. Hoffman reached was: 

" ' Instead of making the race more independent, modern educational and philan- 
thropic efforts have succeeded in making it even more dependent on the white race 
at the present time than it was previous to education. It remains to be seen how 
far a knowledge of the facts about its own diminishing vitality, low state of 
morality, and economic efficiency will stimulate the race in adopting a higher 
standard. Unless a change takes place, a scheme that will strike at the funda- 
mental errors that underlie the conduct of the higher race toward the lower, the 
gradual extinction (of the negro) is only a qnestion of time.' 

" Unless the negro race can make a proper i)lace for itself, unless it can find 
work to do for which it is fitted, it will meet, Mr. Hoffman predicts, the same fate 
as every other colored race coming into conflict with the Anglo-Saxon — extinction. 
The preachers and the lawyers and the colored editors will not prevent this, but 
those who render the negroes industrially independent, find them work to do, 
improve their material condition, and with that improvement bring about higher 
spirit of self-confidence and morality. 

"The child mrist be taught to stand before it tries running. The negro is in 
his infancy as a free man. He shotild have solid foundations of education first, 
and open the industries to his race, instead of depending too much on the higher 
classical education. There has been a disposition of late by many to declare that 
education is doing the negro more harm than good. The Senate Labor Committee 
found a number of witnesses to testify to that effect. The Chattanooga Trades- 
man, after a searching inquiry of the employers of colored labor, learned from 
them that education generally detracted from a negro's efficiency. We know to 
the contrary from the experience of every race that this can not be so, and is no 
more true of the negro than of the v/hite man. It is not education that is causing 
any lack of efficiency, but the kind of education. It should, for the present at 
least, be mainly industrial, intended to advance the condition of the negro, to 
assure him work, and to improve his material status. Whether it will be well 
afterwards to establish higher universities for the colored race, we may leave to 
time to determine. We should give him a chance now to improve and raise him- 
self. To give him a classical education in his present condition is like giving a 
stone to him who asks for bread. 



2088 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96 



TabIjE 7. — Industrial training of colored students in 1S95-0G. 





Pupils receiv- 
ing industrial 
training. 




Students trained 


in industrial bra 


nchcs. 


State. 


1 


,2 
la 

i 




SI 


h 

a 


g 
'Pi 

o 


-(J 

s 


a 


Sis 


b!) 

a 

u 

o 


a 
o 

.as 


a 

a 

o 
o 

m 


.3 


S 

% 
o 
02 


•S 

o 

o 

68 

7 


m 

1 
u 

1 

O 




515 
63 
23 

103 
73 

234 


748 
49 
2 
73 
161 
1,302 


1,383 

112 

25 

176 

233 
1,530 


176 
19 

"'""6 

41 

48 


178 
42 
17 
48 
64 

119 


.... 




6 


"40 


31 

40 
5 



"40 
1 



28 
2 

""o 


45 
32 

2 
41 

8 
82 


473 
13 


381 
















District of Columbia. - 











10 


71 

103 

1,088 




76 

331 


6 
24 


Georgia 

Illinois 


13 


5 


9 





12 





4 


179 






































6 
171 
37 
413 

85 

18 

641 

50 


143 
149 
191 
364 
80 
25 
962 
57 


149 
320 
228 
777 
165 
43 
1,603 
107 


""63 

37 

111 



""ii5 


6 

72 
15 

176 
40 
18 

299 
43 


















63 
137 
105 
3B3 

80 

35 
837 

53 


63 

30 

187 

191 




80 
















66 





7 

59 

30 


37 


"25 




7 

01 




21 
12 
43 

18 
46 
24 


15 


Maryland. 


5 























North Carolina 

Ohio 


97 


22 


124 


3 


56 


45 


18 


671 
44 



180 




















South Carolina 


733 
371 
305 
569 
67 


931 
925 
685 
899 
119 


1,664 
1,296 

990 
1,468 

186 


367 

5 

54 

163 
1 


254 

177 

115 

85 

53 


135 




131 



113 





7 


63 

15 
17 
3 


63 



1 

11 


25 



17 


33 
76 
39 
39 
5 


761 
808 
641 
582 
110 


183 
303 
173 
2?-6 
53 


33 
40 


Texas 


fiS 




9 


7 


3 
2 





660 


West Virginia 


7 


Total 


4,476 


7,865 


13,341 


1,098 


1,831 


254 


165 


257 


126 


327 


223 


165 


565 


6,302 


3,4.55 


],677 



Ta3LE 8. — Financial summary of the 178 colored schools. 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia . 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Kentucky _ 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

New Jersey - 

North Carolina . _ 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

West Virginia 



Total. 



(B ID 



364 



13,950 

5, 550l 

4.50! 

17, .550 

3,316 

34, 469 

50 

400 

10, 301 

10, 769 

2, 4.50 
13,205 

1,531 

1,000 
20,6Sr 

5,000 
14, 000 

7, 200 
20, 494 

6,365 
16, 068 

6,000 



323,718 309,801 166,574 7,524, 



Sll,425 

5.925 

400 

11,300 

3,656 

29,190 

100 

800 

7,425 

8,000 

1,400 

15,275 

900 

500 

16, 095 

2,500 

7,000 

3, 500 

30, 958 

4,650 

13,025 

3,550 



fees n 

oSgS 



S384, 782 

167,000 

15, 800 

895,000 

99, 875 

1, 302, 629 

3,500 

3,000 

183, 864 

499,821 

95,000 

309,500 

184,125 

2, .500 

656, 102 

205,000 

313,000 

340, 800 

765, 600 

.397, 550 

903,500 

100,000 



S7,000 
9, 4.50 
4,300 

34, .500 
3, 800 

16, 760 
1,300 



7,500 

9,000 
18,368 
08,000 

3,000 
31,077 
12,500 

17, 840 

3, 850 
35, 800 
15,000 

3,000 



289,845 



^P 






§13,631 

5,937 

61 

0,683 

500 

15,364 





5,230 
5,281 
3, .3(i6 
5, .328 
2,143 



8,700 
3,500 



10, 073 
16,533 
16, 740 
6,972 
450 



124,481 



"5 



3 B-^ 
ops 



S6, 479 
2, 065 



8,500 


5,122 




3,450 

6,900 

584 



8103, 146 
4,378 



7,000 

12, 765 

63,388 





4,361 
20, 106 
19,578 
37,817 



1,384 
lOO 
773 

3,3^1 
35, 00(1 

1,300 

1,0.30 

30f' 

25, 360 

1,350 



93.297 610,946 1,117,569 



3,900 
36, 8.32 

8,700 
10, 000 
20, 013 
73,811 
30,648 
159, 795 

5,708 



8129,256 
21,830 
4,261 
.56,683 
16,065 
100, 634 
1,300 



33,941 
89, 787 
31, 528 
51, 513 
71,436 
7,000 
67,383 
27,000 
35,000 
49,336 
93,814 
73,488 
207,027 
10,408 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 2089 

"TliG Times-Democrat gives below interviews with the bishops of the African 
Methodist Church, now in this city, with the presidents of the several colored col- 
leges in New Orleans, the president of the Tuskegee (Ala.) Normal and Industrial 
Institute, and with a number of the more in-ominent representative colored men 
of New Orleans interested in the matter of education. The Times-Democrat has 
sought in these interviews to shed some light on the matter of the education of 
the negro— a subject that is attracting great attention just now, and is being 
earnestly and extensively discussed pro and con. 

" The questions propounded to the presidents of the several colored colleges were 
as follows: 

"1. How many pupils do you graduate each year? 

"2. What are these young men and women fitted for when they leave your 
institutions? 

"C. Have you any knowledge of what becomes of them after leaving your care? 

"4. Can you make any estimate, as to what percentage of them secure useful 
and lucrative occupations? 

"5. What is your candid opinion, after years of experience, as to the advisa- 
bility of the higher education of the negro, i. e., a classical education, as opposed 
to an industrial or mechanical education? 

"The last question, it will be seen, is the most imi^ortant, and is the one upon 
which light is most sought. A very large sum of money is being expended each 
year on the education of the negro, and large educational funds are being created 
for their benefit. It is, therefore, important to know what is being accomplished 
in the way of his education, and what system is yielding the best fruit. Are 
those colleges which confine themselves mainly to a classical education doing the 
most good, or those mainly employed in turning the colored youth to industrial 
pursuits? A full and complete ansvv^er to this question will probably largely influ- 
enco future donations. It is to secure such an answer that the Times-Democrat 
has interviewed those who, from their position as the heads of leading colored col- 
leges or from their association with or knowledge of the negro, are best able to 
speak authoritatively on this matter. 

"BOOKER T. WASHINGTON. 

" Tuskegee, Ala., January 21. 
" To the Editor of the Times-Democrat: 

"The Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute graduates from forty to fifty- 
five young men and women each year from its industrial and literature depart- 
ments. When these men and women graduate they are fitted to become teachers 
in the public schools or to work at various trades or industries, such as carpentry, 
wheelwrighting, blacksmithing, foundry work, machinists, tinsmiths, harness 
making, shoemaking. jirinting, farming, dairying, horticulture, stock raising, 
house painting, brick making, brick masonry, plastering, matti*ess making, tailor- 
ing, sewing, millinery work, laundering, general housekeeping, cooking, and 
nursing. 

"We have a definite plan of keeping closely up with the work accomplished by 
our graduates after they leave us. In fact, one teacher devotes a large portion of 
his time to the work of visiting our graduates and in keeping up in various ways 
with the work done by them. It is safe in saying at least 90 per cent of those who 
graduate from this institution secure useful and lucrative positions. In fact, 
most of them are usually engaged before they graduate. Especially is this true 
of those who graduate from our various industrial departments. So great is the 
demand from all parts of the South for our graduates who understand the various 
industrial pursuits, especially agriculture, dairying, carpentry, etc., that we can 
not laegin to supply this demand. Only this week we received applications from 
two prominent white men, one in Florida and another in Alabama, for men to take 
charge of large modern dairj^'establishments. 

'• I have never been opposed to what is called the higher education of the negro, 
but after years of experience I am convinced that, whether the negro receives 
much or little education, whether it be called high or low, we have reached the 
point in our development where a larger proportion of those who are educated 
should, while they are receiving their education or after they have received it, be 
taught to connect their education with some industrial pursuit. To the masses 
of the negroes in our present condition intellectual training means little except as 
the negro can use that education along industrial lines in securing for himself an 
independent position in the industrial world. There should be a more vital and 
practical connection between the negro's educated brain and his opportunity for 

ED 9G GG* 



2090 EDUCATTOISr REPORT, 1895-96. 

earning an independent living. I do not mean to say that all educated colored 
men should have industrial training, for we need colored men in the professions. 
Bj" reason of our failure to give more attention to industrial development we are 
running the risk of losing the most valuable thing which Ave got out of slavery. 
American slavery, as bad as it was, made the Southern white men do business 
with the negro for two hundred and fifty years. If a white man wanted a house 
built or a suit of clothes made during slavery , he consulted a negro about the biiild- 
ing of that house or the making of those clothes. Thus the two races for two 
hundred and fifty years were brought into business contact, which left the negro 
at the close of the war in possession of all the skilled labor, as well as other lines 
of itidustry in the South. 

" The question which is now pressing upon us more and more each year is, ' Can 
we hold on to this skilled labor in the face of a large number of men and women 
of other races from Europe and from the North and West who are continually 
coming into the South? ' These foreigners are not only ediicated in their brains, 
but are skilled in their hands. In other words, they have brains coupled with 
skilled hands, and as a result we are forced more and more every day to compete 
with these foreigners. 

" Heretofore we have left this competition almost wholly to the ignorant men 
and women v^^ho learned their trades during slavery. I claim that a large propor- 
tion of the colored men and women who are educated in the colleges should take 
up industrial pursuits, should start bi'ick yards, steam laundries, become con- 
tractors, become trained nurses, intelligent farmers, so that we will not be driven 
out of every industry on which our life depends. Mere book education not coupled 
with industrial training too of-ten takes the young man from the farm and makes 
him yield to the temj^tation of trying to earn a living in a city by the use of his 
wits. 

" ISTotwithstanding the fact that nine-tenths of the colored people in the G-ulf 
States earn their living by agriculture in some form, if we leave out what has been 
done by Hampton anel Tuskegee we have done almost nothing in educating the 
people in the very industry in which they must earn their living. I claim that we 
should so educate the young colored man that he will not leave the farm, but will 
return to the farm after he has secured his education, and show his father and 
mother how, by the use of improved machinery, and by properly enriching the 
land, they can raise 50 bushels of corn on an acre of land where only 15 bushels 
were growing before. When a negro owns and cultivates the best farm and is the 
largest taxpayer in his county, his white neighbors will not object very long to his 
voting, and having that vote honestly counted. 

'•Booker T. Washington, 

"edward cushing mitchell. 

" President Edward Gushing Mitchell, A. M., D. D. , of Leland University, enter- 
tains very pronounced views regarding the importance of a higher education for 
the colored race. In this connection he pointed out that no people had ever taken 
rank among the civilized nations of the earth without colleges which were the 
fountains of learning and of a higher civilization. The colleges had always pre- 
ceded the common-school systems, which.were really the outgrowth of the col- 
leges. This country had suddenly formd within its borders a new nation, a people 
having a population of about 8,000,000 admitted to citizenship. The question was 
as to Avhether this vast population should be subjected to the same influences which 
had made a great nation of the American people or left to gTope in the darkness 
of semisavagery. To say that the negro did not need the same educational advan- 
tages which" had raised the white American to his present moral and intellectual 
status was to assume a moral and intellectual superiority for the African race. 

" In answer to a question as to the desirability of industrial education for the 
negro in lieu of the higher collegiate course. Dr. Mitchell referred the questioner 
to the following extract from one of his public utterances as ata explicit expression 
of his views on the subject: 

"'What shall we say now about the relation of industrial training to our prob- 
lem? Industrial training is good and useful to some persons, if they can afford 
time to take it. But in its application to the negro, several facts should be clearly 
understood. 

"1. It appears not to be generally known in the North that in the South all 
trades and occapations are open to the negro, and always have been. Before the 
war slaves vrere taught mechanic arts, because they thereby became more profit- 
able to their masters. And noAV every village has its negro mechanics, who are 
patronized both by white and colored employers, and any who wish to learn trades 
can do so. 



EDUCATIOX OF THE COLORED RACE. . 2001 

'• 2. It is a mistake to suppose that industrial education can be wisely applied to 
the beginnings of school life. Said, the Rev. A. D. Mayo, than whom no man in 
America is better acquainted with the condition and wants of the South : ' There are 
two specious, un-American notions now masquerading under the taking phrase, 
" Industrial Education."' First, that it is possible or desirable to train large bodies 
of j-outli to superior industrial skill without a basis of sound elementary educa- 
tion. You can not polish a brickbat, and you can not make a good workman of a 
plantation negro or a white ignoramus until j^ou first wake up his mind and give 
liim the mental discipline and knowledge that comes from a good school. - - '"■ 
Second, that it is possible or desirable to train masses of American children on the 
European idea that the child will follow the calling of his father. Class educa- 
tiop has no place in the order of society, and the American people will never accept 
it in any form. The industrial training needed in the South must be obtained by 
the establishment of special schools of improved housekeeping for girls, with 
mechanical training for such boys as desire it. * * * And this training should 
be given impartially to both races, without regard to the thousand and one theo- 
ries of what the colored man can not do." — Address for National Educational 
Association. August D, 1878. 

"3. Industrial training is expensive of time and monej'' as compared with its 
results as a civilizer. When you have trained one student, you have simply fitted 
one man to earn an ordinary living. When you have given a college education ^o 
a man with brains, you have sent forth an instrumentality that will affect himdreds 
of thousands. 

"Said Chauncey M. Depew, in his address at the tenth convocation of the Uni- 
versity of Chicago, in April, 189."): 'I acknowledge the position and usefulness of 
the business college, the manual-training school, the technological institute, the 
scientific school, and the schools of mines, medicine, law, and theology. They are 
of infinite importance to the youth who has not the money, the time, or the oppor- 
tunity to secure a liberal education. They are of equal benefit to the college 
graduate who has had a liberal education in training him for his selected pursuit. 
But the theorist, or rather the practical men who are the architects of their own 
fortunes, and who are proclaiming on every occasion that a liberal education is a 
waste of time for a business man, and that the boy who starts early and is trained 
only for his one pursuit is destined for a larger success, are doing infinite harm to 
the ambitious youth of this country. The college, in its four years of discipline, 
training, teaching, and development, makes the boy the man. His Latin and his 
Greek, his rhetoric and his logic, his science and his philosophy, his mathematics 
and his history have little or nothing to do with law or medicine or theology, and 
still less to do with manufacturing, or mining, or storekeeping, or stocks, or 
grain, or provisions. But they have given to the youth, when he has graduated, 
the command of that superb intelligence with Avhich God has endowed him, by 
which, for the purpose of a living or a fortune, he grasps his profession or his busi- 
ness and speedily overtakes the boy who, abandoning college opportunities, gave 
his narrow life to the narrowing pursuit of the one thing by which he expected to 
earn a living. The college-bred man has an equal opportunity for bread and but- 
ter, but beyond that he becomes a citizen of commanding influence and a leader 
in every community where he settles.' 

"4. Industrial training is liable to divert attention from the real aim and end of 
education, which is a developed manhood. The young scholar can not serve two 
masters. It requires all the energy there is in a boy to nerve him to the high 
resolve that in spite of all difficulties he will x^atiently discipline himself until he 
becomes a ma^n. This is one reason w^hy our Northern colleges, which in many 
cases began as manual-labor schools, have abandoned this appendage to their cur- 
riculum. Ought we to insist on ' putting a yoke upon the necks " of our brethren 
in black ' which neither we nor our fathers were able to bear? ' 

" Finally. Experience seems to show that industrial education does not educate, 
even in trades. In the report of the Bureau of Education for 1889-90 is a full 
statistical table of the lines of business in wliich the graduates of seventeen colored 
schools are employed. In all these schools industrial instruction is given, such as 
carpentry, tinning, painting, whip making, plastering, shoemaking,- tailoring," 
blacksniithing, farming, gardening, etc. Out of 1,248 graduates of these schools 
there are found to be only 12 fai-mers, 2 mechanics, and 1 carpenter. The names 
of the universities are: 'Allen,' South Carolina; 'Atlanta,' Georgia: 'Berea,' Ken- 
tucky; 'Central Tennessee,' Tennessee; 'Claflin.' South Carolina: 'Fiske,' Ten- 
nessee; 'Knoxville,' Tennessee; 'Livingstone.' North Carolina: 'New Orleans,' 
Louisiana; 'Paul Quinn,' Texas: 'Philander Smith," Arkansas: -Roger Williams,' 
Tenne.^see; 'Rust,' Mississippi: 'Southern,' Louisiana; 'Straight,' Louisiana; 
'Tuskegee,' Alabama; 'Wilberforce,' Ohio. 



2092 EDUCATION REPORT, 1894-95. 

"The employment of the graduates were: Teachers, 693; ministers, 117; physi- 
cians, 163; lawyers, 116; college professors, 27; editors, 5; merchants, 15; farmers, 
12; carpenters, 1; United States Government service, 36; driiggists, 5; dentists, 14; 
bookkeepers, 2; printers, 2; mechanics, 2; butchers, 3; other pursuits, 30. 

"The money appropriated to these schools by the Slater fund from 1884 to 1894 
was $439,981.78. 

"L. G. ADKINSON. 

"President L. Gr. Adkinson, A. M., D. D., of the New Orleans University, said 
that, while he believed in the value of an industrial education for the youth of 
any race, white or black, he would not be in favor of in any way curtailing the 
present curriculum in use in the colleges for the colored race. As far as his own 
exijerience taught hini, there was apparently little danger of any plethora of col- 
ored graduates in the near future. In the first place, a majority of colored students 
had so little means available for the securing of an education that very few of 
them were in a position to take an extended college course, and, in the second 
place, they were, in most instances, so anxious to go out in life and earn a liveli- 
hood that they were inclined to leave college as soon as they had become qualified 
to teach in the public schools for their own race, and, as the demand for teachers 
generally exceeded the supply, they had no difficulty in obtaining satisfactory 
employment. 

" As to the effect of a higher education upon the young people of the colored 
race, he had alwaj^s found it beneficial, from a moral as well as from an intellec- 
tual point of view. The training received by the young men and women not only 
gave them a clearer and broader view of their responsibilities in life, but it endowed 
them with greater steadiness of purpose and business sense. 

"Among the more advanced students this improvement in moral and intellectual 
character had always been more marked than among the students who had left 
the college from the lower grades, but, as far as he had been able to trace them, 
he had not learned of a single student, male or female, who had gone out to lead a 
life of vice or idleness after having spent two years or more in the Southern Uni- 
versity. In fact, he had not known of a single instance in Avhich one of his stu- 
dents or ex-students had been arrested for lawbreaking of any kind. He believed 
that higher education was as beneficial to the one race as the other, but he thought 
that, as far as practicable, an industrial education should go hand in hand with a 
literary or scientific training. 

' ' In proof of his belief that a higher education was good for the young people of 
the colored race, President Adkinson pointed out the records of the lives of the 
past graduates of the New Orleans University, many of whom are now occupying 
honorable positions in the literary and educational world, while all were reputably 
and creditably employed. 

"He was also of the opinion that a college training was beneficial to colored 
boys and girls who contemplated going into domestic service. Many of the 
students who were then attending the college were devoting their spare time to 
domestic service in families who lived near the college, and their employers had 
always expressed themselves as more than satisfied with their services. 

" PRESIDENT HENRY A. HILL. 

"President Henry A. Hill, of the Southern University, expressed the opinion 
that there was no conflict between industrial and the higher collegiate education, 
lie was of opinion that the two should go hand in hand to build up anything like 
a desirable manhood. If one or the other had to be neglected, he would consider it 
desirable to cling to the education of the mind rather than of the hands. Just as 
the mind was the more important part of man, so it was of importance that it 
should not be neglected. A collegiate education never failed to make a man 
brighter, to give him broader and more comprehensive views, and to make in all 
respects a better man of him. It was trite in these days to talk of the importance 
of education for the masses, as everybody admitted it to be of the last importance. 
It was not the negroes who had the advantages of a collegiate training who went 
to the bad, but in ninety-nine cases out of one hundred the negroes who could 
neither read nor write. A skillful mechanic who was lacking in intelligence was 
not likely to be a good nor successful member of society. As far as the Southern 
University was concerned, its students were mostly young men and women with- 
out means, and as soon as they had gone far enough in their studies to enable 
them to earn a comfortable livelihood they generally left the col-lege to take such 
situations as might be open to them. In fact, since the establishment of the 
Southern University not one had as yet taken the full collegiate coiirse. Some had 
become fairly advanced, and they were now doing well. They were not all 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 2093 

engaged in professional pursuits. Among tliose wlioni lie could most readily call 
to mind, several were engaged in mechanical pursuits, such as plastering, brick- 
laying, carpentering, and they were all doing well, most of them being now 
employers of labor and engaged in prosperous business. These men were good 
mechanics and intelligent business men, much more so than they would have been 
had they not had the advantage of a few sessions at college. 

"Of the female pupils who had attended the college for two or three years, 
most of them were teachers, while the others were in most instances married. 
Some were milliners or dressmakers, but all had proven by their lives after leav- 
ing college that they had been materially benefited by the training they had 
received. The demand for colored school-teachers was so active that it seemed as 
if the colleges situated in New Orleans could not turn them out fast enough to 
meet the wants of the State in this direction. This was true of the boys as well 
as the girls trained in the local universities. Among the boys and girls who had 
found It impossible to remain long enough at the college to fit themselves for 
teaching, many had taken situations as domestic servants, and they had been 
found to be very desirable for this purpose. They were much more intelligent 
and better behaved than those who had no education. They knew their places 
better, and were much more apt to hold a situation than those who had not 
attended college. They were in all respects brighter and more trustworthy. 

"In the Southern University all received an industrial as well as a collegiate 
training. This he considered of great importance. Boys who had spent several 
j'ears in a college without having their muscles as well as their minds developed 
found it a great hardship to engage in manual labor after leaving college. Their 
muscles had become lax through i^rotracted disuse, and to them, for a time at 
least, severe manual labor meant severe pain that was almost unendurable. 
Whether a boy was white or colored, he did not believe in educating one jjortion 
of his system without the other. He did not believe that the industrial training 
at all interfered with the collegiate training proper, for the training of the muscles 
could go on at the same time as the training of the mind in such a way that the 
one would in no way retard the other. Anyone who had had long experience in 
educating young children had not failed to notice how utterly impossible it was 
for many of them to keep still. They would squirm and twist restlessly m their 
seats. This was not perversity nor natural unruliness, but simply the demand of 
nature for the exercise of their muscles. To such children a very moderate amount 
of industrial training was a positive luxury, a rest and relaxation, and he had 
always found that they took kindly to it. If their industrial training continued 
to be neglected, they would in time become less impatient of restraint. This did 
not mean that they were becoming more obedient and tractable, but only that 
their muscles had begun to be vitiated in quality through disuse, a condition that 
was in all respects highly undesirable. 

"Upon the whole. President Hill was unqualifiedly opposed to the curtailing of 
the curriculum for colored students, whom he considered quite as likely to be 
benefited by a higher education as white students could be. 

" E. L. DESDUNES. 

"R. L. Desdunes said: 'While the right of acquiring education of any sort or 
degree is not to be denied, yet that subject, like others, may proi^erly divide the 
opinions of mankind. I regard as education the use we make of our sense to 
accomplish the ends of our existence. This definition leads me to consider avail- 
ing education as the best to be desired. I mean that training of our faculties best 
calculated to promote our own happiness and the happiness of others. Parents 
should consult surroundings, and from the inexorable logic of those surroundings 
pluck the rule of their conduct in what concerns the welfare of their children. 

" ' The colored man of to-day may or may not be the colored man of to-morrow, 
and for that reason he should live for the all-absorbing present. If he teaches his 
child how to work in skilled labor, he places in the possession of that child the key 
to self-support, self-reliance, and dutifulness. As all philosophy may be resumed 
into what man owes to his God, to his family, to himself, to his neighbor, and 
humanity, it is therefore wise in him to x^ursuo such a course in life as will more 
easily and more successfully help him to come up to tho requirements of his mani- 
fest destiny. The past has proven that an elementary education, coupled with the 
manual training I advocate by preference, has secured for same colored people in 
the United States most satisfactory results. Before the war it was the custom 
among the free colored families to send their children to school up to the age of 
14, in some cases 15. After that time they were apprenticed up to 20 and 21 
years. This rule applied to girls and boys.. That sort of education furnished to 



2094 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

tliis city some of its best meclianics and seamstresses, and develoi^ed a population 
Avliich, in point of intelligence, respectability, and industrious habits, could com- 
I3are without disadvantage with any other of the same size and opportunities. It 
was a working population, yet it j)roduced its poets, niusicians, painters, etc. The 
book known as ' ' Les Cenelles " is the fruit of their leisure. Lanusse and Questy 
were carpenters, Dede was a cigar maker, Populus a bricklaj^er, and Hewlett could 
turn his hand at almost any trade. 

" ' The colored man of to-day should not seek after higher education, not because 
he deserves it less than his more fortunate fellow-mau, but because it is not 
profitable once in a thousand times. The average colored classic with his high 
Latin and Greek in this country is a literary Tantalus, only allowed to see, but 
without power to conquer. Let us have the skilled workman and the neeilev/oman ; 
they will do more good for the present than this multitude of collegiates who for 
the want of opportunity lapse into servility or rascality. ' 

"BISHOP W. B. DEE-KICK. 

"Bishop W. B. Derrick, of New York, said that so far as the present generation 
of the colored race is concerned he favored educating the youth in the industrial 
and mechanical branches, without so much attention being paid to their scientific 
and professional education. 

" ' I think it will be better, ' he said, ' for these girls and boys to have a thorough 
education in the common-school branches, with special training in mechanics and 
agriculture, than to pursue the higher or classical education. 

" ' It is for this reason that I am opposed to the so-called higher education of the 
present genei'ation of the colored youth; that the race has not yet amassed suffi- 
cient wealth to enable these higher educated youths to take their place in their 
professions v»^here, of necessity, they must be supported until they obtain a start. 
In other Avords, the boys' parents are not rich enough to both educate them and 
support them while they make a start in the professions. And the time has not 
yet come when the negro can successfully pose as an ornament to society with 
advantage to his race. No; I think that the negro will advance more surely and 
rapidly by educating them gradually. Teach this generation how to work and 
manufacture or conduct business enterprises. Wheii they have amassed the wealth, 
then let their children be edticated for whatever anybody else is educated — the pro- 
fessions and all branches of knowledge and culture. ' 

"OSCAR ATWOOD. 

"President Oscar Atwood, A. M., of Straight University, while deprecating any 
reduction or curtailment of the college curriculum, entertained very pronounced 
views as to the great value of an industrial training, which, in his opinion, ought 
always to be constantly associated with the education of the young people of both 
sexes. The institution over which he presided took the youngest pupils into the 
kindergarten department and undertook to train them up to final graduation, 
although there was only a small proportion of the pupils whom they advised to 
undertake the full course. They usually had about 600 pupils of all g-rades in the 
institution, and the average number graduated annually from the highest grade 
did not exceed 15. It was their practice to encourage none but the brightest stu- 
dents to take the full course, although those who contemplated entering the Chris- 
tian ministry were encouraged to reach as high attainments as their circumstances 
would permit. He conducted the interviewer over the premises, taking particu- 
lar pains to point out the completeness of the industrial department, which is 
thoroughly equipped and well appointed for the purpose it is inteiided to serve. 
The boys show admirable proficiency in cabinetmaking and joiner work, printing, 
and other occupations, while the mechanical drawings were excellent. The female 
students are all taught plain sewing, dressmaking, needle and fancy work, and 
the product of these industrial classes was found in all instances to be extremely 
creditable. 

" As to the benefit to be given to the young people of the colored race through 
a careful college training, President Atwood entertained much the same views as 
those expressed by the other college presidents interviewed on the subject, although 
he laid rather more stress upon the value and importance of an industrial training 
than any of the others. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 2095 

"BISHOP J. C. EMBRY. 

'• Bishop J. C. Embry said the tendency of tha day was xmquestionably toward 
mechanical and industrial education in both colored and white educational insti- 
tutions. The changed and changing conditions of this country made the enlarge- 
ment of this system of education absolutely nece.5sary if the greatest good and 
best results were to be obtained for the youth of the country. On the one hand 
the apprentice system that once obtained had practically passed away, while en 
the other hand the skilled mechanics and artisans of Europe were poiiring into 
this country year after year and driving out such American labor as was not fitted 
to meet it. The effects of this immigration were being seriously felt, and the neces- 
sity of meeting it is fully realized in the East by both white and colored educators. 
The African-American colored colleges and institutions. Bishop Embry said, were 
reaching out and adding mechanical instruction whenever the opportunity offered. 

•'BISHOPS ARXETT AND SALTER. 

" Bishop B. W. Arnett, of Ohio, said that he thought it was for the best advan- 
tage of the negro race to get all the education he could, both common-school and 
in the higher branches. ' It is shown by the records,' he said, ' that even when 
all the youth are offered the advantages of higher education, not more than one- 
fifth are able from one reason or another to avail themselves of it. The propor- 
tion of one-fifth I do not regard as too high for the niimber of those in the profes- 
sions, and, therefore, I see no good reason for confining the education of the negro 
strictly to the industrial and mechanical branches.' 

" Bishop M. B. Salter, of South Carolina, said: ' Let the negro get all the educa- 
tion he can, both with their hands and in their heads.' 

"BISHOP H. M. TURNER. 

"Bishop H. M. Turner said that during the present generation, at least, the 
greatest efforts of the educators should be directed to the industrial and mechan- 
ical training of negro children. In this field there was a much wider range for 
work and development, and it was much easier to succeed under the conditions 
that prevail and were likely to continue in a large degree for years to come than 
in the arts and professions. Bishop Turner said he had many scholars educated 
in the higher branches for whom he could find no employment. 

" BISHOP B. F. LEE. 

"Bishop B. F. Lee said he favored following the same educational system that 
had made the white man strong and great and independent; without properly 
training the hand, all intellectual development is useless. 'Simply elevating the 
intellect,' said the Bishop, 'only makes man vicious. The educational system 
should b3 blended. Some should be trained as thinkers, while others should be 
educated in mechanical and industrial callings.' 

'•COL. JAMES LEWIS. 

'•Col. James Lewis said while colleges were essential for the higher attainments 
of the race, tlie inclination for usefulness of a child could best be ascertained at 
home and in the schoolroom. Those children showing aptness for the professions 
or mathematics or mechanics should then be trained according to the bent of their 
mind. Colonel Lewis said the race was sadly in need of more normal, mechanical, 
and industrial schools, 

"BISHOP A. GRANT. 

" Bishop A. Grant said: ' In the first place, I think that the negro should not be 
educated as a race, but as anybody else. Why make any distinction';' Secondlj-, 
whatever has served to educate and cultivate other races I think should also be 
taught to the negro. In other words, I think the negro should be educated just 
ike anybody else, without regard to his color or race.' '' 



2096 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

Table 9. — Schools for the education of the colored 



State and post- 
office. 



Name of scliool. 



Religious 
denomi- 
nation. 



Wliite. 



Teachers 



Pupils enrolled. 



Col- 
ored. 



Total. 



Ele- 
men- 
tary 
grades. 



lO 



ALABAMA. 



Athens 

Calhoun ... 
Huntsville 



Marion 

Montgomery . 

Normal 



Selma 
..._do 



Talladega .. 
Tuscaloosa . 
Tuskegee... 



ARKANSAS. 



Arkadelphia 

do - 

Little Rock. - 

do 

do 

Pine Bluff,. - 
Southland... 



DELAAYARE. 



Dover 



DISTRICT OF CO- 
LUMBIA. 

Washington 



.ao. 
.do. 



.do. 



FLORIDA. 

Fernandina . . 
Jacksonville . 

do 

Live Oak 

Ocala 



Orange Park . 
Tallahassee . . 



Albany . . . 
Americus. 
Athens ... 

do 

do 

Atlanta . . . 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Augusta.. 



Trinity Normal School a 

Calhoun Colored School. 

Central Alabama Acad- 
emy. 

Lincoln Normal School. . 

State Normal School for 
Colored Students, a 

State Normal and In- 
dustrial School. 

Burrell School 

Alabama Baptist Uni- 
versity. 

Talladega College 

Stillman Institute 

Tuskegee Normal and 
Industrial Institute. 



Shorter University 

Arkadelphia Academy 

Arkansas Baptist College. 
Philander Smith College- 
Union High School 

Arkansas Normal College 
Southland College and 
Normal Institiite. 



State College for Colored 
Students. 



High School, 7th and 8th 

divisions. 

Howard University 

Normal School, 7th and 

8th divisions. 
"Wayland Seminary * 

Gj-aded School No. 1 

Cookman In.stitute* .- 

Edward Walters College a 

Florida Institute 

Emerson Home and 
School. 

Normal and Manual 
Training School. 

State Normal and Indus- 
trial College for Colored 
Students. 



Albany Normal School... 

McKay High School . _ 

Jerual Academy 

Knox Institute 

West Broad Street School 
Atlanta'Baptist Seminary 

Atlanta University 

Morris Brown College — 

Spelman Seminary 

Storr s School 

Haines Normal and In- 
dustrial School. 

■■ Statistics for 1891-93. 



Cong 

Nonsect. 



Cons 



Cong. 
Bapt . 



Cong 

Presb . . . 

Nonsect - 



A.M. E. 
Bapt ... 
Bapt ... 

Meth... 
Non.sect 
Nonsect 
Friends 



Nonsect. 



Nonsect. 



Nonsect. 
Nonsect - 



Bapt 



Nonsect.' 

M.E 

A. M.E.- 

Bapt 

Meth 



Cong 

Nonsect. 



Nonsect 
Nonsect 
Bapt . . . 
Cong... 
Nonsect 
Bapt ... 
Nonsect 
A. M.E... 
Bapt . . 
Cong . . 
Presb . 



16 



203 



98 



8 46 
}0 21 



7 70 
14 193 



13 



475 



63 



a Statistics for 1893-94. 



EDUCATION OF THE • COLORED RACE. 

race— teachers, students, and coiirscs of studfj. 



2097 



Pupils enrolled. 






Students 






Graduates. 




Second- 
ary 
grades. 


Col- 
legiate 
classes. 


Clas- 
sical 
courses. 


Sci 

tif 

COUl 


?n- 

ic 

ses. 

a 

a 

o 


English 
course. 


Normal 
course. 


Busi- 
ness 
course. 


High 
school 
course. 


Normal 
course. 


Col- 
legiate 
course. 




1 


a 


6 


o 
S 


6 


a 

o 


£ 


"3 
3 


a 


6 
1 


a 


6 


"3 

a 

&4 


6 
1 


a 

Em 


6 
"3 


a 

Pm 


1 


_6 
"3 

a 




i:t 


14 


15 1© 


17 


IS 


19 


•iO 


31 


33 


33 


34 


35 


36 


37 


38 


39 


30 


31 


33 




14 


16 






































1 












132 


164 






















9 


5 

40 
137 

89 

52 

78 

35 


19 

80 
145 

99 

57 
85 

48 


2 8 










5 


19 


















^ 






























4 


















127 
89 
17 


145 
99 

40 










9 

13 
1 


10 
18 
3 






<! 














177 

126 
37 


181 

139 
34 


6 
•4 


G 










c 








2 
3 

12 



3 

1 


9 


11 


2 
g 


3 
4 

3 






7 


3' 3 

6: 

25; 1 
01 





1 


8 


3 


1 


G 


12 






47 


43 

















10 


420 


246 


























133 


87 






11 


































1" 


12 
5 
146 
27 
23 
33 

32 

_^ 200 

161 

7 

9 

95 

28 

22 

24 



14 


20 

9 

114 
57 
12 
37 

6 

475 

134 
23 

2 

64 
33 
19 
32 

40 






































13 










2 

4 

11 






22 


20 

109 

12 

83 


5 

60 
35 
41 


5 

1 



23 


i 



12 


8 


4 


1 
2 
1 
3 

1 



2 

3 











14 


12 





14 

11 

2 

1 


82 

18 



1 

22 

1 

1 

232 

3 




1 

I 

3 


1 

3 

1 


1 

1 








15 








16 






17 


1 
10 



264 



3 




25 











18 


10 

53 

3 




5 

193 

2 



32 


6 










19 






05 


51 


18 

(1 


28 






4 

14 






23 






1 








"0 


56 



75 



12 

7 


35 
23 


^1 








22 





C 














128 
84 


150 
129 














C 











24 
■^1 


































''« 






































^7 



























46 
3 

1 



45 
5 

6 





C 












1 
1 







3 











28 


6 7 














18 


42 










30 


1 
2 

29 

4 

15 

39 

67 

16 





25 


3 
15 
41 

9 
14 



110 

31 

64 


45 





















1 
1 
1 

3 



10 
2 


2 







31 




























S'* 
























SS 












104 


161 


















34 



23 
19 

8 






9 

39 



15 

r- 

19 
8 




ii 


9 












. 












St 


























2 


36 

















105 
31 
15 


8 













16 
4 
3 




37 


16 





6 



134 





15 


212 

56 

45 
















38 


•0 



12 


5 


40 






39 










40 
41 





















2098 



EDUCATION. REPORT, 1895-96. 



Table 9. — Schools for the education of the colored race- 



Stato and post- 
office. 



G EOKG I A— cont'd. 



Augusta - 

do 

College -- 



La Grange . 



Mcintosh 

Macon. 

Roswell 

Savannah 

South Atlanta - 
do 



Thoniasville. . 
Waynesboro . 

ILLINOIS. 

Cairo _-- 



INDIANA. 

Ev^isville. 






No" Albany. 



KENTUCKY. 



Berea 

Frankfort . 



Lebanon . . . 
Lexington - 
Loiiisville . 

do 

Paris 



LOUISIANA. 



Alexandria- 
Baldwin 



New Iberia.- - 
New Orleans. 

do-- 

do .- - 

do 



MARYLAND. 

Baltimore 



do .-_. 

Hebbville 



Melvale 

Priixcess Anne . 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Clinton - 

Edwards 

Holly Springs. . 



Name of school. 



The Paine Institute 

Walker Baptist Institute. 

Georgia State Industrial 
College. 

La Grange Baptist Acad- 
emy. 

Dorchester Academy 

Ballard Normal School. . 

Eoswell Public School a. 

Beach Institute. 

Clark University 

Gammon Theological 
Seminary. 

Allen Normal and Indus- 
trial School. 

Haven Normal Academy a 



Sumner High School . 



Governor High School . 
Scribner High School. . 



Berea College 

State Normal School for 
' Colored Persons. 
St. Augustine's Academy. 
Chandler Normal School. 

Christian Bible School 

Cen tral High School 

Paris High School 



Alexandria Academy b . . 
Gilbei't Academy and In- 
dustrial College. 
Mount Carmel Convents 

Leland University 

New Orleans University. 

Southern University 

Straight University 



Baltimore City Colored 

High School. 
Morgan College 

Baltimore Normal School 
for Training of Colored 
Teacher.?, a 

The Industrial Home for. 
Colored Girls. 

Princess Anne Academy. 



Mount Hermon Female 
Seminary. 

Southern Christian In- 
stitute. 

Rust University 



Religious 
denomi- 
nation. 



White. 



M.E 

Bapt 

Nonsect. 



Bapt 



Cong.... 

Cong 

Nonsect. 

Cong 

M.E 

M.E 



Cong. 



Nonsect. 



Nonsect. 
Nonsect. 



Teachers. 



Nonsect.. 
Nonsect.. 



R. C- 

Cong 

Christian 
Nonsect.. 
Nonsect-. 



M.E- 



Bapt 

M.E 

Nonsect. 
Cong 



Nonsect - 
M, E 



Nonsect. 



Nonsect-. 
Christian 
•M.E 



Col- 
ored. 



Pupils enrolled. 



Total. 



Ele- 
men- 
tary 
grades. 



6 33 
6 105 



© 








01 






"3 



o 



lOiii la 

I 



33 



89 



10.5 



* Statistics of 1891-95. 



a Statistics of lS93-9i. 



h No report. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



2099 



teachers, students, and courszs of stud j — Continued. 



Pupils enrolled. 


Students. 


Graduates. 




Second- 
ary 
grades. 


Col- 
legiate 
classes. 


Clas- 
sical 
courses. 


Scien- 
tific 
courses. 


English 
course. 


Normal 
cour,se. 


Busi- 
ness 
course. 


High 
school 
course. 


Normal 
course. 


Col- 
legiate 
course. 




d 


6 




,2 

a 




6^ 


6 


d 

g 


6^ 


6 
Is 

g 


d 
1 


d 

g 


d 


r2 

Is 

g 


d 


d 

1 

a) 


,2 


6 
■3 

i 


d 


"3 

a 

a) 




13 14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


30 


SI 


ss 


as 


84 


23 


36 


»7 


38 


39 


30 


31 


33 




CI 

27 
103 


63 

73 



6 























' 


4 


9 


1 





4 


9 


\ 














10 
6 



3 
6 


35 





1 
34 






\ 


15 








15 











87 
71 
10 




133 

13 










5 








12 








4- 


10 52 

1 

15| 14 
6 34 
32 37 
12 36 
32 44 



5 



3 








5 

1 



1 




4 



















3 






4 






















4 



3 
93 











5 
17 


26 
5 





" 


11 


37 


4 
11 


14 
30 








4 
6 


13 
3 











6 


4 


- — 




f) 














5 


S G3 
55 100 

i 
111 23 

i 

271 48 
18 22 






























1 


5 








5 










55 





100 








5 










27 
18 




48 
33 












11 




33 













19 
4 


28 
13 














5 



13 



3 









3 






5 


74 
40 

30 
13 


68 
37 

S3 
11 


















5 










53 


63 










3 


1 


5 














40 
13 


60 
11 


( 

c 


15 












5 



19 


















12 


11 








1 











6 


50 
4 


170 
11 










50 
11 


170 
4 


~ 


19 






3 
3 


19 












































6 


















6 


9 


13 


9 


2 


9 


3 






00 


73 


1 


3 


4 


3 


6 


13 










6 














6 


23 
23 
19 
34 

33 

7 


11 
40 
26 
53 

105 
S 


4 
8 
4 
13 


2 
2 
2 

20 


























3 

1 

13 


13 
14 




1 








6 


8 
15 


3 
13 









138 



196 


1 

8 


41 

\2 




16 





8 


6 
3 


3 
3 


6 

6 


13 





7 










2 


11 












34 


7 


, 34 


7 








40 


37 












3 


4 


2 







' 


10 









37 

5 
31 
75 


77 
34 

31 
49 

118 















56 


157 
54 













10 



6 






















37 


34 






~ 


3 


37 
A 
11 























23 




6 


7 


33 




n 


1 


4 



59 





C 

















17 


30 


^ 



2100 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1895-96. 
Table 9. — Schools foi- the education of the colored, race- 



State and post- 
office. 



Name of school. 



MISSISSIPPI— con- 
tinued. 

Holly Springs 



Jackson . . 
Meridian . 

do 

Natchez . . 
Tongaloo . 
Westside . 



MISSOURI. 



Boonville 

Hannibal 

Jefferson City. 
Kansas City... 

Mill Spring 

Sedalia 



NEW JERSEY. 

Bordentown 

NORTH CAROLINA. 



Ashboro-- 
Beanfort . 
Charlotte - 
Clinton - . . 



Concord _. 

Elizabeth City... 



Fayette ville- 
Franklinton. 



.do- 

-do. 



Goldsboro . _ 
Greensboro 



do 

High Point . 



Kings Mountain . 

Lumberton 

Peedee 



Plymouth . 

Raleigh 

do 

Reidsville - 
Salisbury., 
do 



Warrenton.. 
Wilmington. 
Windsor 



Winton . 



Wilber force. 
Xenia 



Mississippi State Colored 
Normal School. 

Jackson College 

Lincoln School 

Meridian Academy * 

Natchez College a 

Tongaloo University.. .. 
Alcorn Agricultural and 
Mechanical College. 



Sumner High School 

Douglass High School 

Ijincoln Institute * 

Lincoln High Sch ool , 

Hale's College* 

George R. Smith College 



Religious 
denomi- 
nation. 



White. 



Nonsect- 



Bapt . 
Cong . 
M.E.. 



Cong 

Nonsect- 



Nonsect-. 



Teachers. 



Pupils enrolled. 



Nonsect-. 
Nonsect.- 
M.E 



Manual Training and In- 
dustrial School. 



Ashboro Normal School *. 

Washburn Seminary 

Biddle University 

Clinton Colored Graded 
School. 

Scotia Seminary 

State Colored Normal 

School. 
do._ 

Albion Academy Normal 
and Industrial School *. 

Franklin ton C h r i st i a n 
College. 

State Colored Normal 

School.* 
do.. 

Agricultural and Mechan- 
ical College for the Col- 
ored Race. 

Bennett College a 

High Point Normal and 
Industrial School. 

Lincoln Academy _ _ . 

Whitin Normal School *.- 

Barrett Collegiate and In- 
dustrial Institute. 

Plymouth Normal School. 

St. Augustine's School-.. 

Shaw University 

Graded School (colored).. 

Livingston College 

State , Colored Normal 
School. 

Shiloh Institute* 

Gregory Normal Institute 

Ran kin - Richar ds Insti- 
tute. 

Waters Normal Institute 



Nonsect - 



Wilber force University " 
Colored High School 



Nonsect- - 

Presb 

Nonsect.. 

Presb 

Nonsect. - 
Nonsect-- 
Presb 



Christian 
Nonsect-. 



Nonsect. 
Nonsect. 



Meth-.-. 
Friends 



Cong 

Nonsect-. 
Nonsect.. 

Nonsect-. 

P. E 

Bapt . 

Nonsect-. 
A.M.E.Z 
Nonsect . . 



Bapt 

Nonsect - 
Nonsect. 

Bapt 



A.M.E-- 

Nonsect- 



Col- 
ored. 



6 



Total. 



4 
6 
13 
1 



18 



35 



lO 



Ele- 
men- 
tary 
grades. 



11 13 



40 



100 90 

55 
249 

40 



140 



175 



98 



* Statistics of 1894-95. 



a Statistics of 1893-94. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



2101 



teaeJiers, shiclents, and courses of study — Continued. 



Pupils enrolled. 


students. 


Graduates. 




Second- 
ary- 
grades. 


Col- 
legiate 
classes. 


Clas- 
sical 
courses. 


Scien- 
tific 
courses. 


English 
course. 


Normal 
course. 


Busi- 
ness 
course. 


High 
school 
course. 


Normal 
course. 


Col- 
legiate 
course. 




6 


6 

a 

a 




6 

a 


6 
1 


6 

a 

<D 


6 
la 


a 


« 
1 


6 

a 

o 


,2 


,2 

a 


6 
1 


6 


Id 


6 

a 


1 




a 




6 

a 




13 


14 


15 


16 


ly 


18 


19 


ao 


ai 


as 


33 


24 


35 


33 


37 


38 


29 


30 


31 


33 




31 

74 
50 
17 
26 
25 
41 

12 
18 
41 
38 
43 
8 

8 

75 
15 
124 
15 



28 

83 
91 

27 

121 

32 

3d 

92 


2 
24 
142 

35 

18 

58 

3 

44 

7 

25 
14 
14 

40 

37 

27 


35 

99 

77 
26 

28 

9> 


44 


33 


12 
12 


5 

1 
16 


44 


53 






44 


33 





C 








1 


5 








7f 


02 

100 

30 


98 

104 

52 


Rf 






12 


16 


24 


20 






12 
10 


1 
15 


14 

8 


8 
10 






81 














8- 


























S? 






14 


3 










25 


22 




..._. 




4 


2 






8i 




15 
21 
26 
91 

20 
28 

18 

70 
9 


19 

13 
49 

136 
111 

22 

90 

82 
15 

106 


14 

26 



76 
15 
118 
3 
25 
18 

29 
55 

28 

43 

77 

a 


46 


1 














c 




4 
1 


6 





8= 


1 
5 
9 


5 
3 







16 


11 

3 


10 

10 














8f 










18 


24 










8' 


7 





39 


26 


7 


2 


1 









8^ 


38 

2 

8 


91 

1 

10 














8 



8^ 







C 




C 

10 




1 

12 



31 

10 

18 
15 



35 

14 

9 
9 


25 
3 


10 

4 

5 


4 
6 



9 








9' 

91 














Of 






















% 



62 








56 







6 
















28 
1 







1 












12 






9 










q 


















9( 













11 







43 

100 


13 
76 

169 














9 


15 


27 














5 

7 


1 

8 






9 






17 


33 


83 


130 














9' 












G 




4 



3 









10( 


7 


10 



11 



6 


21 


10 



96 



79 


71 


G 
£0 










5 

2 




17 










10 
10 


















10 


15 

















45 


15 




3 






12 




15 


c 





10 

in 




















94 


117 


























10 

in 





( 


















24 
6 

32 


28 

8 

73 
























10 



52 


10 
132 








10 






















15 
2 



5 

6 
4 






n 


10 
37 


17 


10 
23 



9 






















11 


6 



f 
























1 


6 


11 


20 


40 


















11 














11 


5 










11 






4 

5 



16 

I 


39 
5 


54 

8 


1 

2 
6 
6 


5 

3 
11 

8 














11 






5 




8 







2 


5 
4 


3 


5 






11 








C 


14 


( 





11 


42 


84 






n 


















1 

5 

e 




9 
5 










11 


4S 
C 


r 
c 


2'' 

"o 


4 



15 


7 


77 


o:. 


CO 


57 





c 


7 


8 


4 





12 
12 



2102 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 
Table 9.— Schools for the education of the colored race- 



133 
133 
124 

135 



133 
133 
134 



135 
138 



137 
138 



139 
140 
141 
143 
143 

144 
145 



State and post- 
office. 



Name of school. 



PENNSYLVANIA. 

Carlisle 



Lincoln Univer- 
sity. 
Philadelphia 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Aiken 



13G Beaufort . 



-do 



138 ; Camden 



129 I Charleston . 

130 1 do 

131 I Chester 

Columbia... 

._..do 

Frogmore . 



Greenwood-. 
Orangeburg . 



TENNESSEE. 



Chattanooga . 
Columbia 



Dickson . . . 
Jonesboro . 
Knoxville . 

do 

Maryville . 

Memphis . 
do. 



140 Morristown . 



147 

148 

149 

150 
151 



153 
153 

154 
155 
156 
157 



158 
159 
160 
161 



Murf i-eesboro . 
Nashville 



.do. 
.do. 
.do. 



Austin . 
do.. 



Brenham . 

(Crockett. - 
G-alveston , 
Hearne . . . 



Marshall 

do 

Palestine 

Prairie View . 

Waco 



Religious 
denomi- 
nation. 



WMte.o^-ed. 



Teachers. Pupils enrolled. 



High School (North Pitt | Nonsect. 
Lincoln University . - Presb 



Friends . 



Institute for Colored 
Youth. 



Schofield Normal and In- 
dustrial School. 

Beaufort Academy.- 

Harbison Institute 

Browning Industrial 
Home and School.* 

Avery Normal Institute . . 

Wallingford Academy «.. 

Brainer d Institute 

Allen University 

Benedict College 

Penn Industrial and Nor- 
mal School. 

Brewer Normal School... 

Claflin University and 
Agricultural College, 
and Mechanics' Insti- 
tute. 



Nonsect.. 



Nonsect. 
Presb ... 
M.E 



Cong . 



Presb ... 
A.M.E.. 
Bapt 

Nonsect - 



Cong 

Nonsect. 



10 



Howard High School 

Maury County Turner 
Normal and Industrial 
School. 

Wayman Academy 

Warner Institute 

Austin High School 

Knoxville College 

Freedmen's Normal In- 
stitute. 

Hannibal Medical College 

Le Moyne Normal Insti- 
tute. 

Morristown Normal 
Academy. 

Bradley Academy 

Central Tennessee Col- 
lege. 

Fisk University ^ . 

Meigs High School..., 

Roger Williams Univer- 
sity. 



Pligh Schoor'' 

Tillotson Collegiate and 
Normal Institute. 

East End High School a. 

Mary Allen Seminary... 

Central High School 

Hearne Academy Nor- 
mal and Industrial, In- 
stitute. 

Bishop College 

Wiley University 

Colored High School 

Prairie View State Nor- 
mal School. 

PaiTl Quinn College. 



Nonsect.. 
Nonsect.. 



Cons 



U. Presb - 
Friends . 



Cong 

M.E. 



Nonsect. 
M.E 



Cong.... 
Nonsect. 
Bapt 



Nonsect. 
Cong 



Presb ... 
Nonsect. 
Bapt 



Bapt .... 

M.E 

Nonsect- 
Nonsect- 



A. M. E 



t S 



Total. 



Ele- 
men- 
tary 
grades. 



1 4 

3 3 








12 
170 
10 109 



10 



lO 11 



178 



170 

132 
70 
55 

ia5 

73 

85 
131 
131 
150 146 



140 



18 



150 



164 115 143 
83 35 35 
95 40 30 



■■ Statistics of 1894-95. 



3 

o Statistics of 1893-94. 



406 199 3Si 



144 
113 



119 



130 



136 

307 



53 



91 

50 
388 
110 

85 



245 



303 



90 138 
34 18 



49 



18 
136 



137 
'65 



33 
316 



137 

133 

16 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 
teachers, students, and courses of study — Continued. 



2103 



Pupils enrolled. 


Students. 


G^raduates. 




Second- 
ary 
grades. 


Col- 
legiate 
classes. 


Clas- 
sical 
courses. 


Scien- 
tific 
courses. 


English 
course. 


Normal 
course. 


Busi- 
ness 
course. 


High 
school 
coarse. 


Normal 
course. 


Col- 
legiate 
course. 




6 
"a 




6 


6 
o 


1 


a 


6 


a 

ID 




6 

a 


.2 


6 
Eh 




6 

a 


4 


r2 

a 


rSi 


a 




a 




IS 


14 


1^ 


16 


ir 


18 


«« 


30 


31 


32 


23 


34 


33 


3G 


37 


38 


39 


30 


31 


33 




12 

02 

28 

9 
30 
25 

.50 
13 

8 

3 

131 

18 

26 
01 

11 


5 

4 

10 

'13 

31 


15 


no 

30 

20 
63 
55 

119 

36 

5 

3 

125 
16 

29 
65 

17 

3 

9 

12 

53 

33 



170 













12 


1t> 













1 










1^ 





115 









ft 














21 





-[9 








. 


72 


6 


8 











T" 


• 




















(. 
4 



6 





3 

1 

7 




4 
3 

13 






f 




















7 


20 














12 
1^ 














a5 

122 


.85 
238 


5 

48 


20 
119 






1 


' 






1* 








3 


5 


10 


22 














1> 






13 






































13 


6 

(1 



7 






- 

4 


1 

9 



27 




8 



4 


3 







8 








g 






10 


•18 


13 


13 

16 


34 


















13 


112 

18 




103 
16 






18 


13 



16 


35 


9 


12 



5 

3 




4 

id 








13 
13 








1 




1 


13 


^- 11 

1 



13 

3 
16 


13 






13 














13 


47 


















13 






























13 















10 
3 




12 



41 


50 


4 


9 






1 
3 
6 



3 
3 

7 













14 










14 


~6 

8 


15 


9 

4 




36 


2 

6 



3 


43 



53 

1 


















14 


54 


50 






4 


4 








14 










14 


98 

95 

66 
6 

57 
76 
46 

70 
55 

18 


98 

75 
21 

83 

154 

43 

140 

68 

29 



1% 



36 









70 

103 




78 

93 
126 


98 
37 


123 
02 












4 
1 


13 
1 








14 


4 

3 

1 


8 

3 
5 


14 


1 














14 


39 
51 


15 23 

1 
5 43 


7 
5 


11 

8 





3 


21 









13 


3 
14 


1 
1 


U 






14 


















15 


.23 


2 ■'■^0 


16 


3 

70 



140 


48 


65 


16 


22 






5 
6 


8 
5 


3 




6 





15 










15 




1 




13 


111 


17 


13 






1 


1 






15 
























15 




1 











125 







100 









2 


5 
4 

(1 

( 










15 


23 

8 

5b 
13 
6 

77 

51 


31 
5 

19 

27 
' s 
74 

36 




» 

6 





1 







23 



6 


31 



1 















(1 










15 








24 
25 


18 
9 


15 
15 


2 





11 


22 


'' 


6 


c 


5 






15 






20 


34 


] 


" 






16 














1 


74 

1 














16 


15 


16 






























16 



2104 



EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-90 



Table 9. — Schools for the education of the colored race- 



State and post- 
office. 



Name cf schoo- 



Religious 
denomi- 
nation. 



Teacliers. Pnpils enrolled. 



White, 



Col- 
ored. 



Total. 



lO 



Ele- 
men- 
tary 
:rrades. 



11 



13 



163 
164 

165 
166 

167 

168 

169 

iro 

171 

172 
173 

174 

175 



176 



177 

178 



VIRGINIA. 



Burkeville . 
Cappahosif-- 



Danville-- 

Hampton 

Lawrenceviile 

Manassas 



Manchester . 
Norfolk .... 
Petersburg. 



.do. 
.do. 



Richmond 

do 

AVEST VIRGINIA. 

Farm 



Harpers Ferry . 
Parkersburg _ . . 



Inglesido Seminary* 

Gloucester Agricultural 
and Industrial School. 

Colored Graded School.. . 

Hampton Normal and 
Agricultural Institute. 

St. Paul Normal and In- 
dustrial School. 

Manassas Industrial 
School for Colored 
Youth. 

Piiblic High School 

Norfolk Mission College . . 

Bishop Payne Divinity 
and Industrial School. 

Peabody High School 

Virginia Normal and Col- 
legiate Institute. 

Hartshorn Memorial Col- 
lege. 

Richmond Theological 
Seminary. 



"West Virginia Colored 
Institute. 

Storer College 

High School. 



Presb . . . 
Nonsect. 



Nonsect 
Nonsect.. 



Epis 

Nonsect - 



Nonsect- 
U. Presb 
Epis 



Nonsect. 



Bapt 
Bapt 



Nonsect.. 

Free Bapt 
Nonsect 



* Statistics of 1894-95. 



EDUCATION OP THE COLORED RACE 



2105 



teachers, students, and courses of stxidy — Continued. 



Pupils enrolled. 


Students. 


Graduates. 




Second- 
ary 
grades. 


Col- 
legiate 
classes. 


Clas- 
sical 
courses. 


Scien- 
tific 
courses. 


English 
course. 


Normal 
course. 


Busi- 
ness 
course. 


High 
school 
course. 


Normal 
course. 


Col- 
legiate 
course. 






.2 

a 




d 

a 




a5 

a 


ID 


d 

s 


■2 


6 

a 


d 


_d 

a 


d 


6 

a 

o 


d 


d 
Is 

a 

fa 


d 


d 

a 
fa 


d 


_d 

a 

D 
fa 




13 


14 


15 


IG 


ly 


18 


19 


30 


31 


33 


33 


34 


35 


3G 


37 


3S 


39 


30 


31 


33 






57 

120 



1(3 

21 


55 
5 

6 
39 

130 



41 

















111 





20 







5 

19 


2(3 
5 

38 










ms 






















lfi4 


















4 




G 




4 
250 


6 
151 



57 

120 





39 

130 






















\m 


11 




18 
8 



16R 












ifir 
















4 
21 




14 
41 


50 
43 


42 
09 










6 
3 




2 
11 








168 
169 

















10 


28 




— - 










170 


















171 


19 
1-1!) 

( 

43 

50 
47 


54 
161 

82 

( 

G7 

49 
101 



19 



















12 



32 

82 





c 









10 


a? 









173 
17.3 



58 




5 





1 


5 













14 


174 






















175 




13 
6 




14 
30 








32 


42 


10 
50 


15 
49 












c 

2 


8 

1 






176 










177 


















5 


14 






178 




1 












"""T !""" 













210G 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

Table 10. — Schools for the education of the colored race- 





Name of school. 


Students 

inpro- 

fessional 

courses. 


Pupils 
receiving 
industrial 
training. 


Students trained in industrial branches . 





0) 

-a 

O 

g 
s 

8 


s 

a 

S 
o 

9 


a 

I 

o 

m 

10 


bb 

1 

11 


bi) 

•S 

"S 

12 


a 

o 

si 

o 

5 


bi) 

a 

U 
?-( 
o 

14 


M 
u 
o 

6 



O 

15 


bit 

a 

a 

o 


bio 

a 
17 


bi 

.3 
% 

o 
18 


bi) 

a 



o 
U 

19 


to 

OJ 

u 
o 
si 

O 

20 






6 


6 
IS 
g 


o 
4 


r2 

i 

5 


a 

0) 

6 


'3 
o 
Eh 

7 




1 


2 


3 


1 


ALABAMA. 

Trinity Normal School a... 


3 


Calhoun Colored School 

Central Alabama Academy 








65 


105 


170 


55 




















48 


3 


55 


S 




















4 








































5 


State Normal School for 
Colored Students, a 

State Normal and Indus- 
trial School. 








































6 








121 

72 
14 

110 


145 

79 
82 

250 


266 

151 
96 

360 


27 


41 
62 










27 
4 




28 


38 


93 

79 

82 

171 


60 
6 


77 

"ii 

82 


7 










... 


6 




S 


Alabama Baptist Univer- 
sity. 


23 

12 

8 








23 

12 

8 






3 

4 


q 


30 


75 
















in 


















TT 


Tuskegee Normal and In- 
dusti'ial Institute. 

ARKANSAS. 


133 


87 


220 


64 
























156 


1^ 






























13 










































1 1 


Arkansas Baptist College.. 


12 





12 


8 

7 


4 
5 


12 
12 


2 


















11 








T", 
























Ifi 


































IT 


Arkansas Normal College. . 
Southland College and 
Normal Institute. 

DELjVWARE. 

State College for Colored 
Students. 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 

High School, Tth and 8th 

divisions. 

Howard University 

Normal School, Ttli and 

8th divisions. 
Wayland Seminary * 

FLORIDA. 

Graded School, No 1 


40 





40 


40 

8 

23 



103 






30 

10 

2 



50 


23 


30 


70 
18 

25 



153 


23 


30 


11 
6 



"'6 


40 
o 

17 



48 









40 


40 


40 


"2 


'"o 


3 

5 



41 









I'i 








13 


7 




11 
















5 


"6 


1 


"6 


Tl 



















10 





48 


23 


15 




""6 


15 




6 






''I 


280 


33 


313 


9'> 











''T 


34 





34 


''■( 
































^'1 


Cookman Institute* 

Edward Walters College a. 


4 





4 


'fi 






















''7 








8 


43 

21 




40 
44 

47 


8 

40 

87 

•68 




















8 









"S 


Emerson Home and School . 

Normal and Manual Train- 
ing School. 

State Normal and Indus- 
trial College for Colored 
Students. 

GEORGIA. 









20 

21 



43 

21 























40 


14 



24 


•X) 








30 
























47 


47 


31 


















3" 


























































33 










34 













1C7 


107 






















107 


... 




3n 


West Broad Street School. 
Atlanta Baptist Seminary. 
Atlanta University 




























3f) 


19 





19 


10 

67 



110 


10 

177 




















10 
15 








37 


... 


55 










12 







105 


16 





■ statistics of 1894-95. 



a statistics of 1893-94. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



2107 



professioncd and industrial training — equipvient and income. 



Chief sources of support. 


u 

o . 
ws 

•2 a 

o-S 

fl 00 

% 
> 


S 
u 

a 


Value of grounds, buildings, 
furniture, and scientific 
apparatus 


"o 

'3 

a 
§ . 

1-1 

O 

5 

o 

S 
< 


'3 

a 
p 

|i 

s « 

O o 
«+^ 

a 
p 
o 

a 
< 


s 

p. 

a 
^1 

B 
-J 

!3 
O 

a 


® 

,a 
+i 
o 

a 

o 

£^ 

> ^^ 

■53 g 

a 

s 
1 


a 
>, 

tMCn 

as 

o 

3 

o 




21 


23 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 




i 














1 




$17,459 450 


^),'132 


' 


$584 


$363 


$388 


$1, 135 


?, 




,S 


















4 




















State and United States _ 


1,000 


2,800 

700 
1,000 

0,000 
2,(K10 


50,000 

7,000 
30,000 

126,618 


$4,000 






11,000 


15,000 


fi 






7 


Amer Bapt.H.M.S. 


3,462 
10, 749 






755 

1,568 


6,044 


2,469 
4,500 


3,324 
13,112 


8 




9 




in 






150, 732 

10,000 
12,000 
10,000 
30,000 
20,000 
50,000 
35,000 

15,800 

125,000 
700,000 


3.000 


9, 724 


172 


84,889 

1,227 
1,080 
1,486 


97, 785 

1,327 
1,360 
1,986 


11 








1*^ 






150 

100 

600 



3, .500 

1,200 

450 

1,200 

13,000 
350 

3,000 


1,000 




256 
500 


30 


13 


Amer. Bapt. Home Miss. Society 
Freedmen's Aid and S. Ed. So.. 


""3," 500 



14 

15 


4,500 
4,950 

4,200 



34,500 





384 

4,797 

61 



0,683 









4,500 
5,334 

7,417 

4,261 



56,683 



16 


State 


17 


Tuition and benevolence 


:J47 
200 




2,035 


585 


18 
19 





4,000 




8,500 





7,000 



?in 


do _ : 


31 




70,000 

2.875 
30,000 


:^ 















'0 


?4 


Freedmen"s Aid S. M. E. C'li 


461 


1,800 2.261 


?,n 








«6 


Homo Society N. Y. and Beth- ' 

lehem Assn. 1 
W. H. M. S. M. E. Cli • 


1,200 

100 
500 

516 

100 
72 

■""'i.so 

350 
3,000 
9,400 


7,000 

5,000 
30,000 

25,000 

4,000 
5,000 
6,175 
6,000 
4,000 
50,000 
2.52, 000 










37 





2,800 

'io.loo 


39 



465 


504 


28 


Amer. Miss. Assn 




•>9 


State and United States 




10,500 


13,300 

800 
16, 710 
2,054 


30 




25 



500 


800 




31 


Citv and State _ 


310 
438 






n>. 


A. B. H. M. S. Jerual Assn 

Amer. Miss. Assn 







1,616 


33 
34 









"'•"23i::::::: 

500i 1,200 
1.920' 580 


30; 53 

3,970 5.670 

lOli 2,t-96 


35 


A.B. H. M. S.._ 

Tuition and benevolence 


700 
27, 566 


3!) 
37 



2108 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 





Table 


IC 


.— 


-Schools for the education c 


/ the colored race — 




Name of school. 


Students 
in pro- 
fessional 
courses. 


Pupils 
receiving 
industrial 
training. 


Students trained in industrial branches. 1 




M 
u 
o 

a 

CD 
XS 
U 
c3 
60 
s.. 
o 

a 


h 

o 

9 


ah 

s 

3 

o 

■r* 

W 
10 


til 

.S 
s 

TO 

s 

11 


6i 
a 
'43 

.a 

Ph 
12 



03 

S 

<s 

o 

Pi 
til 

13 


SB 

o 
14 


i 

o 
o 
o 

3 

15 


.a 
-^ 
a 

<D 

O 

,a 
16 


.a 

a 
17 


IS 


si 

a 

o 
O 

19 


m 
1 

u 

o 

20 




6 




1 

o 




6 

a 

ID 


Is 
o 




1 


2 


8 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


38 
89 


GEORGIA — continued. 

Morris Brown College 

Spelman Seminary _ _ _ 

Storrs School 


8 




( 


8 

7 


6 





10 


26 
240 
128 
145 


32 

340 
128 
161 


3 


























3 
34 


20 


26 
152 
128 
150 


26 

136 



6 



73 




40 

























c 









4 


41 

4"^ 


Haines Normal and Indus- 
trial School. 

The Paine Institute 

Walker Baptist Institute . - 

Georgia State Industrial 
College. 

La Grange Baptist Acad- 
emy. 

Dorchester Academy 




43 
8 






5 

43 
8 


4?. 


































44 


45 



18 
CO 





116 

340 


45 

C 

134 
300 


38 


2 



10 



4 
60 


13 



""o 


5 



""o 


5 



4 



















45 



















116 

240 




3 
8 



"2 


40 








47 


Ballard Normal School '< . 





















48 


Roswell Public School a ' . _ 




49 


Beach Institute 











140 



140 


































64 



37 




42 


50 










51 


Gammon Theological Sem- 
inary. 

Allen "Normal and Indus- 
trial School. 

TTq.yen Normal Ac.qde-myo, 


93 





93 






















rfl 


V.i 


50 


62 


























62 


5:? 
































54 


ILLINOIS. 

Sumner High School 








































55 


INDIANA. 

Governor High School 








































58 

57 


Scribner High School 

KENTUCKY. - 

Berea College 








C 

















(! 
































58 


State Normal School for 

Colored Persons. 
St. Augustine's Academy. _ 








6 


03 


69 




6 










1 






63 


63 




59 






















60 

m 


Chandler Normal School ._ 

Christian Bible School 

Central High School 



19 







19 





80 


80 




















0, 














80 


e,?, 




















1 












fi8 


Paris High School 






































01 

















r.4 


LOUISIANA, 

Alexandria Academy 6 






65 


Gilbert Academy and In- 

dtistrial College. 
Mount Carmel Convent b . . 








40 


22 


63 


15 


6 


















8 


18 


15 


66 
























67 


Leland University 






12 


G 
















13 


6 


































68 

69 

70 


New Orleans University... 

Southern University 

Straight University 

MARYLAND. 

Baltimore City Colored 

High School. 
Morgan College 

Baltimore Normal School 
for Training of Colored 
Teachers, a ^ 

The Industrial Heme for 
Colored Girls. 

Princess Anne Academy... 


45 
86 


66 
61 


111 
147 




47 


37 
39 














66 







37 






31 



58 
61 


13 








71 

79, 


. 















































78 


































74 










37 


157 

84 


157 
71 






















75 

30 


157 
30 




75 








37 


15 














r 


n 


r- 


13 



'Statistics of 1894-9.5. 



a Statistics of 1893-94. 



b No report. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



2109 



professional and industrial training — equijiment and income — Continued. 



Chief soiirces of support. 


i 

o 

.IS 

> 


>> 
u 
eS 
u 

a 

o 

> 


Ui 

,3 pi P< 

> 


'3 

a 

o 

o 
a 

1 


i 

a 
c 

s 

<! 


o 
u 

ft 

g 
^g 

g.£; 

s| 

P! 
O 

a 

< 


u 

■*^ 
o 

% 
u 

o o 

i 


o 
u _ . 

as 

o 
o 

a 

% 
'o 




21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


20 




A. M.E.Ch... 

W A H. M. S. Slater Fund 





""3,"oo6 

200 
300 

400 


$78,000 

1.50,000 

20,000 

25,000 

14 484 




6 




$1,190 

2,206 

1,340 

300 

264 

405 



25 

625 

1,800 




6 

$1,905 



672 
225 


$4,310 

20,174 



3,200 

5,648 

708 

15,000 

23 

4,135 
3,675 


$5,500 

23,380 

l,3t0 

3,500 

7,817 

1,113 

15,000 

408 

5,432 

5,700 


38 
39 






40 


Presb. Board Miss, for Froed- 

men. 
P. Col M. E. Ch 


^-zm 


41 
4? 








43 






100' 9?, (¥«1 



$360 

6 


44 


■Western Union Bapt. Assn 

Benevolence and tuition 


23 




850 
3,000 


600 

11,000 
30,550 


45 
46 


Am. M. Assn. and tuition 


140 


47 
48 


Am. M. Assn. and benevolence . 
F. A. and S. Ed. S. M. E. Ch.... 


280 

5,800 


797 
1,5.50 
11,000 

200 


is 250 
400^ 000 
100,000 

8,570 





1,278 
1,.5.50 





280 
433 


1,5.58 
1,973 


49 
50 
51 









390 


540 





930 


5? 






53 






50 


2,500 


1,300 











1,300 


54 






55 




4(l6i 3. 000 




1 






56 




23,543 


8,500 

e3i 


113,450 
20,564 



5,900 


3,500 

1.000 

6S0 




3,200 
75 



61 

300 


6,700 
6,036 

1,300 

680 

4,T75 


57 


State and United States . 


53 


Tuition 




59 


A. M. Assn 


T5 



300 
450 
170 
250 


15,000 



25, 850 

8,000 






60 


Am. Christian Miss. Soc 

State - 


175 


4,000 


Gl 

6'? 


City 





4,000 


50 








4,050 


63 




64 






1,000 


40,000 






2,400 




3,400 


65 










66 




500 



025 


1,000 
5,000 

1,169 

2,eoo 

250 
2,000 


175, 000 
100,000 

59,821 
125,000 


6 


7,500 



3,281 


2,000 


3,500 
400 


600 


500 
4,600 

14,000 
1,000 


4,000 
8,281 

21, 506 
3,600 


67 


F. A. S. Ed. Soc. M. E. Ch. and 
S. F. 

United States and State.. 

Am. Miss. Assn 


68 

09 

70 


City 


71 


M. E. Ch .-.. 




45,000 




1,2.52 


584 


13,864 


15,800 


7? 






73 


State and city 




200 



3.5,000 
15,000 


6, .500 
2,5(X) 






5,614 


13,114 
3,614 


74 


United States and State 




1,114 




73 



2110 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 



Table 10. — Schools for the education of the colored race- 





Name of school. 


Students 
in pro- 
fessional 
courses. 


Pupils 
receiving 
industrial 
training. 


Students trained in industrial branches. | 




o 

PI 

be 


a 


>> 
I 


1 


1 
1 


bi) 
a 

'S 
12 


i 

o 
® 

a 

o 
a 

Ts 


bo 

M 
o 

14 


4 
s 

ft 

o 
si 

g 
3 

o 

1 
15 


bh 

a 

.r-< 

-^ 

a 

o 
o 

x\ 
m 

1« 


bJ3 

g 

Oh 
17 


bi) 

HI 
18 


bj) 

o 
o 
O 

19 


to 

20 




6 


6 


3 

o 


6 


CD 


1 
o 
H 




1 


2 


8 


4 


5 


G 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


Tfi 


MISSISSIPPI. 

Mount Hermon Female 
Seminary. 

Southern Christian Insti- 
tute. 








7 

6 




Q 
13 


58 

3 

81 


99 

20 


65 

9 

81 


99 
32 






















58 
2 

81 


99 

30 


.58 

4 

30 


"ie 


2 

"o 










4 


1 























~ 


78 





34 


34 


79 


Mississippi State Colored 
Normal School. 
































SO 


11 





,?0 


11 

20 


81 




20 




















R91 






















83 










































84 


Tongaloo University 

Alcorn Agricultural and 
Mechanical College. 

MISSOURI. 


3 





3 


104 

384 


103 



307 
384 


35 

53 


104 
71 


















103 


83 


"3 


85 










59 




01 


41 


8fi 
















87 










































88 


Lincoln Institute * 

Lincoln High School 

Hale's College * 


""6 

5 
4 


"o 





""o 

5 
4 


85 




80 




165 









40 












20 




25 




"6 




"o 




80 




"6 




"6 




89 
90 


















PI 


George R. Smith College. . . 

NEW JERSEY. 

Manual Training and In- 
dustrial School. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 


q? 


18 


35 


48 




18 




• 












IS 


35 






03 






















9i 


Washburn Seminary - 








36 
165 


41 



67 
165 





36 
37 


c 

33 




7 


c 





36 


-- 



16 



46 


41 
31 








05 




31 





31 


Ofi 


Clinton Colored Graded 
School. 










07 











287 


387 






















387 


287 




OS 


State (Colored Normal 
School (Elizabeth City). 

State Colored Normal 
School. 

Albion Academy, Normal 
and Industrial School.* 

Franklinton Christian Col- 
lege. 

State Colored Normal 
School.* 

State Colored Normal 
' School. 

Agricultural and Mechan- 
ical College for the Col- 
ored Race. 




























00 








































100 


5 

e 


2 



6 


80 




45 


39 


75 


15 


109 


75 


60 


50 



46 



35 




10 



2 




1 

t 












18 


75 


15 








101 
10? 

















103 










45 




45 



45 















80 



45 











15 


10+ 








105 








106 


High Point Normal and 









20 


117 

120 


117 
140 



4 



3 


























117 
120 



55 





107 


Industrial School. 





10 


10 


108 


"Whitin NoriTial School * 












100 


Barrett Collegiate and In- 
dustrial Institute. 


5 





5 


































110 


































111 










91 
130 


137 
80 


338 
300 


--- 


12 
120 


5 


5 


m 


2 










91 

80 


91 

80 


... 


11'^ 


Shaw University 


85 





85 










113 












111 


Livingstone College.- 


19 





19 


80 


40 


120 


16 


10 




... 


... 


... 


... 




... 




30 


50 


-.. 



-■ Statistics of 1894-0.". 



a Statistics of 1893-91. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 2111 

professional and ivdustrial training —eqiiijjment and income — Continued. 



Cliief sources of support. 


o 
3 
o,i 

II 

> 


a 

•r-t 

a 

pi 

I 


O -en 
> 


'3 
'3 

3 

a 
(< 

o 

J'S 

w1 
*^ P. 
o 
+3 

3 

o 

a 


'3 

a 

2 

li 

PI 

§ 

a 
< 


6 

a 

.s © 

r 

a 
< 


s 

o 

a 
p 

CM 

o 2 

a 
o 

a 


ce 
>> 

<D 

So 
o 

c 

o 
in 




21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 1 27 


28 


29 




Tuition and contributions 






S25,00C 

30,000 

100, OOC 
12,O0C 

a5,ooo 

2,500 
3,500 


( 









76 


Am. M. Soc. and tuition 

F. A., S. Ed. Soc. M. E. Cli . 


$l,OCf 


1,000 

2,000 
3 on 


S40( 

1.739 
( 

989 
600 
600 


! ^ 

6 


§2,600 

3, 709 
2,435 

4,234 


1 

; S3,ooo 

5,448 
3,4a5 

5,233 
600 
900 


77 


State 


c 




Am. Bapt. H. M. S 

Am. Miss. Assn 


310 200 


80 

81 


M. E. Ch 




25 




300 








RS 






4,(X)0 
2,88C 

200 
500 
31 


80,000 
103,500 

8,000 
14,000 
81,625 
18, OOO 


Si8,'368 
3,000 


1,C00 




13.0IX 
•1,539 


14,000 
19,907 

3,175 


84 


United States and State 




i'5 






175 




-86 


do - 








87 






65,000 


167 


81,084 




66,251 


88 


City - 




89 


Students --- 



SCO 

.-JO, 000 


""'800 
l.(XX) 


2,500 






1,800 








90 


F 4. S Ed.f'. M.E.Ch 


On,0(X)i --^ 


200 
100 


3,900 


2,000 
7,000 


91 


State and private subscription. 


2,500 


3,000 


92 
93 


Am. Miss. Assn 


V 




8,500 


7,000 
130, 000 




95 





2,660 


2,755 


94 


Presb. Ch 


95 


City - 




350 


1,166 

1,0CC 

1.500 

12)^ 

2,000 
1,566 
7, .500 


a5 






(1 


200 


585 


•^6 


Freedman's N. Presb. Cli 

State - 


10,000 
■ 

5,00(1 
fi 


1.000 
50 

;«] 

1,100 

1,500 

1,.500 

200 

2oo: 


(55. COO 
1,00(J 

3.000 

1.5. roo 

6,000 
10,000 


97 


730 

i'.;o 


1,896 
1.850 
1.500 
1,697 
3,240 
1,566 
15,095 


98 


do 


99 






ion 


State and benevolence . - - - . 

State - 




'.'240 



95 


348 


1,221 


111 


State and Peabody Fund 

United States and State 

F.A.andE.S 


290 







103 


60,000 


(! 


7, .500 


104 
105 


State ' 








547 

122 









547 

363 
195 


106 


Am. Miss. Assn 




j 


4,316 
1,000 


241 

180 






107 


TuitiolS 


If) 


1.50 


"i 


15 


108 
109 


State 


290 
9, (XX) 
12,000 


300 


1,.500 


1.666 


""i.'ioo 








290 


1,956 
3,0(M) 

11, 183 
1,160 

10.278: 


110 


Endowment 

Tuition and benevolence 

State and city 


3,(X)0 

2,500 



438 




111 


1.5(K) 

0^ 

3. 2(Xll 


175,000 

2,000 

127, 151 


175 



200 


8,508 

60 

9,640 


112 
113 


A. M. E.Z.Ch 


3,(iO() 


114 



2112 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1895-96. 



Table 10. — Schools for the education of the colored race- 



Students 
in pro- 
fessional 
courses. 



Name of scliool. 



NORTH CAROLINA— cont'd. 

state Colored Normal 
School. 

Shiloh Institute * 

Gregory Normal Institute. 
Rankin- Richards Institute. 
Waters Normal Institute.. 

OHIO. 

"Wilberf orce University * . . 
Colored High School 



'PENNSYLVANIA. 

High School (North Pitt 

St.). 

Lincoln University. 

Institution for Colored 
Youth. 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Schofield Normal and In- 
dustrial School. 

Beaufort Academy 

Harbison Institute. 

Browning Industrial Home 
and School.* 

Avery Normal Institute... 

Wallingf ord Academy a... 

Brainer d Institute _ . 

Allen University — 

Benedict College 

Penn Industrial and Nor- 
mal School. 

Brewer Normal School — 

Clafliia University and Ag- 
ricultural College and 
Mechanics' Institute. 

TENNESSEE. 



10 



Howard High School 

Maury County T xi r n e r 
Normal and Industrial 
School. 

Way man Academy 

Warner Institute 

Austin High School 

Knoxville College 

Preedmen's Normal Insti- 
tute. 

Hannibal Medical College.. 

Le Moyne Normal Insti- 
tate. 

Morristown Normal Acad- 
emy. 

Bradley Academy 

Central Tenne.ssee College . 

Pisk University 

Meigs High School 

Rog-er Williams University 

* Statistics of 1894-95. 



15 



10 



Pupils 
receiving 
industrial 
training. 



Students trained in industrial branches. 



50 



20 



136 



10' 



187 



63 



97 



43 







10 



86 



131 



10 







IS 



14 



15 



03 







63 



16 



17 



24 



26 



14 0' 0^ 
a Statistics of 189i 



18 



53 



55 



55 



19 



44 



10 



54 



10 



20 



180 



25 



8 



94. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED EACE. 



2113 



professional and industrial training — equipment and income — Continued. 



Chief sources of support. 



21 



State 



Shiloh Bapt. Assn 

Am. Miss. Assn and tuition. 

State and benevolence 

Am. Bapt. H. M. S 



A. M. E. Ch. and State. 



Endowment. 



(D.S 



375 

800 



,000 



H 


mtJ 


u 


•a a 


fi 


a <s 







.g 


bifj^ 


"^ 


<J5 03 

-2 ri ft 


o 


cS<H c8 


> 


> 



23 



100 

m) 

700 
52 



5,000 




14,000 



Sis 



24 



S6,135 

a"), 000 

5.000 
13,000 



200,00fi 
5,000 



213,000 



c8 eS 



1,6.50 




116 



13,500 



26 



S350 
1,400 



226 



3,500 



2» 

> 

O-I-i 



2; 



§50 




3,300 



25,000 



m to 



28 



S219 

210 
3,000 

800 
1,589 



700 



10,000 



29 



$1,869 

510 
4,400 

916 
1,815 



27,000 



35,000 



Contributions . 



U. S., State. 
Presb.Ch... 
M. E. Ch.... 



1,000 
350 



30,000 

3,500 
5,000 



150 
690 



Am. Miss. Assn. and tuition 



300 



600 
500 



Presb. Ch 

A. M. E. Church... 
Am. Bapt. H. M. S . 
Contributions 



7,5.53 
1,000 



Am. Miss. Assn 

U. S. Slater, and Peabody State, 
funds, F. A. and S. E. So. 



300 

3.000 

300 

250 

1,800 



25,000 
1,300 
10,000 
30,000 
70, 000 
4,000 

12,000 
150, 000 



,341 


300 
400 

2,800 
336 



1,300 




5,009 
540 



2, .500 
1,464 







17,00(1 



1,000 



296 



700 
4,000 



4,000 

"i,"ooo 



5,500 



6,700 

1,330 
300 
400 

5,300 

1,800 



5,000 
"i,"296 



700 
26,500 



Tuition . 



do 

Am. Miss. Assn 

City 

Church and Miss. Society. 
NewEng. Y. M 



500 



18 

1,50 

30' 

1,905 



1,.500 
11,000 




300 



34: 



100,000 



1,000 



300 

428 



13,000 
686 



Donations and tuition 

Am. Miss. Assn. and tuition. 



P. A. S. M. E. Ch. 



5,000 



412 

,200 



1,000 



State and county - - . 

F. A. and S. Ed. S. M. E. Ch. 



140 



City 

Am. Bapt. H. M.S. 

ED 9G 



3,984 

6,000 

18 

4,0J0 



-67 



45,000 

50,000 

2,100 
100, 000 
350, 000 

6, 000 
100,000 



4,120 
1,000 



600 
8,83' 



1,550 






3,971 
5,292 



360 
1,310 



6,600 
42,259 



1,117 



60 



235 



14,300 
1,114 



4,720 

9,837 

1,5.50 
10,831 

48,861 



1,659 



2114 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

Table 10. — Schools for .the education of the colored race- 





Name of school. 


Students 

in pro- 
fessional 
courses. 


Pupils 


Students trained in industrial branches. 




industrial 
training. 


o 

CD 

o 

a 

u 


a 
3 
o 


si 

i 

'El 
M 


bi 

.S 


bi 


o 

^ 

Is 

-(J 
CD 

a 

CD 
(D 

O 

•1-1 

Eh 


a 
'bi 

3 


ft 
o 

i 


bJD 
s 

'% 

a 

CD 
O 

m 


B 


bb 

0) 


bJ) 

.s 

3 

o 
o 

o 


0) 

1 





6 


S 


"3 

EH 


"3 


a 

CD 


El 




1 


2 


3 


4 


S 


G 


1 


8 


9 


10 


11 12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 20 


.^■? 


TEXAS. 

High School*. 














5R 


Tillotson Collegiate and 

Normal Institute. 
East End High Schoolrt 


--- 






54 


75 


139 


--- 


54 


















75 


..J 


5+ 


















55 


Mary Allen Seminary 

Central High School 














15 

154 
5 


225 

16 

145 
150 


235 



31 

399 
155 






















335 




125 


lOU 


5fi 



19 





22 





















15 





1 





"5 



9 

30 


(1 

1 

40 




2 


L57 

5S 


Hearne Academy Normal 

and Industrial Institute. 

Bishop College .. . 



19 







19 


59 


Wiley University 










ai... 


m 


Colored High School-. 
























1 


B1 


Prairie View State Normal 

School. 
Paul Quinn College . _ 








77 


74 


151 


35 


39 


















66 




... 


W: 
























IfiR 


VIRGINIA. 

Ingleside Seminary * 









44 


307 

150 

50 



18 


111 

54 


190 

]7f 

43 



303 


111 

98 


497 

320 

93 


330 






















111 

54 



14 
73 



200 


Ill 

54 



73 




368 

344 

43 



1fi4- 


Gloucester Agricultural 
and Industrial School. 

Colored Graded School 

Hampton Normal and Ag- 
ricultiiral Institute. 

St. Paul Normal and In- 
dustrial School. 

Manassas Industrial School 
for Colored Youth. 

Public High School 








40 


00 

13 

50 




2 


33 

10 

50 




1 










•> 


5 

10 







8 

11 




30 


165 












3 

7 








7 





3 






17 




11 


1fi7 








168 
169 






























170 


Norfolk Mission College 


171 


Bishop Payne Divinity and 

Industrial School. 
Peabody High School 


7 





7 




















17?i 







130 



130 

































130 



30 





173 


Virginia Normal and Col- 
legiate Institute. 

Hartshorn Memorial Col- 
lege. 

Richmond Theological 
Seminary. 

WEST VIRGINIA. 

West Virginia Colored In- 
stitute. 
Storer College 








174 




























1 


175 


58 





58 


































176 


43 
34 


67 
5'> 


110 
76 


1 


33 
31 








2 





3 









5 


60 
50 


48 


7 


177 








178 


High School 






























1 

































= statistics of 1894-95. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



2115 



professional and industrial training — equipment and income — Continued. 



Chief sources of support. 


i 

o 
a<» 

, '^ 

4-1 r-f 

<B " 

3 


c3 

2 
a 

xn 

a 

3 
O 
> 


Value of grounds, buildings, 
furniture, and scientific 
apparatus. 

Amount of State or munici- 
pal aid. 


'3 

i 

0) d) 
§§ 

i 

g 

< 


g 
ft 

l| 

8.^ 

CD +^ 

%^ 

o 

a 
< 


A 
o 

a 

o 

£ . 

p 3 

o o 

g 
o 

a 
< 


D 
>. 

<D 
A 

t. . 

Si 

o 

o 




21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


2S 


29 








GOO 
l.VOO 




Sfi. fiOO 


SlOO 
.526 






$6, 100 
4,139 


15"^ 


Am. Miss. Assn 


$115 


SG'J, 665i ' 6 




S3, 613 


15.S 








154 


Donations 


5,500 


400 
65 


50,000 


522 

1 


5,740 


6,262 


1.55 


State 


1.56 


Bapt. H. M. S 








' 3,"266 
16.600 








1.57 


Am.Bapt.H. M. S _ 

Freedmen's Aid Society 


900 

2.000 

■ 


90.000 

25,000 

2,550 

T0,OCO 

3, 000 

14,090 

3,500 
572,000 


1,354 

880 




8,614 
7,681 


9, 968 

8,561 

3.200 

33,900 

1,358 


158 
1.59 
160 


State i 


300 
400 

400 
500 



8, 484 


12,000 
1.358 


$300 


5,000 


161 


A.M. E. Cb 


4,232 
5,000 


162 
163 






125 




2,775 


2,900 


164 





103, ;3(i 


165 


United States 








24,860 


134,636 


159, 496 


166 
167 


do 





84 

1,2(XI 
400 




10,000 
5,000 

60, oon 

4,000 










4,891 


4,891 


168 




161 


United Presb. Ch. 







1,900 


""'400 


7.100 
800 


9,0(X1 
1,200 


170 




1,200 



171 








17:^ 




157,000 
45,000 
30,000 

40,000 
60,000 


15,000 


3.000 
C 


3,718 
844 
385 


4.5[ 





1,250 


600 
5,176 
3,817 

5,000 
708 


19,318 
6,020 

4,202 

8,000 
2,408 


173 


Am. Bapt. H. M. S 


i 


174 


do 


1.285 


2,500 


5,000 

GOO 
5,000 

40(: 


175 


United States and State 


176 
177 




178 










1 











CHAPTER XLIV. 
EDUCATION OF THE COLOEBD RACE. 



Referencea to preceding Reports of the United States BiiTcau of EcTucntion, in ■wliicli 
tills subject bas lieen treated: In Annual Reports — 1870, pp. 61, 337-339; 1871, 
pp. 6, 7, 61-70; 1872, pp. xvii, xviii; 1873, p. Ixvi; 1875, p. xxiii; 1876, p. xvi; 
1877, pp. xxxiii-xxxviii; 1878, pp. xxviii-xxxiv; 1879, pp. xxxix-xlv; 1880, 
p. Iviii; 1881, p. Isxxii; 1882-83, pp. liv, xlviii-lvi, xlix, 85; 1883-84, p. liv; 
1881-85, p. Ixvii; 1885-86, pp. 596, 650-656; 1886-87, pp. 790, 874-881 ; 1887-88, 
pp. 20, 21, 167, 169, 988-998; 1888-89, pp. 768, 1412-1439; 1889-90, pp. 620, 621, 
624, 634, 1073-1102, 1388-1392, 1395-1485; 1890-91, pp. 620, 624, 792, 808, 915, 
961-980, 1469; 1891-92, pp. 8, 680, 688, 713, 861-867, 1002, 1234-1237; 1892-93, 
pp. 15, 442, 1551-1572, 1976; 1893-94, pp. 1019-1061; 1894-95, pp. 1331-1424; 
1895-96, pp. 2081-2115; also in Circnlars of Information— No. 3, 1883, p. 63; No. 
2, 1886, pp. 123-133; No. 3, 1888, p. 122; No. 5, 1888, pp. 53, 54, 59, 60, 80-86; No. 
1, 1892, p. 71. Special Report on District of Cohimbia for 1889, pp. 193, 300, 
301-400. Special report, Ne^v Orleans Exposition, 1884-85, pp. 468-470, 775-781. 

The total enrollment in tlio public schools of the 16 Southern States and the Dis- 
trict of Columbia for the year 1896-97 was 5,398,076, the number of colored children 
being 1,460,084 and the number of white children 3,937,992. The estimated number 
of cliildren in the South from 5 to 18 years of age was 8,625,770. Of this number 
2,816,340, or 32.65 i)er cent, were children of the negro race, and 5,809,430, or 67.35 
per ceut, were white children. By reference to Table 1 on page 2297 it will be 
seen that the number of colored children enrolled was 51,84 per cent of the colored 
school i)opuIatiou, and the number of white children enrolled was 67.79 per cent of 
the white school population. The average daily attendance in the public schools of 
the Southern States was 3,585,611, the number in the colored schools being 904,505, 
or 61.95 per cent of the colored school enrollment, and the number in average attend- 
ance in the v.hite schools being 2,061,106, or 67.58 per cent, of the white school 
enrollment. 

It may Lh) noted that in Louisiana, Mississixipi, and South Carolina the colored 
school population exceeds the white school population. In Kentucky the number 
of colored children enrolled was 65.52 per ceut of the colored school population, a 
percentage of enrollment for the colored schools greater than in any other State, 
and larger than the percentage of white enrollment in at least six of the Soutiiern 
States. In the colored schools of Alabama, Arkansas, Louisiana, and South Carolina 
the average daily attendance was a greater percentage of their enrollment than was 
credited to the white schools of the same States upon their enrollment. Of the 
119,893 public school teachers in the Southern States, 27,435 belong to the colored 
race. There was one colored teacher to every 33 colored children in average attend- 
ance, and one white teacher to every 29 white children in average attendance. 

For the year 1896-97 the total expenditure for the public schools of the 16 Southern 
States and the District of Columbia was $31,144,801. The cost of the schools for the 
colored race can not be accurately stated, but a fair estimate would place the cost 
of the colored schools at about $6,575,000. This is something over 20 per ceutof tho 
aggregate expenditure for the Southern States, while the average attendance of col- 
ored children was about 26 per cent of the entire average attendance of white 
and colored pupils. Since 1870 the amount of money expended for public schools in 

2295 



2296 EDUCATION REPORT, 1896-97. 

the South has reached $514,922,268. It is believed that about $100,000,000 of this 
sum must have been expended for tlie education of the colored children. The total 
expenditure for each year, and the aggregate for the twenty-seven years, as well as 
the common school enrollment of white and of colored children for each year since 
1876 are shown in Table 2 on the next page. 

SECONDARY AND HIGHEK EDUCATION. 

There are at least 178 schools in the United States for the secondary and higher 
education of colored youth exclusively. For the year 1896-97 only 169 of these 
schools reported to this office. Of this number 1 was in Illinois, 2 in Indiana, 1 in 
New Jersey, 2 in Ohio, and 3 in Pennsylvania, the remaining 160 being in the South- 
ern States. These schools are all to be found classified according to their grades in 
the lists of universities and colleges, normal schools, and public and private sjoond- 
ary schools in other chapters of this annual report, but more complete statistics 
are given for each of these schools in detail in Tables 9 and 10 of this chapter, and 
summarized in Tables 3 to 8. 

Table 3 shows that in the 169 schools there were employed 1,795 T)rofessors and teach- 
ers, 787 males and 1,008 females. There w^as atotal enrollment in these schools of 45,402 
students, 20,243 males and 25,159 females, an increase of .5,275 over the eurolluient of 
the previous year. In collegiate grades there were 2,108 students, 1,526 males and 582 
females, an increase of 653 over the previous year. In the secondary grades there 
were 15,203 students, 6,944 males and 8,259 females, an increase of 1,640 over the year 
before. In the elementary grades of these secondary and collegiate institutions there 
were 28,091 pupils, 11,773 males and 16,318 females, an increase of 2,999 over the year 
1895-96. 

The classification of students according to courses of study is given in Table 4 and 
part of Table 5. In all the colored schools there were 2,410 students pursuing the 
classical course, 1,312 males and 1,098 females. There were 974 students in scientific 
courses, 447 males and 527 females. In English courses there were 11,340 students, 
4,667 males and 6,673 females. The business courses had 295 students, 179 males and 
116 females. Table 5 shows that there were 5,081 students in normal or teachers' 
training courses, 2,382 males and 2,699 females. 

Table 5 shows that there w^ere 117 graduates from college courses, 103 males and 
14 females. There were 1,256 graduates from normal courses, 537 males and 719 
females. The high school courses had 846 graduates, 333 males and 513 females. 

The number of students pursuing professional courses and the number of gradu- 
ates from such courses are given in Table 6. In all there were 1,311 professional stu- 
dents, 1,137 males and 174 females. There were 611 students and 68 graduates in 
theology, 104 students and 30 graduates in law, 345 students and 71 graduates in medi- 
cine, 38 students and 10 graduates in dentistry, 39 studeuts and 20 graduates in 
pharmacy, and 174 students and 35 graduates in nurse training. 

Table 7 shows that in the 169 schools for the colored race there were 13,581 pupils 
and studeuts receiving industrial training, 4,970 males and 8,611 females. The 
number in industrial training was almost 40 per cent of the total enrollment in these 
schools. There were 1,027 of these pupils being trained in farm and garden work, 
1,496 in carpentry, 166 in bricklaying, 144 in plasteriug, 149 in painting, 85 in tin 
and sheet metal work, 227 in forging, 248 in machine-shop work, 185 in shoemaking, 
689 in printing, 6,728 in sewing, 2,349 in cooking, and 2,753 in other trades. 

The financial summary of the 169 colored schools is given in Table 8. In the 
libraries of these schools there were 224,794 volumes, valued at $203,731. The aggre- 
gate value of grounds, buildings, furniture, and scientific apparatus was $7,714,958. 
The value of benefactions or bequests received during the year 189-6-97 was $303,050. 
Tho schools received from public funds for support for the year $271,839, from tuition 
fees $141,262, from productive funds $92,080, and from sources not named $540,097, 
making an aggregate income of $1,045,278 for the year. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



2297 



Table 1. — Common school statistics, classified hy race, 1896-97. 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware (1891-92) 

District of Columbia . . . 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky (1895-96) 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi (1894-95). .. 

Missouri 

Korth CaroUna (1895-96) 

South Carolina 

Tennessee (1895-96) 

Texas (1895-96) 

Virginia 

West Virginia (1895-96) 

Total 

Total, .1889-90.... 



Estimated number 

of persons 5 to 18 

years of age. 



White. Colored. 



334. 700 
331, 700 
39, 850 
45,440 
92, 240 
369, 000 
557, 400 
206, 500 
268, 000 
212, 700 
890, 300 
389, 700 
176, 700 
480, 300 
800, 500 
340, 100 
274, 300 



5, 809, 430 
a5, 132, 948 



286, 900 

128, 500 

8,980 

25, 000 

73, 060 
346, 300 

95, 400 
220, 000 

77, 200 
309, 800 

54, 200 
233, 700 
296, 500 
162, 000 
245, 500 
242, 000 

11, 300 



Percentage of 
the whole. 



White. Colored. 



2, 816, 340 
a2,510, 847 



53.84 
72.08 
81.61 
64.51 
55.80 
51.59 
85.39 
48.42 
77.64 
40.71 
94.26 
62.51 
37.34 
74.78 
74.53 
58.43 
96.04 



67.35 
67.15 



46.16 
27.92 
18.39 
35.49 
44.20 
48.4] 
14.61 
51.58 
22.38 
59.29 

5.74 
37.49 
62.66 
25.22 
25.47 
41.57 

3.96 



32.65 
82.85 



Pupils enrolled 

in the 
public schools. 



White. Colored 



198, 605 
234, 078 
28, 316 
27, 797 
65, 913 
266, 991 
337, 618 
103, 868 
186, 416 
162, 830 
641, 237 
244, 376 
119, 027 
386, 483 
481,419 
244, 583 
208, 435 



3, 937, 992 
3, 402, 420 



120, 921 
82, 192 
4,858 
15, 198 
39, 502 

179, 180 
62, 508 
66, 079 
43, 531 

187, 785 
31,915 

126, 544 

139, 156 
95, 102 

135, 149 

123, 234 
7,230 



1,460,084 
1,296,959 



Per cent of per- 
sons 5 to 18 
yeai-s enrolled. 



White. Colored. 



59.34 
70. 57 
71.06 
61.17 
71.46 
72.36 
60. 57 
50.30 
69.56 
76.55 
72.02 
62.71 
67.36 
80.47 
60.14 
71.92 
75. 99 



67.79 
66.29 



42. 15 
63.96 
54.10 
60.79 
54.07 
51.74 
65.52 
30.36 
56.39 
60.61 
58.88 
54.15 
46.93 
58.70 
55.05 
50.92 
63.98 



51.84 
51.65 



State. 


Average daily attendance. 


Per cent of enrollment. 


Number of teachers. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 




6 130, 230 

144, 532 
b 19, 746 

21, 783 

43, 623 
156, 504 
247, 203 

75, 384 
111, 208 

99, 048 
468, 611 
155, 899 

82, 627 
272, 963 
349, 913 

145, 218 
136, 614 


b 82, 770 
50, 977 
b 2, 947 
11,530 
25, 854 
90, 179 
39, 658 
48, 739 
22, 419 

103, £35 
21, 820 
75, 826 
99, 932 
65, 213 
90, 336 
68, 203 
4,467 


65.57 
61.75 
69.73 
78.36 
66.18 
58.63 
73.23 
72.58 
59.66 
60.83 
73.08 
63.79 
69.42 
70.63 
72.68 
59. 37 
65.54 


68.45 
62. 02 
60.66 
75.87 
65.45 

50. 33 
63.44 
73.76 

51. 50 
55.19 
68.37 
59.92 
71.81 
68. 57 
66.84 
55.34 
61.78 


4,725 
5,617 
734 
715 
2,016 
6. 014 
8,727 
2,630 
4, 062 
4,591 

14, 176 
5,129 
2,928 
7,257 

10, 470 
6,448 
6,219 


2,398 
1,564 




Delaware (1891-92) 

District of Columbia .. . 


106 
356 
642 




3 247 


Kentucky (1895-96) .... 


1,482 
1,052 




774 


Mississippi (1894-95) . . . 


3,264 
762 


North Carolina (1895-96) 


2,756 
2,045 


Tennessee (1895-96).... 

Texas (1895-96) 

Virginia ... 

West Virginia (1895-96) 


1,878 

2,747 

2,127 

235 


Total 


2, 661, 106 
2, 165, 249 


904, 505 
813, 710 


67.58 
63.64 


61.95 1 92. 4.".8 1 27.43.5 


Total, 1889-90 .... 


62.74 


78, 903 


24, 072 



a United States Census. & Approximately. 

Table 2. — Sixteen former slave States and the District of Columhia. 



Tear. 


Common school 
enrollment. 


Expend- 
itures 
(both 
races). 


Year. 


Common school 
enrollment. 


Expend- 
itures 
(both 
races) . 




White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


1870 71 






$10, 385, 464 

11, 623, 238 
11, 176, 048 
11,823,775 
13,021.514 

12, 033, 865 
11,231,073 
12, 093, 091 
12, 174, 141 

12, 678, 685 

13, 656, 814 
15, 241, 740 
16,363,471 
17,884, 558 
19, 253, 874 


1885-86 

1886-87 

1887-88 

1888-89 

1889-90 

1890-91 

1891-92 

1892-03 

1893-94 

1894-95 

1895-96 

1896-97 

Total . . . 


2, 773, 145 

2, 975, 773 
3, 110, 606 

3, 197, 830 
3, 402, 420 
3, 570, 624 
3, 607, 549 
3, 697, 899 
3, 835, 593 
3,845,414 
3, 861, 300 
3, 937, 992 


1, 048, 659 
1,118,556 
1, 140, 405 
1,213,092 
1, 296, 959 
1, 329, 549 
1,354,316 
1,367,515 
1, 424, 995 
1, 441, 282 
1, 429, 713 
1, 460, 084 


$20,208,113 
20 821 969 


1871 72 






1872-73 






21,810,158 


1873 74 






23, 171, 878 


1874 75 






24, 880, 107 


1875 76 






26, 690, 310 


1876-77 


1, 827, 139 

2, 034, 946 
2, 018. 684 
2,215,674 
2, 234, 877 
2, 249, 263 
2, 370, 110 
2, 546, 448 
2, 676, 911 


571, 506 

675, 150 

■ 685,942 

784, 709 

802, 374 

802, 982 

817, 240 

1, 002, 313 

1, 030, 463 


27, 691, 488 


1877-78 


28, 535, 738 


1878-79 


29, 223, 546 


1879-80 


29, 372 990 


1880-81 


30, 729, 819 


1881-82 

1882 83 


31, 144, 801 


1883-84 






514, 922, 268 


1884^85 















2298 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1896-97. 



Table 3. — Teachers and students in insiiiiitions for the colored race in 1S9G-97. 





o 

o 


Teaclic 


TS. 








Stttdents. 












Elementary. 


Secondary. 


Collegiate. 


Total. 


State. 




























u 
o 




i 






© 












.2 






6 
"3 






fci 


CLl 

Is 


g 


+3 


■^ 


s 


o 


■a 


% 


-8 


*« 


§ 


O 


& 


a 


o 




^ 


'A 


fR 


H 


% 


p=l 


H 


^ 


h 


H 


^ 


^^. 


H 


N 


^ 


H 


Alabama 


13 


104 


ill 


2X5 


1,131 


1,427 


2,55S 


1, 223 1. 008 


.2, 231 


38 


12 


50 


1 

2,392 2,447 


4,839 


Arkansas 


8 


.?!) 


29 


49 


593 


696 


1, 289 


253 


210 


463 


23 7 


30 


669, 913 


1, 782 




1 
4 


3 
85 



31 


116 








24 
408 


590 


30 
G9S 


10! 2 
342; 82 


12 

424 


34 8 


42 


District of 


144 


148 


292 


894' 820! 1,714 


Columbia. 




























1 j 


Plorida 

Georgia 


f; 


If 


15 


25 


250 


329 


579 


67 


m 


103 








317 4^5 742 


20 


71 


153 


224 


1,354 


2,416 


3,770 


629'l,<)49 


1,678 


174 


16 


190 


2,157, S,48ll 5,638 


Illinois 

Indiana 

Kentucky 


1 


1 


1 


2 








16 


V4 


40 


(1 








16 24 40 





8 
34 


10 


18 


2C 


27 


53 


35 


50 


85 








6l! 77i 138 


7 


40 


74 


453 


784 


1,237 


466 


586 


1,052 


98 


80 


178 


l,017i l,450j 2,467 


Tjouisiana 


fi 


48 


50 


98 


843 


1,193 


2,034 


186 


181 


367 


49 


21 


70 


1,070 1,3S5! 2,471 


Maryland 


6 


8 


20 


28 


60 


183 


243 


9o 


186 


279 


10 





10 


163 369 


532 


Mississippi ... 


fi 


42 


52 


94 


415 


561 


376 


520 


334 


So4 


105 





177 


1, 040: 967 


2,007 


Missouri 


5 


17 


Ifi 


38 


236 


247 


483 


171 


'218 


389 


5 


5 


412| 465 


877 


INew Jersey.. . 


1 


3 


5 


8 


11 


7 


18 


17 


16 


33 











28; 23 1 51 


N. Caroliua . - . 


2H 


84 


90 


174 


983 


1, 601 


2, 644 


672 


860 


1, 532 


201 


60 


261 


1, 856 2, 581; 4, 437 


Ohio 


2 
3 


14 
!7 


9 

8 


23 
25 


7i 
111 


79 
156 


150 
267 


82 
236 


137 


179 
373 


47 


7;i 


62 
48 


200! 191 
395j 293 


391 


Pennsylvania. 


4S| 


688 


S. Carolina 


1? 


48 


75 


123 


1,202 


1,270 


2,472 


410 


524 


934 


14 3 


17 


1,626 1,797 


3, 423 


Tennessee 


14 


AS 


101 


150 


1, 772 


2,272 


4,044 


570 


601 


1,171 


193 179 


372 


2, 535 3, 052 


5,587 


Texas 


10 


40 


58 


99 


568 


1, 006 


1,574 


349 


440 


789 


84 31 


lib 


1, OOli 1,477 


2, 478 


Virginia 


14 


70 


123 


193 


1,458 


1,745 


3,203 


433 


941 


1,374 


85 2 


87 


1,976 2,688 


4, 664 


West Virginia 


3 


11 


10 


21 


94 


111 


205 


84 


105 
8,259 


189 






178' 2H5 

1 


394 








Total... 


169 


787 


1,008 


i, 795 


11,773 


16,318 


28, 091 


6,944 


15,203 


i, 528 582 2, 108 20, 243 25, 159 


45, 402 



Table 4. — Classification of colored students, h)j courses of study, 1896-97. 





Students in 
classical courses. 


Students in sci- 
entific ceurses. 


Students in 
English courses. 


Students in 
business courses. 


State. 


6 

■a 


6 
'3 

a 


3 

o 

EH 


6 


6 

a 


"3 
o 

H 




.2 
"a 

a 


o 


CD 


a 


3 

o 
H 




11 

52 

3 

129 


3 , 
29 


218 


14 

81 

3 

347 


2 

32 
5 


1 

38 

2 


3 

70 

7 


392 

168 

2 


497 

229 




889 

397 

2 


9 

7 


52 





6 


49 





15 




7 







District of Columbia . . . 


101 








233 

735 
10 


320 

1,359 

24 


559 
2,094 
,,40 







121 

35 
73 
47 
40 
41 
19 


175 
14 

165 
67 

218 
40 
44 
18 


150 



50 

161 

35 

107 

30 

11 



14 

3 

29 

31 

176 

7 

36 
6 


271 

85 

234 
82 

147 

71 

30 



189 
17 

194 
98 

394 
47 
80 
20 


46 



68 



114 

















3 
53 


21 
64 


33 
15 
35 
12 
55 
57 
14 


12 
28 



6 
111 


55 

9 
29 
17 
50 
44 
57 


15 

81 



27 

175 



88 

24 

64 

29 

105 

101 

71 


70 
330 

57 
129 

18 



533 

56 

56 
078 
486 
186 
522 


170 
422 
237 ' 
187 

20 



696 

40 

29 
658 
775 
237 
767 


240 

752 

294 

31<1 

38 



1,229 

96 

85 

1,336 

1 201 

423 

1,289 


2 
10 


1 

7 


3 




17 

















Missouri .- 






69 

15 

5 

10 











25 
2 

SO 



I 







94 




17 




11 


South Carolina 


30 


























1 




Total 


1,312 


1,098 


2,410 


447 


527 


974 


4,667 


6,673 


11, 340 


179 


lis 


295 







EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



2299 



Table 5. — Xuviher of colored normal students and graduates in lSDG-91 



State. 


Stiiilents in nor- 
mal courses. 


Grafluates of higb- 
Bchool coiirsos. 


Grathiates of nor- 
mal courses. 


Graduates c 
logiate con 


f col- 
rses. 


Male. 


malo. 


Total. 


ilale. 


Fe- 
lUiile. 


Total. 


Male. 


Fe- 
male. 


Total. 


Male. 


Fo- 

malo. 


Total. 


Alabama 


828 
103 


ceo 

61 


1,497 
164 


8 
7 


10 
4 


18 
11 


303 
6 


281 

7 


580 
13 


2 
3 




1 


2 

4 






District of Columbia 

noriJa 


75 

17 

114 




79 

10 
240 




154 

27 

354 




27 



44 

1 
6 


58 
2 

71 
4 

10 


85 
2 

115 
5 
16 


26 
7 
3 


1 
41 


62 
10 
44 


5 

9 





5 



5 





14 



















77 

12 

17 

85 

61 



221 

29 

54 

102 

266 

137 

108 

76 


144 

60 

33 

156 

57 



232 

54 

29 

223 

365 

138 

65 

84 


221 

72 

50 

241 

113 



453 

83 

83 

325 

631 

275 

173 

160 


4 

8 

1 

24 

6 



33 

2 

5 

14 

31 

14 

36 

9 


13 
17 
11 
26 

5 


36 
12 

6 
43 
00 
24 
89 

9 


17 
25 
12 
50 
11 


69 
14 
11 
57 
91 
38 
125 
18 










14 
11 
14 

14 



44 

7 


19 
19 

4 

"o 

14 
20 


33 
30 
18 

37 



58 

27 


5 
2 
3 

2 


n 

7 

30 



16 
5 
3 








2 
3 


2 
1 




5 




2 




3 




2 









13 


Ohio 


10 




30 




37 
55 
24 
20 



58 

111 

30 

54 

2 


95 
166 
51 
74 
2 







13 




6 


Virginia 













Total 


2,382 2.699 


5, 081 


333 


513 


846 


537 


719 


1,259 


103 


14 


117 











Tai'-lk 6. — Colored professional students and graduates in 1S06-97. 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Kentucky 

Louiaian'a 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

New J ersey 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

I'ennsylTania 

South 'Carolina 

Teniiessee 

Texas 

Virf,'inia 

West ^' irginia 



Students in pro- 
fessional courses. 



107 



25 



Professional students a-ul graduates. 



Theol- 
ogy- 



i07 



Law. 



Medi- 
cine. 



Dentist- 
ry- 



Phar- 
macy. 



Nurse 
traiuini; 




295 




295 



Total. 



154 





13 

38 

2 

5 

4 



116 

15 

48 

50 

221 

4 

65 



1.137 



193 



13 

43 

2 

57 

4 



122 

15 

48 

88 

221 

13 

67 



1,311 



151 





13 



2 

5 

4 



43 

13 

48 

47 

36 

4 

65 










38 





51 



150 






611 68 



30 



5 


52 


6 



36 

9 

2 


174 



2300 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1896-97. 



Table 7. — Industrial training of colored students in 1896-97. 





Pupils receiving 
industrial 
training. 


Students trained in industrial branches. 


State. 


6 

-a 


6 
i 

PR 






1 




PI 


PI 
•a 

J 


a 

+3 

1 


J3 

a© 


^^ 


pq 


ft 


r 


a 

i 




p 
1 








i 

t-l 





1,117 
132 

34 
151 

76 
251 


988 

182 

6 

74 

118 

1,272 


2,105 

314 

40 

225 

194 

1,523 


294 
40 
14 

"44 
23 


195 
29 
20 
88 
68 

165 


17 



17 



17 

1 


I 


45 
14 


12 
9 
2 

13 


38 
3 

'"i 




69 
23 
3 
71 
10 
66 


542 
119 


125 
83 


687 


Arkansas 


13 








10 




43 
112 
956 






Florida 






44 
7 


63 
85 






9 


9 





11 


11 


283 










































20 
394 

48 
360 

65 

28 
442 

83 

28 
667 
142 
421 
452 

59 


201 
433 
207 
432 
140 
23 

1,116 
133 
88 

1,042 
416 
693 
915 
132 


221 
827 
255 
792 
205 
51 

1,558 
216 
116 

1,709 
558 

1,114 

1,367 
191 


18 

73 



90 



. 15 

66 





53 

5 

167 

125 


7 
78 
8 
94 
31 
28 

142 
38 
28 

182 
41 

125 
77 
52 
















2 
45 

'"57 


81 
319 
164 
416 
140 

23 
941 

67 

"995 
407 
517 
760 
126 


81 

70 

147 

160 


120 




10 


1 


21 


60 


10 


48 
4 



4 

47 


209 




75 


Mississippi 






5 






104 








22 


80 



12 

5 








26 


18 
79 




20 




14 






2 




31 



18 
18 



65 
46 
16 
42 
92 
36 
42 

4 


23 
446 

65 

88 
196 
110 
214 
318 

69 


15 


North Carolina 

Ohio 


236 





96 


South "Carolina 


79 


26 



4 


22 


76 


93 
6 


Texas 






4 
10 






5 
18 


2 




7 


10 

8 


1 


19 

4 


16 

40 


814 


"West Virginia 










Total 


4,970 


8,611 


13, 581 


1,027 


1,496 


166 


144 


149 


85 


227 


248 


185 


689 


6,728 


2,349 


2,753 







Table 8. — Financial summary of the 169 colored schools. 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

^Delaware 

District of Columbia . 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Kew Jersey 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

PennsylA'auia 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

"West Virginia 



Total. 



PI f-io 



t> 



$35, 377 

l,020j 

■200 



15 
10, 703 



133 

2, 600 



8,110 

200 



24, 464 





1,745 

47, 538 

1,950 

167, 480 

3,515 



16. 125 
5, 660 



17, 319 
2,376 

33, 770 
169 
212 

18, 567 
10, 700 

5,000 

16, 820 
2,910 

100 

17, 250 
6,600 

14, 000 
8.475 

18, 166 
7,575 

17,400 
5,600 



305,050 224,794 



$15, 970 
2,935 



14. 500 

2; 350 

29, 659 

190 

200 

17, 025 

8,800 

4,400 

24, 400 

2,159 

75 

10, 035 
6,500 

14, 000 
5,680 

17, 330 
6,700 

11, 223 
3,600 



fd P S 0! 
a !-i-S a 



$532, 247 
17.0, 200 

17, SOO 
965, 000 

70, 500 
1, 324, 262 

18, 000 
2, 500 
294, 203 
326, 236 
110, 000 
431, 500 
166, 300 
1,000 
523, 710 
108, 900 
214, 000 
212, 500 
904, 400 
324, 600 
888, 000 
110,000 



t:i 



$14, 730 
8,200 
4,000 
32, 600 
11, 500 
17, 300 



t; p 
1° 



P p 
o o 



29, 220 
9,000 

12, 900 
9,750 

18, 000 
3, 000 

17, 889 

16, 400 



3,100 

3, 100 

20, 600 

25, 550 

15, 000 



203, 731 7, 714, 958 271, 839 



$7, 271 
5,807 



7,914 

292 

23,014 



5,094 
4,054 
3,200 
7,313 
1,761 

8,588 
1,822 



8,485 
24, 958 
23, 683 

7,681 
325 



141, 262 



O o ^ 



$7, 766 
2,100 



9,000 



5,700 



4,578 

6,440 

1,240 

10, 000 

125! 



725 

1, 323, 



p 8=2 



$36, 778 

4, 145J 
4, 200 1 

n.oooj 

145 
81,115 



8,173 

22, 610 
11, 610 

23, 222 
2,996 



49, 857 

8,771 



1, 000 37, 633 

2, 800 38, 633 
500 25, 134 

37,224 164,406 

1, 559 0, 6G9 



92,080 540,097 



Ss 



$66, 545 

20, 252 

8,200 

60, 514 

11, 937 

127, 129 



47, 085 
42, 104 
28, 950 
50, 285 
22, 882 
3, 000 
77, 059 
28, 316 



50, 218 
69. 491 
69, 917 
234, 861 
26, 553 



1, 045, 278 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE 2301 



"SOCIAL AND PHYSICAL CONDITION OF NEGROES IN CITIES." 

Under the above title the Atlanta University has recently published a valuable 
report of an investigation made under the direction of that institution by a number 
of its graduates. The introduction to that report and the three leading paj^ers 
by the principal investigators are reprinted below : 

INTRODUCTION. 

The papers presented in this report were written exclusively by colored men and 
women, and are based npon statistical investigations made by them nndcr the 
direction of Atlanta University. 

The investigation was begun by an inquiry on the part of three graduates of 
Atlanta University into the causes of the excessive mortality among negroes. A 
conference was held on the subject at Atlanta University in May, 1896, and the facts 
brought out at that conference were so significant that the investigation was con- 
tinued for another year along similar lines, but on a more extensive scale, and a 
second conference was held in May, this year. The cooperation of graduates of 
other institutions was invited. The present investigation, therefore, is the result 
of the joint efforts of graduates of Atlanta University, Fisk, Berea, Lincoln, Spelman, 
Howard, Meharry, and other institutions for the higher education of the negroes. 

The conclusions which these men and women have reached as a result of their 
investigations are, in some respects, most Surprising; especially their conclusions as 
to the effect of environment and economic conditions upon the vital energies of the 
race. Their conclusions were, in substance, that the excessive mortality of their 
people can not be attributed in any large degree to unfavorable conditions of environ- 
ment, but must be chiefly attributed to the ignorance of the masses of the people 
and their disregard of the laws of health and morality. The significance of this 
conclusion is tersely expressed by one of the writers, who says: 

"This last fact, that the excessive death rate of the colored people does not arise 
from diseases due to environment, is-of vast importance. If poor houses, unhealthy 
localities, bad sewerage, and defective plumbing were responsible for their high 
death rate, there would be no hope of reducing the death rate until either the col- 
ored people became wealthy, or philanthropic persons erected sanitary houses, or 
municipalities made appropriations to remove those conditions. But since the 
excessive death rate is not due to these causes, there is reason for the belief that it 
may be reduced without regard to the present economic condition of the colored 
people." 

The attention of the members of the conference seemed to be mainly directed to 
a consideration of the social questions affecting the progress of the race. The 
sentiment of the conference was voiced by one writer in these words : 

"If we are to strike at the root of the matter, it will not be at sanitary regulation, 
but Jit social reconstruction and moral regeneration." 

The solution of the problem will be found in the wise direction of the numerous 
charitable, religious, and educational organizations of colored people already estab- 
listied. As a means toward that end, the university will continue the city problem 
investigation along the lines upon which it was begun, and will hold a third con- 
ference at Atlanta next May. The subject of the next conference can not now be 
announced, but in accordance with the expressed wish of members of the last con- 
ference, it will be some subject dealing with the social conditions of the people. 

The result of the present investigation has been, on the whole, distinctly encour- 
aging. In the opinion of the committee having the investigation in charge, the 
negro has nothing to fear from a most rigid and searching investigation into hia 
physical :md social condition, but such an investigation can be made most helpful 
and valuable. 

Results of the Investigation. 

[Note. — The three following papers on the results of the investigation were written 
by the three members of the coufereuce who iudividnally collected the most data: 
Mr. Butlev R. Wilson, a member of the comuiittee, who gathered data relating to 100 
families that had migrated from North Carolina to Cambridge, Mass. ; Prof. E^igene 
Harris, of Fisk University, who made an extensive investigation in Nashville, 
and Mr. L. M. Hershaw, of Washington, D. C, who had in charge the very laliori- 
ous work of analyzing the reports of the boards of health for the past fifteen 
years. — Ed, ] 



2302 EDUCATION REPORT, 1896-97. 

GENEKAL SUMMAKY.' 

In making this investigation of tlie habits, morals, and environment of uogroea 
living in cities, three things have been kept constantly in view, viz : 

First. To obtain accurate information, vrithont regard to cherished theories or 
race pride 5 

Second. To make the inquiry practical and helpful, and not merely for scientific 
results; and, 

Third. To induce the people to apply the remedies -which they have in their own 
hands for the evils which are found to exist and which retard their progress. 

The results to bo gained depended entirely upon the intelligence^ and litness of the 
investigators, who were selected with great care from the ranks of well-known 
colored educators, ministers, physicians, lawyers, and business men living among 
the people covered by the investigation. All the data were gathered by this body 
of trained colored leaders, and they are believed to be perhai)3 more than usually 
accurate, because of the investigators' knowledge of the character, habits, and 
prejudices of the people, and because of the fact that they v,"cr6 not hindered by 
the suspicions which confront the white investigator, and which seriously affect the 
accuracy of the answers to his q^uestions. 

The vv'ork of the investigators was entirely voluntary and was done with a will- 
ingness and industry highly gratifying. 

The cities embraced in the investigation, with a single exception, are located iu 
regions of heaviest negro population, and are fairly representative of other cities 
containing large numbers of negroes. 

The data obtiiined v/ere T)ublished in the May Bulletin of the United States Depart- 
ment of Labor, and cover so wide a range of useful information that only a few 
things can be pointed out here. 

Ee'ferriug to the tables of this Bulletin, we find one noticeable fact in Table 3, 
namely, that the size of colored families is much smaller than is commonly supposed, 
the average being 4.17 persons. 

Tables o and 6, giving household conditions by families — the average i)er8ons per 
sleeping room and the number of rooms per family — show that the general belief 
that the tenements and houses occupied by colored people are greatly overcrowded 
is not founded on facts. These tables do not show that any great overcrowding 
exists, on the whole, although for certain individual families and groups the aver- 
CL(jea are somewhat larger. It also appears that the average number of living rooms 
is^much larger than has been thought to be the case. An average of 2.22 persons 
to a sleeping room in Atlanta, 2.44 persons iu Nashville, and 1.96 persons in Cam- 
brido-e, and 2.05 persons in ail the other cities covered by the investigation, is an 
unei-qjected and important showing, and reverses the idea that the number of fami- 
lies having but one room each for all purposes was very largo and was the rule 
instead of the exception. Out of a, total of 1,137 families investigated only 117, or 
10.29 per cent, had but one room each for their use for all purposes. 

Tabic 7, giving number of families and means of support, shows a large proportion 
of females^who either support families unaided or who contribute to the support of 
families. 

Of the male heads only 26.7 per cent were able to support their families without 
assistance from oth.T members'. Of the 1,137 families 650, or 57.17 per cent, were 
supported wholly or in part by female heads. 

In comparison with Avhite female heads of families and those contributing to 
family support there is quite a large excess on the part of colored women. 

This table calls attention to the enforced absence of mothers from their homes 
and the daily abandonment, by these mothers who are compelled to aid in earning 
the family support, of their young children to the evil associations, the temptations, 
and vicious liberty of the alleys, courts, and slums. 

To attempt to prove from the showing of this table that negro men are nnwill- 
ing'to support their families and that they are lazy and shiftless Avould bo unfair. 
Careful inquiry by a number of the investigators indicates very strongly that the 
comparatively small support given by these men to their families is not due to unwill- 
ingness, but to their inability to get work as readily and constantly as the Avomen. 
At the South white men refuse to work at the bench, in the mill, and at other employ- 
ments v?ith colored men, who for this reason are denied work, and therefore unable 
to earn means with which to support their families. 

This fact was found to exist in the city of Cambridge, where a large per cent of 
the men in the Imndred families investigated, in reply to an inquiry, said that they 
had been refused work because they were colored, and a number of them said that 
they were unable to follow their trades, but had to "job around" with unsteady 
employment for the same reason. 



iBy Mr. Butler K. Wilsou (1881), Boston, Mass. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLOKED EACE. 2303 

The ■women iu tliese families iiud steady employment as domestic servants and 
laundresses, and at the Soutli find but little competition from white women. 

The investigation givca a great many data on this industrial side of the question, 
which want of epaco will not now allow ns to consider. 

Tables 8 and 9, giving the number and per cent of persons sick during the year 
and the number and i)er cent of deaths during tlie past five ycai's by causes, show that 
the diseases most fatal to the colored pooxile are consumption and pneumonia. While 
the average length of time of sickness from it is short, malarial fever is shown to bo 
one of the isiost prevalent diseases. Kheumatism is also shown to be quite prevalent. 
Both of these diseases, as well as typhoid fever and puenmonia, may to a great 
extiMit bo kept in abeyance by the observance of hygienic rules and a proper cars 
of the health. 

In the 100 Cambridge families it was found that many of the men work in the water 
department, and after the day's work eat the evening meal witliout changing their 
damp clothing, often going to sleep in their chairs for an hour orinoro and then 
going to a lodge or "society meeting," remaining not infrequently until 11 and 12 
o'clock. 

These tables also sTiow that the difference "between the death rate of the white and 
colored people from diarrhea, diphtheria, scarlet fever, irialarial fever, and tyjihoid 
fever, all diseases chieiiy aifected by environment, is very slight. 

Table 10, giving sickness by sanitarj'- condition of honses, shows that Avhile sani- 
ary conditions have a very import.ant bearing, they are not important enough to 
account for the dili'erence of per cent in the death rate between the white and colored 
people. > 

Great caution must bo observed in making dednctions from this table. While it 
IS intended to show the bearing of sanitary conditions on the health of the com- 
munity, the results obtained are not conclusive. It would bo erroneous, for instance, 
to attribute to bad sanitary conditions the increased amount of sickness in families, 
and leave out of consideration such factors as irregular habits, indifference to healthy 
living quarters, and the intiratite relation between poverty and ill health. 

By reference lo the table it will bo seen that the number of persons sick in Atlanta 
was 163 out of a total of 577, or 28.25 per cent, where the light and air were good ; and 
that out of 367 i^orsons living whore the light and air were bad, 120, or 32.70 percent, 
were sick, a difference of only 15 per cent between houses with good and bad condi- 
tions as to light and air. 

One huiulred and twenty-eight persons living in hoiises with good light and air 
lost 5,819 days by sickness, or an average of 45.46 days each; while 102, or 26 persons 
less, lost, xinder bad conditions of light and air, only 4,361 days, or an average of 
42.75 days each, a difference of 6 per cent, the average days of sickness being more 
in houses with good light and air than in those where the light and air were bad. 

This table farther shows that out of 537 persons living in Atlanta in houses with 
good ventilation 153, or 28.49 per cent, Avero sick during the year, losing, for the 
124 reporting, 5,927 days, or an average of 47.80 days each; while out of 427 i^ersons 
living in houses with bad ventilation 154, or 36 per cent, were sick during the year, 
133 of v.'hora lost 0,050 days, or an average of 45.49 days each, a difference of only 26 
per cent between the per cent of i^orsons sick where ventilation was good and where 
it was bad, the average number of days again being greater for those under good 
conditions than for those under bad. 

Table 15, giving general description of houses, shows that a large proportion of 
the houses occupied by the 1,137 families were wooden structures, detached and 
located in neighborhoods of fair character. Of the 1,031 houses but 43 had bath- 
rooms, and 183 had water-closets, 95 of which were in the Cambridge houses. In 
Atlanta and Cambridge the houses with bad outside sauitary conditions predomi- 
nated. In all the other cities the houses with good outside sanitary conditions pre- 
dominated, the latter being greatly in excess for the entire territory covered. 

This paper may be summarized as follows: 

First. All the data in tho investigation have been gathered by intelligent colored 
men and women living in the communities covered. These investigators v.e:o not 
hindered by obstacles which make it difficult for a white man to get accurate infor- 
mation of the family life, habits, and character of the colored people. These colored 
investigators can not be charged Avith prejudice and designs against the interests of 
the colored people. For these reasons their work is thought to be more than usually 
accurate and reliable. 

Second. Overcrowtling in tenements and houses occupied by colored people does 
not exist to any great extent, and is less than was supposed. 

Third. In comparison with white women, an escesa of colored women support 
their families entirely, or contribute to the family support, by occupations which 
take them much of their time from home, to the neglect of their children. 

Fourth. Environment and the sauitary condition of houses are not chiefly rospou- 
sibJe lor tho excessive mortality among colored peoi>lo. 



2304 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1896-97. 



Fifth. Ignorance and disregard of the laws of healtli are responsible for a large 
proportion of this excessive mortality. 

Social and Physical Pkogress.' 

The study of vital statistics is one of the most important subjects that can engage 
the attention. The death rate, taken in connection with the birth rate, determines 
the natural increase or decrease of population, the growth or decline of a people, 
and the strength of nations. Dr. William Farr, late registrar-general of births, 
deaths, and marriages in England, states the whole matter in the following lan- 
guage: "There is a relation betwixt death, health, and energy of body and mind. 
There ie a relation betwixt death, birth, and marriage. There is a relation betwixt 
death and national primacy ; numbers turn the tide in the struggle of population, 
and the most mortal die out. There is a relation betwixt the forms of death and 
moral excellence or infamy." 

It has been known for a number of years to health officers and students of vital 
statistics that the death rate of the colored people was larger than that of the white 
people; that the colored people were dying in larger numbers in proportion to the 
colored population than the white people were in proportion to the white popula- 
tion. Of late years these facts have become known to most intelligent persons, and 
great interest attaches to the degree of the excess of the colored death rate and to 
the causes of it. 

This paper will deal with the vital statistics of the cities of Atlanta, Ga. ; Balti- 
more, Md. ; Charleston, S. C; Memphis, Teun., and Richmond, Va. Each of these 
cities contains a large colored population, surrounded by social, economic, and moral 
conditions such as exist in other cities where colored people are congregated in con- 
siderable numbers, if Philadelphia is excepted. The cities selected are therefore 
thoroughly representative for the purpose in hand, and the conditions found to pre- 
vail in them may be fairly presumed to prevail in the other cities having a large 
population of colored people. 

The average annual death rate per 1,000 of the living population in these five cities 
for the fifteen years from 1881 to 1895 was 20.74 for the_ whites and 36.13 for the 
colored, showing a percentage of excess for the colored of 73.8. 

The average annual death rate per 1,000 by race for each of the five cities under 
consideration for the past fourteen or fifteen years is as follows : 



City. 



White. 



Colored. 



Per cent 
excess of 
colored. 



Atlanta (1882-1895)... 
Baltimore (1880-1894). 
Charleston (1881-1894) 
Memphis (1882-1895) . . 
Kichmond (1881-1895) 



18.50 
20.69 
23.19 
20.58 
20.73 



34.71 
32.71 
44.08 
31.15 
38.02 



87.6 

58.1 

90. 

51.3 

83.4 



An inspection of the table just given shows that the highest death rate among the 
colored is in Charleston (which is also true as to the whites) and that the lowest 
death rate among the colored is in Memphis, the lowest among the whites being in 
Atlanta. Corapariug the white and colored death rates, it is to be seen that the 
greatest excess of colored over white is in Charleston, where it reaches 90 per cent, 
the excess in Atlanta being 87.6 per cent and that in Richmond 83.4 per cent. The 
least excess is found in Memphis, which is 51.3 per cent, Baltimore having 58.1 per 
cent. These figures seem to justify the concluaion that the worst physical condi- 
tions among the colored people are to be found in Charleston, Atlanta, and Rich- 
mond and the best in Memphis and Baltimore. 

Having found the average death rates of the two races in these five cities for the 
past fourteen or fifteen years, and having compared them with each other and drawn 
a conclusion as to the relative physical conditions of the colored populations in the 
cities under consideration, it will conduce to a better understanding and a fuller 
knowledge of these conditions to divide the fourteen or fifteen years which this 
investigation covers into three periods as nearly equal as possible. By pursuing 
this method we shall be able, in a measure, to decide whether the physical condition 
of the colored people is better or worse in 1894 or 1895 than in 1880 or 1881. 



iBy Mr. L. M. Hershaw (1886), Washington, D. C. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



2305 





First period. 


Second period. 


Third period. 


City. 


White. 


Col- 
ored. 


Per cent 
excess of 
colored. 


p. Per cent 

White. 'l^V excess oi 

*>'^®'*- colored. 


White. 


Col- 
ored. 


Per cent 
excess of 
colored. 




18. 22 
22.60 
25.40 
26.08 
22.42 


37.96 
36.15 
44.08 
43.01 
40.34 


108.4 
59.9 
73.5 
64.9 
79.9 


19. 25 33. 41 7S .<; 


18.03 
20. 01 
21.88 
14.17 
18.42 


32.76 
31.47 
41.43 
21.11 
34.91 


81 6 




19. 46 30. 52 
22. 30 46. 74 
21.49 29.35 
21.37 38.83 


56.8 

109.6 

36.5 

81.7 


57 2 




89 3 




48 9 




89 5 







The tabular statement contains, in addition to the average annual death rate, the 
percentage of the excess of the colored death rate. Lest the percentages of excess 
mislead somebody, it is necessary to explain that, in comparing the three periods 
they merely show whether or not the colored death rate has decreased as rapidly as 
the white death rate, and not the actual increase or decrease of the colored death 
rate. To illustrate : Comparing the second and third periods in Richmond, it is to 
be seen that the percentage of exce.'^s for the second period is 81.7 per cent and for 
the third period 89.5 per cent. Without looking at the matter carefully the conclu- 
sion is likely to be drawn that the colored death rate is greater for the third period 
than for the second, when, as a matter of fact, it is less, the rates being 38.83 ' for the 
second and 34.91 for the third. 

An inspection of the above table shows that there has been a constant decrease in 
the colored death rate from period to period in Atlanta, Memphis, and Richmond. 

In Athmta the colored death rate for the first period is 37.96, for the second 33.41, 
and for the third 32.76; in Memphis 43.01 for the first period, 29,35 for the second, 
and 21.11 for the third and in Richmond 40.34 for the first period, 38.83 for the 
second, and 34.91 for the third. While Baltimore and Charleston do not show the 
constant decrease from periotl to period noted in the other cities, they do show a lower 
death rate for the third period than for the first, the death rates in Baltimore being 
36.15 for the first period, 30.52 for the second, and 31.47 for the third, and those in 
Charleston 44.08 for the first period, 46.74 for the second, and 41.43 for the third. 
Memphis shows the greatest improvement, the average death rate at the end of the 
third period being 50.9 per cent lower than at the end of the first, and Charleston 
shows the least improvement — 6 per cent. In Atlanta the improA'ement is 13.9 per 
cent, in Richmond 13.4 per cent, and in Baltimore 12.9 jjer cent. 

Of the five cities with which this paper deals but two have a registration of 
births — Baltimore and Charleston. Richmond had such a registration, but it was 
discontinued some years ago. The registrations of Baltimore and Charleston are 
admittedly incomplete. No view of the vital statistics of a community is complete 
without a knowledge of its birth rate. The birth rate is closely related to the death 
rate. The natural increase of population depends ui^ou the excess of the birth rate 
over the death rate. It would be highly interesting to know what the birth rate of 
the colored population in the five cities under consideration is. Is it as great as 
the death rate? Is it greater than the death rate? These questions can not be 
.answered satisfactorily because the health reports do not supply the information. 
The United States census of 1890 gives the colored birth rate of the United States 
as 29,07 per 1,000, but owing to the incompleteness of the records of births by 
the municipal and State authorities, these figures are not reliable and are probably 
much too small. Four European countries have birth rates which exceed the 
colored death rate in the cities that we have under consideration. In view of the 
well-known fecundity of the negro race, it is fair to infer that his b<irth rate is cer- 
tainly as high as that of the Italian, the German, the Austrian, or the Hungarian, 
If this is so, then the death rate in these cities has not reached the point where 
population begins to decrease. It is well-nigh useless to pursue this branch of the 
subject further, because of the lack of data. 

Having established the fact that the average colored death rate for the past four- 
teen or fifteen years in the five cities is 73.8 per cent in excess of the white death 
rate in the same cities for the same i)eriod, and having shown, by dividing these 
years into three equal periods and comparing the rates of previous with succeeding 
periods, that the colored death rate shows an improvement over fifteen years ago, it 
remains to set forth the causes of this excessive mortality. 

The principal causes of the excessive mortality of the colored people are the same 
in all the cities, therefore it Avill serve our purpose to know the average death rate 
of the three cities, Charleston, Memphis, and Richmond, combined, for a period of 

' The death rate ia generally expressed in terms of 1,000. The phrase "rate of 38.83 " means that 
there were thirty-eight and eighty-three one-huudredths deaths per 1,000 of population. For brevity, 
the words "per thousand " are omitted. 

ED 97 145 



2306 



EDUCATION REPOET, 1896-97. 



fifteen years for certain classes of diseases, and to give in full the sama facts con- 
cerning Atlanta. The table which follows shows for Charleston, Memphis, and 
Eichmond, combined, the average death rate per 10,000 by specified causes for a 
period of fifteen years, from 1881 to 1895 : 



Disease. 



Consumption and pneumonia 

Typlioid, malarial, and scarlet levers, diarrhea and diphtheria 

Cholera infantum, convulsions, and still-bom 

Scrofula and syphilis 



White. 




a, These death rates for speciiied causes are per 10,000. 



It is to be seen from the table above that for ail classes of diseases the colored 
death rate exceeds the white. The greatest excess is found under scrofula and 
syphilis, where it is 482.7 per cent in excess of the white death rate. The next 
greatest excess is due to infantile diseases — cholera infantum, convulsions, and still- 
born — the excess being 165.1 per cent. The third greatest excess is due to pulmo- 
nary diseases, and is seen to be 130.4 per cent. We see also that the least disparity 
between the white and the colored death rate is found under the group of diseases 
mostaftected by environment, including typhoid and malarial fevers and diphtheria, 
where the excess is only 30 per cent. As to syphilis and scrofula, it is to be observed 
that the number of deaths is small. The white death rate during fifteen years in 
Charleston, Memphis, and Eichmond has been less than 1 per 10,000 of the popu- 
lation, while the colored was somewhat less than 5. The per cent of the excess 
of the colored over the white is, however, startling, and furnishes much food for 
reflection as to the morals of the colored people. 

The two principal causes of the excessive mortality of the colored people are pul- 
monary diseases — consumption and pneumonia — and infant mortality. The exces- 
sive prevalence of consumption and i>nenmouia among colored people is brought out 
very plainly in the foregoing table, where the excess in these cities is shown to be 
130.4 per cent. 

The following table, containing the total average annual number of deaths and 
the average annual number of deaths of children under 5 years of age, with distinc- 
tion of race, will serve to show the extent of the infant mortality among colored 
people : 

ATLANTA, GA. 



Period. 



Average annual 
number of deaths. 



■White. Colored. 



Average annual number of deaths 
under 5 j'ears of age. 



White. 



Colored. 



Per cent Per cent 
of Vv'hite. of colored. 



1882-18S5 
1886-1890 
1891-1895 



470 
644 
804 



751 

845 

1,080 



172 
224 
257 



313 

348 
386 



38.7 
34.7 
31.9 



41.6 
41.1 
35. 5 



CHAPvLESTON, S. C. 



1885-1889. 
1890-1894. 



525 
529 


1,394 
1,316 


148 
141 


558 
518 


28.0 
26.4 



40.0 
39.3 



MEMPHIS, TENN. 



1880 1890 


678 
619 


742 
741 


180 
145 


203 
232 


26.5 
23.4 


35.4 


1891 1305 


31.1 







There is an enormous waste of child life among both races, not only in the cities 
under consideration, but in all cities. But from the data at hand the conclusion is 
justified that the mortality among colored children is not alarmingly in excess of 
the mortality among white children, unless it be for children under 2 years of age. 
The figures which wo have presented on this subject show that the mortality among 
children of both races has decreased constantly since 1881 in Atlanta, Charleston, 
and Memphis. 



EDUCATION OP THE COLORED RACE. 



2307 



Of tlio diseases which are excessively preyalent among colored people the most 
important, and the one which should be the occasion of the greatest alarm, is con- 
sumption. We have seen already that consumption and jineumonia are among the 
causes of excessive mortality of the colored people, the excess per cent of Charleston, 
Memphis, and Richmond being 130.4. 

The table following shows the rate per 10,000 of deaths from consumption in all 
the cities investigated: 

ATLANTA, GA. 



Period. 


"SVhite. 


Colored. 


Per cent 

excess of 

colored. 


188'' 1885 


18.40 
18.83 
16.82 


50. 20 
45.88 
43.48 


172. 83 


1886-1890 


143. 05 


1891 1895 


158. 50 







BALTIMOPvE, MD. 



1880 


25.65 
22.23 
20.00 
20.10 


58.05 
55.42 
46.32 

49. 41 


128. 05 


1887 


149. 30 


1891 


131. CO 


1892 


145. 82 







CHAPvLESTON, S. C. 



1881-1834 
1885-1889 
1890-1894 



27.52 


72.20 


20. 05 


68.08 


17.71 


57.00 



162. 35 
239. 55 
225. 58 



MEMPHIS, TENN. 



1882-1885 
1 880- 1890 
1891-1S95 



KICHMOND, VA. 



34.25 
24.29 
15.90 



65.35 
50.30 
37.78 



90.80 
107.08 
137. 61 



1881 1885 


25.57 
21.27 
18.54 


54.93 
41.03 
34.74 


114 82 


1886 1890 


95. 72 


1891 1895 


87.38 







It is to be seen that in all of the cities the death rate for consumption is high 
among the colored people, the lowest rate being 31.74 per 10,000, in Richmond, and 
the highest 72.20, in Charleston. The greatest disparity between the white and the 
colored death rate for this cause is also in Charleston, where the excess per cent of 
the colored is as high as 239.5. The important fact must not be lost sight of that 
the death rate from this cause has constantly decreased in a,ll the cities except 
Charleston, and in Charleston the death rate for the period 1890-1894 is lower than 
for the period 1881-1884. There is reason, however, for great concern and anxiety as 
to the excesaive prevalence of this disease among the colored people. Unless checked 
and reduced to a normal state, it may in the course of years be a deciding factor in 
the ultimate fate of the race. The prevalence of tubercular and scrofulous diseases — 
consumption, scrofula, syphilis, and leprosy — has caused the weaker races of the 
earth to succumb before the rising tide of the Christian civilization. The Carib of 
the West Indies, the noble red man of these shores, the natives of the Sandwich 
Islands, and the aborigines of Australia and New Zealand have all disappeared or 
been greatly reduced in numbers as the result of the ravages, of these diseases. It 
should be an object of first importance, then, to get control of these diseases before 
they reach the point whore control is imiiossiblo. 

It will be of interest to know somewhat in detail the physical condition of the 
population in Atlanta for the fourteen years from 1882 to 1895, and the tables which 
follow set forth quite fully this fact. 



2308 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1896-97. 

Death rate per 1,000, Atlanta, Ga. 



Period. 


White. 


Colored. 


Per cent 
excess of 
colored. 




18.21 
19.25 
18.03 


37.96 
33.41 
32.76 


108.4 




73.5 


IflQI-lfiQS 


81.6 







It is seen that the cleatli rate of the colored population, though greatly in excess of 
that of the white, h.as constantly decreased, the average death rate per 1,000 for the 
first period being 37.96, for the second 33.41, and for the third 32.76. Relatively, as 
compared with the whites, the death rate of the colored shows much improvement. 
Though the percentage of excess of colored for the third period is greater than that 
for the second, the percentage for both of these periods shows a marked decrease 
from that of the first period. 

The following tables show for three periods, 1882 to 1885, 1886 to 1890, and 1891 to 
1895, the average annual death rate per 10,000, Atlanta, Ga., by specified causes: 

CONSUMPTION AND PNEUMONIA. 



Period. 


White. 


Colored. 


Per cent 
escesi9 of 
colored. 


1882 1885 


27.43 
30.13 
28.48 


76.89 
72.14 
75.75 


180.3 


1886 1890 


139.4 


1891 1895 


165. « 






CHOLERA INFANTUM AND STILLBIRTHS. 


1886 1890 - 


26.78 
24.99 


56.09 
53.86 


109.4 


1891 1895 


115.5 







TYPHOID, SCARLET, AND MALARIAL EEVERS, AND DIPHTHERIA. 



1882-1885 
1886-1890 
1891-1895 



11.58 
14.58 
10.72 



19.31 
17.17 
12.48 



66.7 
17.7 
16.4 





OTHER CAUSES. 








1882 1885 


a 143. 15 
121. 05 
116. 15 


a 283. 44 
188. 67 
185. 50 


a 98.0 


1886 1890 


55.8 


1891 1895 


59.7 







a Including deaths from cholera infantum and stillhirths. 

It is observed that in all these groups of causes the colored death rate has de- 
creased from period to period, except for consumption and pneumonia, where the 
death rate for the period 1891-1895 is greater than for the period 1886-1890, though 
slightly less than for the period 1882-1885. 

The statistics presented in the various tables which this paper contains, viewed 
candidly and dispassionately, show results favorable to the physical improvement 
of the colored race. If the mortality rate had remained stationary for a period of 
fifteen years, it would have been a lasting evidence of the physical strength and 
endurance of the race. But we have shown that the rate has decreased in that 
period, and that, too, as is well known, in the face of hard, exacting, and oppres- 
sive social and economic conditions. When all of the facts in the colored man's case 
are taken into consideration, the wonder is, not that the death rate is as high as it 
is, but that it is not even higher. The history of weak and inferior races shows that 
they begin to decrease in number after one generation's contact with Anglo-Saxon 
civilization. The native population of the Sandwich Islands a hundred years ago 
was estimated to be 100,000. The latest census taken on the islands shows the native 
population to be 35,000. We do not witness this decay and decrease in numbers in 
the colored race anywhere in the Western Hemisphere. 

In studying any phase of negro life in the United States, the fact must be kept 



EDUCATION OF THE COLOEED RACE. 2309 

constantly in view that the negro has been subjected to degrading and blasting 
slavery for more than two centuries. "W hile slavery did its victims a great wrong 
in depriving tbem of the fruits of theii- toil, it did them a greater wrong in denying 
them opportunities for moral and mental improvement. Those who sit in judgme t 
upon the negro and study his frailties and shortcomings must not forget these 
previous conditions. 

To recapitulate, it has been shown — 

First. Thnt the colored death rate exceeds the white, the excess averaging for five 
cities, during a period of tifteen years, 73.8 per cent. 

Second. That the death rate of the colored population in five cities is lower for the 
period 1890-1895 than for the period 1881-1885. 

Third, That the principal causes of the excessive mortality among the colored 
people of five cities are pulmonary diseases and infant mortality. 

Fourth. That the least disparity between the white and colored death rates is for 
those diseases due to unwholesome sanitary conditions— typhoid, malarial and scar- 
let fevers, diphtheria, aud diarrhea. 

This last fact, that the excessive death rate of the colored people does not arise 
from diseases duo to environment, is of vast importance. If poor houses, unhealthy 
localities, bad sewerage, and defective plumbing were responsible for their high 
death rate, there would be no hope of reducing the death rate until either the col- 
ored people became wealthy, or philanthropic persons erected sanitary houses, or 
municipalities made appropriations to remove these conditions. But since the 
excessive death rate is not due to these causes, there is reason for the belief that it 
may be reduced without regard to the present economic conditions of the colored 
people. 

The Physical Condition op the Eace.' 

* * * If the colored people in our larger towns are bent upon living near the 
center of the city, they can not rent or buy property, except in the less desirable or 
abandoned parts. But it is not necessity, it is only convenience that leads them to 
live over stables, in dark, damp cellars, and on back alleys in the midst of stench 
and putrefaction. They can, if they would, go to the suburbs, where they can get 
better accommodations for less money. I have been in families in Nashville ranging 
from seven to ten living on a back alley with a rivulet of filth running before the 
door of the one room in which they bathed aud ate and slept and died. Two miles 
farther out all of these families might have secured for the same money shanties of 
two aud three rooms, with purer air and water, and had a garden spot besides. Among 
the colored peo]ile convenience to the heart of the city often overrides considerations 
of health, and that the white people offer them hotbeds of disease for homes is no 
excuse for their taking them. It is better to live in the suburbs than to die in the 
city. The negro is induced, but not forced, to accept the bad accommodations of 
down-town life. Apart from this apparent exception in the matter of rented houses, 
no race discrimination afifects in the least the negro's physical condition; and it is 
for this very reason that I am hopeful of a change for the better in the vital statistics 
of our people. If the large death rate, the small birth rate, the susceptibility to 
disease, and the low vitality of the race were due to causes outside of our control, I 
could see nothing before us but the "blackness of darkness forever;' but because 
the colored people themselves are responsible for this sad state of aftairs, it is to be 
expected that time and education will correct it. 

The conclusions which I shall draw in this paper are based largely upon my study 
of the problem in Nashville. 

In the first place, then, the excess of colored deaths over white is due almost 
entirely to constitutional diseases and infant mortality. According to health statis- 
tics, tlie constitutional diseases which are mainly responsible for our large death 
rate are pulmonary consumption, scrofula, and syphilis, all of which are alike in 
being tuberculous. A large number of the colored convicts in our State prison at 
Nashville are consumptives or syphilitics. Out of 92 deaths in a certain territory ii. 
Nashville, 19 deaths, or over 20 per cent, were due to consumption. The other 73 
deaths were due to thirty-five different causes. In the recent Atlanta investiga- 
tion, according to the mortality report of Cambridge, Mass., cou.sumption was the 
cause of 15 per cent of the deaths. 





Deaths from 


consumption 


in Nashville for 


the period 1S93-1S95. 


Race. 


1893. 


1894. 


1895. 


Remarks. 


"White 


124 

177 


91 
159 


82 
218 


A reduction of nearly 34 per cent. 
An increase of over 23 per cent. 


Colored . . . 







1 By Prof. Eugene Harris, Fisk Cniversity, Nashville, Tenn. 



2310 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1896-97. 

Alarming as are the facts set forth in the preceding table, they are not the whole 
truth. They would bo occasion for serious concern if the races were numerically 
equal, but when we remember that the colored people of Nashville are only three- 
fifths as numerous as the whites, it is all the more startling. For the year 1895, when 
82 white deaths from consumption occvirred in the city of Nashville, there ought to 
have been only 49 colored, whereas there really were 218, or nearly four and one-half 
times as many as there ought to have been. It is an occasion of serious alarm when 
37 per cent of the whole people are responsible for 72 per cent of the deaths irom 
consumption. 

Deaths among colored people from pulmonary diseases seem to be on the increase 
throughout the South. During the period 1882-1885, the excess of colored deaths 
from consumption for the city of Memphis was 90.80 per cent. For the period 1891- 
1895, the excess had arisen to over 137 per cent. For the period of 1886-1890, the 
excess of colored deaths from consumption and pneumonia for the city of Atlanta 
was 139 per cent. For the period 1891-1895, it had arisen to nearly 166 per cent. 

From these facts it would appear that pulmonary consumption is the "destroying 
angel" among us, and yet I am told that before the war this dread disease was vir- 
tually unknown among the slaves. Fortunately, Charleston, S. C, kept even before 
the war the mortality statistics of the colored ]jeople, and, consequently, we are 
able to ascertain with some accuracy how their death rate from consumption before 
the war compares with their death rate afterwards. What are the facte m the case? 
From 1822 to 1818 the colored death rate from consumption was a trifle less than 
the white. Since 1865 it has been considerably greater, and is still increasing. 
According to F. L. Hoifman, the white mortality from that cause has decreased since 
the war 134 per 100,000. The colored mortality has increased over 234 per 100,000.^ 

The question arises. How do we account lor this change? Is it because the negro 
is inherently more susceptible to pulmonary diseases, or is it because of his changed 
environment — his diil'erent social conditions ? If his tendency to consumption is duo 
to his inherent susceptibility, what was it that held it in check until after the war? 
It seems that this fact alone is sufficient to fix the responsibility upon the conditiona 
which have arisen since emancipation. Mr, F. L. Hoffman claims that the negro's 
lungs weigh 4 ounces less than a white man's, and that though his normal chest 
measure is greater, his lung capacity is less ; and that here we have a cause for the 
negro's tendency to consumption which no environment, however favorable, can 
affect. Even if this be a fact, it is hard to see how it began to operate as a cause 
of consumption only since the war. 

Let us turn for the present to another cause of the excessive mortality among us, 
namely, the increased prevalence of scrofula and venereal diseases. For the period 
1882-1885 the colored death rate in Memphis from scrofula and syphilis was 205.8 per 
cent in excess of that among the whites, but from 1891 down to the present time tha 
excess has been 298 per cent. For the period 1893-1895 there were in the city of 
Nashville 8 white deaths from scrofula and syphilis and 35 colored. In proportion to 
the population, there ought to have been only 5. Of course allowance must be made 
for the fact that, on account of the scandal and disgrace, white physicians are reluc- 
tant to report white deaths from these causes, whereas such motives rarely, if over, 
influence them in reporting colored deaths. 

According to the May bulletin of the Department of Labor, out of 1,090 colored 
people canvassed this year in the city of Nashville, 18 were suliering from scrofula 
and syphilis. One whose attention has not been called to the matter has no concep- 
tion of the prevalence of these diseases among the negroes of Nashville. I have 
looked for it in both races as I have walked the streets of my city, and to come across 
the loathsome disease in the colored passers-by is not an uncommon occurrence. This 
state of affairs can be accounted for when I tell you that there is probably no city in 
this country where prostitution among colored people is more rampant and brazen, 
and where abandoned colored women are more numerous or more public in their 
shameful traffic. 

In the families canvassed by me this year, among 50 sufferers from rheumatism, 8 
were so badly crippled as to bo bedridden invalids. When we consider the fact that 
some forms of rheumatism are syphilitic in their origin, and that in these same fami- 
lies there were 18 suffering from scrofula and syphilis, it would appear that venereal 
poisoning was responsible for a considerable share of the rheumatism. 

There is one obstacle to the race's reproducing itself that has some connection with 
venereal diseases, and hence I speak of it now. I refer to the enormous amount of 
stillbirths and infant mortality prevalent everywhere among colored people. For 
the iieriod of 1893-1895, the still and the premature births in the city of Nashville 
were 272 for the white and 385 for the colored; or, in proportion to the population, 
two and one-third times as many as there ought to have been. This relative state 
of affairs obtains in Memphis and Atlanta, and in all the large cities of the South. 

' See Eace Traits and. Tendencies of tlie American Negro, by F. L. Hoffman.— Ed. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 2311 

From tlie Jiealtli reports of all our large Southern cities wo learn tbat a considerable 
amount of our infant mortality is due to inanition, infantile debility, and infantile 
marasmus. Now, what is the case in regard to these diseases 1 The fact is that they 
are not diseases at all, but merely the names of symptoms due to enfeebled constita- 
tiona and congenital diseases, inherited from parents suffering from the effects of 
sexual immorality and debauchery. Translated iuto common speech, they are noth- 
ing more than infant starvation, infant weakness, and infant wasting away, the cause 
of which is that the infants' parents before them have not given them a fighting 
chance for life. According to Hoffman, over 50 per cent of the negro children born 
in Richmond, Va., die before they are 1 year old. 

The number of still and premature births among ns is a matter of great alarm, not 
only because it seriously interferes with the numerical increase of the race, but 
because it involves the fecundity, the health, and even the moral character of large 
numbers of our women. The support of the family often falls very heavily upon our 
poor waslierwomen ; and since they hnd it hard to get the husks to feed and the ra^s 
to clothe their already large number of little folks, living in one room like stocK, 
rather than to add to their burden they resort to crime. An official on the Nashville 
board of health, who is also proprietor of a drug store, tells me that he is astonished 
at the number of colored women who apply at his store for -irugs with a criminal 
purpose in view. 

The sixteen Atlanta groups in the recent investigation showed that the female 
heads of families are considerably in excess of the male, and out of 324 families 31 
were wholly supported by the mother, and 205 were supported by the mother alto- 
gether or in part. In such social conditions as these, where the burden of bread 
winning is borne largely, and often altogether, by the mother of the household, it 
is not surprising that poor laboring women, who are ignorant of its ruinous effects 
upon both health and character, should resort to prenatal infanticide. 

The average family for the eighteen cities covered by our recent investigation 
numbers only 4.1, which means that in these eighteen cities the race is doing barely 
more than reproducing itself. The large colored families of a few decades ago are 
becoming more and more scarce. I know a grandmother who was the proud mother 
of over a dozen children; the daughter could boast of nine; and not one of several 
granddaughters, though married for a number of years, is the mother of more than 
one child. This family is but an illustration of many others just like it. Such 
facts go to show that the negro is no longer the "prolific animal" that he once waa 
termed. The race, like the women of whom Paul once wrote to Timothy, must ba 
"saved through childbe.iriug." 

I take it that the excess of infant mortality from cholera infantum and conviil- 
sions means nothing •Aore than that the negro mothers do not know so well how to 
feed and care for thQiT offspring. They need instruction in infant dietetics and 
baby culture. 

I iiave now covered the ground to which our excessive death rate is mainly due, 
namely, pulmonary diseases, especi.ally consumption and pneumonia, scrofula, vene- 
real diseases, and infant mortality. If we eliminate these diseases, our excessive 
death rate will bo a thing of the past. 

Let us now inquire. What is there in the negro's social condition that is responsi- 
ble for the prevalence of these diseases, and the consequent mortality? In the first 
place, then, be it known by all men that we to-day in this conference aasembled are 
not the enemies of our people because wc tell them the truth. We shall know the 
truth, and the truth shall make us free, not only from the bondage of sin, but from 
vicious social conditions and consequent physical death. Sanitary regulations and 
the social reconstruction of Israel formed a large part of Moses' religious duty, and 
why may it not of ours? 

While I do not depreciate sanitary regulations and a knowledge of hygienic laws, 
I am convinced that the sine qua non of a change for the better in the negro's phys- 
ical condition is a higher social morality. I do not believe that his poverty or his 
relation to the white people presents any real impediment to his health and physical 
development. Without going into the reasons for it, it is well known that the poor 
laboring classes often enjoy better health, are freer from disease, have larger fami- 
lies, and live longer lives than the rich. 

I am convinced that for the causes of the black man's low vitality, his suscepti- 
bility to disease, and his enormous death rate we must look to those social condi- 
tions which he creates for himself. What are they? I have already referred to the 
social causes of our excessive infant mortality, namely, the frequency with which 
the partial or the entire maintenance of the household devolves upon the mother; 
and especially the impaired chance for life which a debauched and immoral parent- 
age bequeaths to childhood. The infants in their graves will rise up iu judgment 
against this evil and adulterous generation and condemn it. 

The constitutional diseases Avhich are responsible for our unusual mortality are 
often traceable to enfeebled constitutions broken down by sexual immoralities. 



2312 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1896-97. 

This is frequently the source of even pulmonary consumption, which disease is 
to-day the black man's scourge. 

According to Hoffman, over 25 per cent of the negro children born in Washington 
City are admittedly illegitimate. According to a writer quoted in Black America, 
"in one county of Mississippi there were during twelve months 300 marriage 
licenses taken out in the county clerk's office for white people. According to the 
proportion of population there should have been in the same time 1,200 or more for 
negroes. There were actually taken put by colored people just 3." James Anthony 
Froude asserts that 70 per cent of the negroes in the West Indies are born in ille- 
gitimacy. Mr, Smeeton claims that "in spite of the increase of education there 
has been no decrease of this social cancer." My attention has been called to a 
resort in Nashville, within less than two blocks of the public square, where a large 
number of abandoned women and profligate men often congregate in the under- 
ground basement, which is lighted and ventilated only through the pavement 
grating; and there in debauchery and carousal they make the night hideous until 
almost morning. What are they sowing but disease, and what can they reap but 
death? 

It is true that much of the moral laxity which exists among us to-daiy arose out 
of slavery. It is due to a system which ay hipped women, which dispensed with 
the institution of marriage, which separated wives from their husbands and 
assigned them to other men, which ruthlessly destroyed female virtue, and which 
made helj)les8 women the abject tools of their masters. This is the correct explana- 
tion of our social status to-day, but to esjilain it is not to excuse it. It is no longer 
our misfortune, as it was before the war; it is our sin, the wages of which is our 
excessive number of deaths. Always and everywhere, moral leprosy means physical 
death. Wherever the colored people are guilty of the immoralities of which Jamfls 
Anthony Froude and W. L. Clowes of the London Times accuse them, if they con- 
tinue in them they will be destroyed by them, root and branch. Rome was destroyed 
because the Empire had no mothers, and Babylon was blotted out because she was 
the " mother of harlots." 

A few years ago I said, m a sermon at Fisk University, that wherever the Anglo- 
Saxon comes into contact with an inferior race the inferior race invariably goes to 
the wall. I called attention to the fact that, in spite of humanitarian and philan- 
thropic eiforts, the printing press, the steam engine, and the electric motor in the 
hands of the Anglo-Saxon were exterminating the inferior races more rapidly and 
more surely than shot and shell and bayonet. I mentioned a number of races that 
have perished, not because of destructive wars and pestilence, but because they 
were unable to live in the environment of a nineteenth century civilization; races 
whose destruction was not due to a persecution that came to them from without, 
but to a lack of moral stamina within; races that perished in spite of the humani- 
tarian and philanthropic efforts that were put forth to save them. 

To that utterance let me now add this thought: That where shot and shell and 
bayonet and the printing press and the steam engine and the electric motor have 
slain their thousands, licentious men, unchaste women, and impure homes have slain 
their tens of thousands; and I speak the words of soberness and truth when I say 
that if the charges of sexual immoralities brought against us are true, unless there 
be wrought a social revolution among us the handwriting of our destruction even 
now may be seen on the wall. The history of nations teaches us that neither war 
nor famine nor pestilence exterminates them so completely and rapidly as do sexual 
vices. 

If the cause of our excessive death rate be, in its ultimate analysis, moral rather 
than sanitary, then this fact ought to appear not only m our vital, but in our crim- 
inal statistics as well. Professor Starr, of Chicago University, claims that in the 
State of Pennsylvania, where there is little opportunity to assert that the courts are 
prejudiced against colored criminals, though the negroes form only 2 per cent of the 
population, yet they furnish 16 per cent of the male prisoners and 34 per cent of the 
female. The race has such great privileges in Chicago and it is dealt with so fairly 
and justly that the colored people themselves have denominated it the "Negroes' 
Heaven;" and yet, according bo Professor Starr, while the negroes form only 1^ per 
cent of the population of Chicago they furnish 10 per cent of the arrests. I am 
convinced that the immorality which accounts for these criminal conditions is also 
responsible for the rfice's physical status ; and if we are to strike at the root of the 
matter, it will not be at sanitary regulations, but at social reconstruction and moral 
regeneration. 



2314 



EDUCATION EEPOET, 1896-97. 

Table 9. — Schools for the education of the colwed 



Location. 



Kame of school. 



Religious 
denom- 
ination. 



Col- 
ored. 



Pupils enrolled. 



Total. 



Elemen- 
tary 
grades. 



Calhoun 

Huntsville... 

Kowaliga 

Marion 

Montgomery. 

Kormal 



Selma 

do 

Talladega . 

Troy 

Tuscaloosa 

do 

Tuskegee.. 



ARKANSAS. 



Arkadelphia. 



do 

Little Eock. 

do 

do 

Magnolia ... 
Pine Bluff.. 
Southland .. 



DELAWAEB. 

Dover 

DIST. OF COLUMBIA. 



Washington . 

do 

do 

.....do 



FLORIDA. 

Fernandina. . 
Jacksonville. 

do 

Live Oak 

Ocala 

Orange Park. 

Tallahassee.. 



Athens . . 

do... 

do ... 

Atlanta . . 

do ... 

do ... 

do ... 

do ... 

Augusta . 



do.. 

do .. 

College , 



Calhoun Colored School 

Central Alabama Academy * 

Kowaliga Institute 

Lincoln Norma'i School 

State Normal School for 
Colored Students.* 

Agricultural and Mechani- 
cal College. 

Burrell Academy 

Alabama Baptist University 

Talladega College 

Troy Industrial Academy .. 

Oak City Academy 

Stillman Institute 

Tuskegee ]S'"ormal and In- 
dustrial Institute.. 



Arkadelphia Baptist Acad- 
emy. 

Shorter University^' 

Arkansas Baptist College . 

Philander Smith College . . 

Union High School* 

Columbia High School 

Branch Normal College 

Southland College and Nor- 
mal Institute. 



State College for Colored 
Students. 



Nonsect 



Nonsect 
Cong ... 



Nonsect .. 

Cong 

Bapt 

Cong 

Nonsect .. 

Bapt 

Presb 

Nonsect . . 



Bapt 

A. M. E . 

Bapt 

Meth ... 
Nonsect 
Bapt.... 
Nonsect 
Friends. 



High School 

Howard University. 

Normal School 

Wayland Seminary;. 



Nonsect 



Nonsect , 
Nonsect . 
Nonsect . 
Bapt..... 



205 
102 
109 
126 
463 

201 

168 
201 
391 
100 
45 

336 122 



Graded School No. 1 

Cooknian Institute a 

Edward Walters College a . . 

Florida Institute*.... 

Emerson Home 

Normal and Manual Train- 
ing School. 

State Normal and Industrial 
College. 



Nonsect . . 



164 



Bapt. 
M.E. 
Cong 



Oj 2 
2 4 



Jernal Academy 

Knox Institute 

West Broad Street School . . 

Atlanta Baptist Seminary . . 

Atlanta University , 

Morris Brown College 

Spelman Seminary 

Storrs School * 

Haines Normal and Indus- 
trial School. 

The Paine Institute 

Walker Baptist Institute . . . 

Georgia State Industrial 
College. 



Nonsect .. 



Bapt.... 
Cong 

Nonsect 
Bapt 

Nonsect 
A. M. E . 

Bapt 

Cong.... 
Presb... 

M.E. S.. 
Bai)t 

Nonsect 



^ Statistics of 1895-06. 



a No report. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



2315 



race — teachers, students, and courses of study. 



Pupils enrolled. Students. 


Graduates. 




Second- 
ary 
grades. 


Collegi- : 

ate 
classes. 


Classical 
courses. 


Scien- 
tific 
courses. 


English 
courses. 


Normal 
courses. 


Business 
courses. 


High 1 
school 
courses. 


Normal 
conrsos. 


Collegi- 
ate 
courses. 




"a 
3 


4 

i 

14 

21 
19 
29 
70 
305 

95 

42 

104 

29 

8 

19 


6 
3 


o 
"a 

s 

IG 


"3 
3 


"a 



o 
18 




6 


g 
8© 




6 
"3 


6 

s 


6 
'3 
3 


a5 

1 
S4 


CD 

"3 

3 


IS 

n 

a 

o 

36 




d 

g 

38 


6 
"3 


a 

i 

30 


ID 

"3 
31 


6 
"a 

a 

<D 

33 




13 


15 


ir 


19 


SI 


33 


35 


37 


39 




24 

5 

35 

50 

237 

109 

49 
95 

27 
2 
6 




















1 


2 


8 






5 


19 


















? 










110 
50 


109 
76 




















3 






























4 














237 

83 

8 


305 

100 

11 










78 

10 

2 


90 






5 














105 


112 


5 
4 


3 










6 




1 

25 





3 

1 





1 

10 




3 










3 


, 1 


1 








7 


95 
6 

20 
6 


104 
15 
56 
25 


1 


5 


1 


8 


2 



1 




6 
2 


15 

8 










7 




1 



4 


2 



2 



2 







9 
10 
11 


10 



































1? 


o8i 
5 


261 
3 















22 



40 


487 
5 


211 
3 










216 


161 








13 






1 


2 


14 


























l.-i 


29 
39 

27 

15 

126 

12 

24 

215 

103 

8 

82 

16 


23 
20 

57 


6 
12 


2 




6 

33 

11 



2 


2 
5 
22 




















2 

-" 3 
1 



1 

1 












16 


20 
11 



15 

22 




99 
12 
35 


116 
35 
38 






1 

85 

12 






1 

42 

15 


7 












2 
4 





4 
3 


3 









17 

18 


27 
65 






1! 


9 



5 

2 


% 


15 3 

1 
1 
6 10 


1 
5 



1 
2 








... 











1 


21 


3 

97 



207 


2 


G 












?.'! 


513 
14 
22 
41 

34 






67 

8 



57 
22 


52 


49 


22 


57 










2.1 


342 




82 



2 
8 
16 




4 
22 

10 




5 








24 






















2P 


32 



11 















5 



1 
2 


2e 














177 


164 




















2- 
2? 










































2a 


24 


32 






































3r 

















39 






















31 


15 
12 

28 

7 

23 

34 

76 

110 





25 

84 
21 
99 


9 

21 

27 

9 

61 



134 

192 

109 



45 

70 

43 
















15 
2 



7 


9 
1 


<1 










5 
2 



1 


2 
1 









32 














56 


110 
161 


123 


176 
162 














3? 


























20 


11 










34 






8 


13 












2 
5 
6 





4 




11 




3( 


16 

20 

27 








10 



















I 



16 
1 
4 



3 
3 






2 





ni 


20 


10 










6 127 
5; 11 
0' 21 

0] 
i 






3P 














3£ 






9 













CO 







4( 














41 
45 


8 


3 


50 
21 
11 


43 
43 








104 


98 










4 

2 


10 
17 






1 







4,' 


















M 


11 













81 













4f 




















1 









2316 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1896-97. 

Table 9. — Schools for the education of the colored 



Location. 



Name of school. 



Religious 
denom- 
ination. 



Teachers. 



Col- 
ored, 



Pupils enrolled. 



Total. 



Elemen- 
tary 
grades. 



1© 



11 



13 



GEORGIA— cont'd. 



La Grange 

Mclntosn 

Macon 

Roswell 

Savannah 

South Atlanta . 

do 

Thomas ville ... 



Waynesboro . 

ILLINOIS. 



Cairo , 



Evansville. .. 
New Albany . 



KENTUCKY. 



Berea 

Frankfort 



Lebanon... 
Lexington . 
LouisTille . 



Alexandria . 
Baldwin .... 



New Iberia.. 
New Orleans 

do 

do 

do 



MARYLAND. 

Baltimore 



do .... 

....do .... 
Hebbville . 



Melvale 

Princess Anne. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Clinton 

Edwards 

Holly Springs . 



do ... 

Jackson . 
Meridian 
do... 



Southern Female College 

Dorchester Academy 

Ballard Normal School 

Eoswell Public School 

Beach Institute 

Clark Institute 

Gammon School of Theologj 
Allen Normal and Indus- 
trial School. 
Haven Normal Academy a . . 



Bapt 

Cong 

Cong 

Nonsect 

Cong 

M.B 

M.E 

Cong 



Summer High School . 



Governor School 

Scribner High School. 



Nonsect .. 
Nonsect . . 



Berea College , 

State Normal School- for 

Colored Persons. 
St. Augustine's Academy. . . 
Chandler Normal School. 
Christian Bible School... 

Central High School 

Paris High School 



Nonsect 



Alexandria Academy 

Gilbert Academy and In- 
dustrial College. 
Mount Carmel Convent*.. 

Leland University 

New Orleans University . . 

Southern University 

Straight University 



R.C 

Cong , 

Christian 
Nonsect . 
Nonsect . 



M.E. 
M.E. 



Baltimore City Colored High 

School. 

Morgan College 

St. Frances' Academy 

Baltimore Normal School 

for Training of Colored 

Teachers. 
The Indastrial Home for 

Colored Teachers. 
Princess Anne Academy . . . 



Mount Hermon Female Sem- 
inary. 

Southern Christian Insti- 
tute. 

Mississippi State Colored 
Normal School. 

Bust University 

Jackson College 

Lincoln School 

Meridian Academy , 



Nonsect ., 

M.E 

Nonsect . 
Cong .?•. . 



Nonsect 



M.E 

R. C... 
Nonsect 



Nonsect 
M.B 



Nonsect .. 
Christian . 



Nonsect 



Meth. 
Bapt. 
Cong 
Meth 



7 

11 

5 

7 



24 



250 
85, 19 



a No report. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 

race — teachers, sUidents, and courses of study — Continued. 



2317 



Pupils enrolled. 


Students. 


Graduates. 




Second- 
ary 
grades. 


Collegi- 
ate 
classes. 


Classical 
courses. 


Scien- 
tific 
courses. 


English 
courses. 


Normal 
courses. 


Business 
courses. 


High 

school 

courses. 


Normal 
courses. 


Collegi- 
ate 
courses. 




13 


4 
i 

14 

150 
15 
50 
42 
35 
32 


15 


i 
16 


i 

17 


6 

1 
18 


19 


i 

1 
no 

25 
1 


42 



la 


i 

33 

125 

273 

300 

95 

35 


1 
33 


,2 
1 
34 




.2 

a 

« 

36 




.2 

a 

38 




6 

1 
30 


31 




6 
3 




»1 



170 

95 

80 

8 


35 


3r 


39 





14 
15 
41 

8 
37 





5 

41 







46 










6 



8 
7 


2 

4 



35 

25 










2 






5 


47 


S 



6 

86 







3 






5 
6 






29 

3 



















2 




I 


4A 


2 




4 




49 
50 
•51 














•>? 


7 


35 










7 


35 





2 






3 


14 












5S 


















■vt 


16 

25 
10 

274 
29 


30 


24 

38 
12 

229 
31 

55 
60 










25 
10 




38 
12 








16 


24 














1 

5 
1 


4 

6 

4 












55 






■ifl 






























57 


49 
19 


21 
19 


























58 














67 


85 










4 


3 






59 










30 
15 


50 

70 














60 




27 

3 



10 






40 



3 








1 





7 


12 















3 






61 










6'' 


73 

60 

57 
17 


161 
50 

43 
23 


73 


161 










3 



2 


40 

7 


13 


















61 


2 

10 
2 


12 

3 




25 

57 
110 


50 

43 
119 


2 

3 

7 


1 

4 
3 












7 



1 






64 



5 



2 


/ 3 
V 7 



5 








65 

66 










67 


24 15 


19 

10 

4 

6 


7 
6 
3 
2 




























2 

3 



, 








68 


20 
20 
48 

30 

25 

9 


25 
35 
40 

107 

12 
12 
25 


9 

2 

30 

30 

10 


6 

3 

24 

107 



1 

40 






25 






2 
2 
6 


36 
3 

8 






4 



4 

7 


9 
5 


15 
4 



2 
6 


4 
4 
8 


69 


138 230 






70 


25 


30 








71 
7? 




10 





























2 





7H 



9 


48 


35 

25 

134 
43 














74 














9 


25 













7 






75 


















76 


29 

10 

5 

30 

39 
50 
40 
20 


30 

65 

8 

30 

67 
28 
60 
40 














8 

4 



30 

13 



20 


8 

43 



23 

24 



40 










1 





6 

2 



12 


4 

9 



2 

4 

2 






77 


























78 


30 

23 



1 

23 

16 



2 

8 

7 
10 
14 


3 



2 
5 
20 






21 





6 

e 


1 



49 
76 


4 



70 
103 






















3 











79 
80 
81 








3 
11 


1 
3 


82 

93 


16 


32 




.... 


3 


10 









. ... 


84 



2318 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1896-97. 

Table 9. — Schools for the education of the colored 



Location. 



Name of scliool. 



Religions 
denom- 
ination. 



Teachers. 



White. 



Col- 
ored. 



Pupils enrolled. 



Total. 



Elemen- 
tary 
grades. 



93 



94 

95 
96 

97 

98 

99 

100 

101 

102 

103 

104 



MISSISSIPPI— cont'd. 



TSTatchfez .. 
Tougaloo . 
Westside . 



MISSOUEI. 



Boonville 

Hannibal 

.Tefi'erson City . 
Kansas City... 
Sedalia ' 



NEW JERSEY. 

Bordentown 

NORTH CAROLINA. 



Beanfort.. 
Charlotte. 
Clinton . . . 



Concord 

Elizabeth City... 

Fayette ville 

Franklinton 



do 

do 

Goldshoro .. 
Greensboro . 



105 
106 

10 

108 
109 

110 
111 
112 
113 
114 
115 

116 
117 

118 



119 
120 



121 

122 



123 



do 

High Point . 



Kings Mountain. 

Lumberton 

Pee Dee 



Plymouth . 

Kaleigh 

do 

Keidsvillo . 
Salisbury. . 
do 



TVilmington 

Windsor 

Winton , 



Wilberforco 
Xenia 



FENNSYLA^ANIA. 



Carlisle 

Lincoln Univer- 
sity. 
Philadelphia 



Natchez College a , 

Tougaloo University 

Alcorn Agricultural and 
Mechanical College. 



Sumner High School 

Douglass High School 

Lincoln Institute 

Lincoln High School 

George E. Smith College. . 



Manual Training and In- 
dustrial School. 



Washburn Seminary 

Biddle University 

Clinton Colored Graded 
School. 

Scotia Seminary 

State Colored Normal School 

State Colored Normal School 

Albion Academy, Normal 
and Industrial School. 

Franklinton Christian Col- 
lege. 

State Colored Normal 
School, a 

State Colored Normal 
School.* 

Agricultural and Mechan- 
ical College for the Col- 
ored Eace. 

Bennett College« 

High Point iNormal and In- 
dustrial School.* 

Lincoln Academy 

Whltiu Normal School 

Barrett Collegiate and In- 
dustrial Institute. 

Plymouth Normal Scliool . . . 

St. Augustine's School 

Shaw University 

Graded School 

Livingstone College 

State Colored Normal 
School.* . 

Gregory Normal Institute.. 

Pan kin-Richards Institute . 

Waters Normal Institute 



Cong ... 
Nonsect 



Nonsect 
Nonsect 



Nonsect 
M.E 



1 

15 



Nonsect .. 



Nonsect . . 
Presb 

Nonsect . 



Presb 

Nonsect . 
Nonsect . 
Presb 



4 

o: U 

0, 1 

9 

2 



Christian . 



Nonsect . 
Nonsect 



1 2 
5 



28 



179 122 
10 



Friends.. 



Cong .... 

Nonsect . 
Nonsect . 



Nonsect . 

P.E 

Bapt 

Nonsect . 
Meth.... 
Nonsect . 

Nonsect . 
Nonsect . 
Bapt 



Wilberforco University 
Colored High School 



Colored High School. 
Lincoln University.. 



A. M.E. 
Nonsect 



Nonsect 
Presb... 



Institute for Colored Youth. 
* Statistics of 1895-96. 



Friends .. 



7 

2 

11 

3 



2 1 
1 

3! 6 



a No report. 



94 
185 

135' 199 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



2319 



race— teachers, students, and courses of study — Coutinued. 



Pnpila enrolled. 


Students. 


Graduates. 




Second- 
ary 
grades. 


Collegi- 

ato 
classes. 


Classical 
courses. 


Scien- 
tific 
courses. 


English 
courses. 


Normal 
courses. 


Business 
courses. 


High 

school 

courses. 


Normal 
courses. 


Collegi- 
ate 
courses. 




C5 
3 


6 

a 

14 


<6 
15 


6 

i 

16 




a 

18 


3 


6 

a 


3 


a 

23 




<6 
"3 

a 

o 
34 


13 


6 
"a 

o 
36 


"3 
3^ 


d 

a 
ss 


"3 


6 
Is 

a 

3© 


"3 
31 


93 
"3 

a 

o 
Ph 

32 




13 


It 


19 


31 


33 


35 


3© 




















8r 


18 
308 

1 
30 
C8 

r.4 

18 

17 

13 
159 

5 


50 
30 
29 

11 


20 
10 

4 
36 
57 
99 
22 

10 

4 

15 

13 
112 

40 
46 

12 


















18 


26 










4 


9 


1 


Sf 


36 





























1 


8' 


1 

12 


4 

5 




10 




12 




18 



20 














1 
3 


4 
3 





'^ 








8v 

8' 


5 








01 


57 






6 


5 


2 

1 


P( 


54 


99 










7 

C 



32 


10 








q 


4 




144 


2 























1 


V 





63 
















13 
61 
40 




4 



15 




13 
41 
40 



5 

30 

29 

9 




4 

15 

11 
12 
40 
46 

12 




















8 








9 
q/ 






41 


« 


f) 










Of 


























4 
3 
6 




fi 






f)' 














50 


112 














7 
6 
4 








9. 


20 

19 


15 
13 














20 


15 










in( 






2 


4 


15 


12 









1 


2 


10 














10 


17 


82 
9 






























2 




2 














10 


42 


10 






































10 
10' 




40 

3B 
26 
64 
17 
46 
7 

16 
6 

43 

53 
24 

15 
137 

84 




14 

20 
38 

77 
16 
137 
33 
32 
18 

55 
12 

72 

64 
S3 

12 


125 

















94 


117 



















2 














lOf 
10' 
















10 


24 


14 


20 


















lOf 














10' 









9 



6 


8 


1 


29 


64 


12 


23 










8 


1 





. 


IK 










n 


49 


18 




























ir 


2 
20 


4 
4 


1 




32 

IG 

n 














9 


2 

8 










IT 


8 


4 


70 
39 


80 
54 


5 
1 

8 


12 
5 

10 


8 


10 


1 


7 


8 


2 





114 
11- 






















3 


3 








11'' 




35 

77 

56 


85 
129 

40 










ir 














14 
29 


22 
54 






3 

2 
5 


12 

8 










iif 


47 


15 


14 


3 


15 


9 


15 


• 2 


2 


12 


7 


3 


11£ 


































V'1 


48 





130 
35 




29 






7 
49 



29 


















30 





19f 


35 


29 


54 


29 


5 


6 






5 


6 


12: 



2320 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1896-97. 

Table 9. — Schools for the education of the colored 



Location. 



Name of school. 



Eeligious 
denom- 
ination. 



Teacliera. Pnpils enrolled. 



White. 



Col- 
ored. 



Total. 



10 



Elemen- 
tary 
grades. 



11 



SOUTH CABOLINA. 



Aiken 



Beaufort... 

....do 

Camden ... 
Charleston. 

do 

Chester 

Columbia . . 

....do 

Fro£;more.. 



Greenwood . 
Orangeburg 



TENNESSEE. 

Chattanooga . . 
Columbia 



Dickson . . , 

Jonesboro 

Knoxville 

do 

Maryville 



Memphis . - . 
Morris town. 



Murfreesboro. 

Nashville 

do 

do 

do 



TEXAS. 



150 Austin 

151 Brenham . , 

152 Crockett).. 
Galveston , 
Hearne . . . 



Marshall 

do 

Palestine 

Prairie View 

Waco 



160 Burke ville.. 

161 Cappahosic . 



Danville . . 
Hampton . 



Lawrenceville . 
Manassas 



Manchester. 

Norfolk 

Petersburg . 



Schofield Normal and In- 
dustrial School. 

Beaufort Public School 

HarbisoL Institute 

Browning School 

Avery Normal Institute. . . 

Wallingford Academy 

Brainerd Institute 

Allen University * 

Benedict College 

Penn Industrial and Nor- 
mal School. 

Brewer Normal School 

Claflin University 



Howard High School 

Maury County Turner Nor- 
mal and Industrial 
School. * 

Wayman Academy 

Warner Institute * 

Austin High School 

Knoxville College 

Freemen's Normal Insti- 
tute. * 

Le Moyne Normal Institute . 

Morristown Normal Acad- 
emy. 

Bradley Academy 

Central Tennessee College.. 

Fisk University 

Meigs High School 

Eoger Williams University. 



Tillotson College 

East End High School .... 

Mary Allen Seminary - 

Central High School 

Hearne Academy, Normal 

and Industrial School.* 

Bishop College 

Wiley University 

Colored High School , 

Prairie View State Normal 

School.* 
Paul Quinn College 



Ingleside Seminary 

Gloucester Agricultural and 
Industrial School. 

Colored Graded School 

Hampton Normal and Agri- 
cultural Institute. 

St. Paul Normal and Indus- 
trial School. 

Manassas Industrial School 
for Colored Youth. 

Public High School 

Norfolk Mission College 

Bishop Payne Divinity and 
Industrial School. 



Nonsect 

Nonsect 
Presb. . . 
M.E.... 
Cong ... 
Presb. .. 
Presb... 
A.M.E. 

Bapt 

Nonsect 

Cong . . . 

Meth . . . 



Nonsect .. 
Nonsect .. 



Nonsect . 

Cong 

Nonsect . 
U. Presb.. 
Friends.. 



Cong 
M.E. 



Bapt. & M 

M.E 

Cong 

Nonsect .. 
Bapt 



Cong . . . 
Nonsect 
Presb... 
Nonsect 
Bapt.... 



Bapt 

M.E 

Nonsect 
Nonsect 

A.M.E... 



Presb . . 
Nonsect 



Nonsect 
Nonsect 



P.E .... 

Nonsect 



Nonsect 
U. Presb 
Episcoi^al 



2 

1 



10 



190 



458 



' Statistics of 1895-96. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



2321 



race — teachers, students, and courses of study — Continued. 



Pupils enrolled. 


Stndents. 


Graduates. 




Second- 
ary 
grades. 


Collegi- 
ate 
classes. 


Classical 
courses. 


Scien- 
tific 
courses. 


English 
courses. 


Normal 
courses. 


Business 
courses. 


High 

school 

courses. 


Normal 
courses. 


Collegi- 
ate 
courses. 




CO 

-a 

13 

70 

10 

50 
4 

36 

9 

4 

3 

141 

20 

8 

r.5 

8 


6 

4 

10 

46 

31 

78 
29 

11 
213 
21 
67 
40 

27 
4 


27 
8 

69 

29 
95 

77 

13 


1 

13 

97 

112 



32 
19 


i 

a 

14 

55 

20 

71 

2 

130 

15 

7 

3 

141 

18 

4 

58 

21 
2 

4 

9 
16 
47 
33 

98 
48 

21 
50 
77 
140 
35 

21 

^^ 

28 

5 

97 

19 

115 

74 

5 

115 

2 

13 
43 

132 



65 
34 


6 


6 

a 

a 

16 










3 


Is 

g 

Eh 
18 


19 


i 

30 


6 
31 


a5 
-a 

i 

160 
157 


33 

7 

10 
2 


6 
'S 

a 

34 

7 

20 
5 


6 

3 


"3 

a 

36 




4 
i 

3S 


■3 
3 


a 

Eh 
30 

7 


31 


a 

a 

Eh 
33 




15 










17 


35 


39 








190 
156 




7 


]9A 



3 







3 



3 


10 




20 



10 

4 
6 

1 


16 

2 

22 










\?5 


2 


5 


I'^fi 










1?7 


! 

1 


20 


36 


5 




18 



8 


6 



14 



14 

13 
4 


26 

47 

7 


13 
9 

4 
10 


20 


27 


85 
15 

7 
13 


18 


53 






S 

1 


16 












1-?8 








129 
130 


6 





8 







3 


3 















131 




20 



281 



18 


243 














4 


7 



4 

I 



4 


11 
















132 
133 










12 

3 



1 



11 

1 
16 


2 


134 
135 










136 













13 


47 


















137 

























n 










138 















10 

7 




16 

3 


41 


50 


4 


9 






oj 


139 






140 


11 
6 


10 
4 


4 
6 


7 
3 






46 
54 

78 
29 

3 


47 
50 

98 
48 



9 

69 










e' 9 

4 4 

8 5 
1 4 


3 7 
18 


9 13 


1 




1 




141 





1 












U?. 










Mit 










12 


26 


15 


16 


101 

112 
95 
64 


126 

103 
115 
191 














144 




42 

115 



20 
142 




16 

106 

67 

19 

2 



'4 

18 

140 

3 

1 













3 


5 


t 

8 

5 





1 





145 
146 


8 
40 


28 
59 


147 






148 


19 





3 









60 


82 


46 


35 






149 


4 



5 







4 
1 


3 







150 


4 


17 








13 













5 








151 
15« 










27 



28 











8 


9 

2 


17 


8 

2 






153 




41 
8 




18 
1 




30 
8 




4 

1 




9 

113 




13 
158 


24 

26 
3 


18 

16 
15 











13 




1 

16 





4 








154 

1,55 






1.56 


2 


3 






157 














77 
7 


74 
2 














158 


35 


12 





1 


24 


8 


60 


49 










1 



2 
51 


1 


1 


159 










1(10 


























1 
2 


2 
6 






161 


































1 




16« 



2 


















97 


43 








23 


9 






163 


4 

40 

205 
266 


10 

53 

308 
356 


4 

2 


10 

6 






164 










7 



17 























» 


165 
166 






19 


34 


11 


22 






6 



• 


6 








167 


9 
ED 9 




7- 


















168 




] 


1 


46 





























2322 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1896-97. 

Table 9. — Schools for the education of the colored 





Location. 


Kame of school. 


Eeligious 
denom- 
ination. 


Teachers. 


Pupils enrolled. 




"White. 


Col- 
ored. 


o 
EH 

8 


Total. 


Elemen- 
tary 
grades. 




3 


a 

PR 


6 


6 

a 

7 


6 
9 


6 

a 
1© 


10 

11 


-3 

a 

PR 

la 




1 


3 


3 


4 


3 


169 
170 


VIRGINIA— cont'd. 

Petersburg 

(lo 


Peabody High School 

Virginia Normal and Colle- 
giate Institute. 

Hartshorn Memorial College 

High and Normal School . . . 

Eichmond Theological Sem- 
inary. 


Nonsect .. 
Nonsect .. 

Bapt 

Nonsect .. 
Bapt 

Nonsect .. 

Free Bapt 
Nonsect .. 





1 


2 



2 
2 





6 





4 



1 
7 



2 

4 

2 

1 


11 
5 

2 

11 



2 

1 
3 


12 

12 

9 

11 

4 

6 

9 
6 


307 
145 

92 
53 

44 

58 
76 


368 
165 

77 

350 



56 

76 
84 


300 
64 






328 
82 

11 




171 

179 


Eichmond 

do 


17S 


do 


17t 


WEST VIEGINIA. 


175 


TTn7-T.PT-5. T7pT-r-tr 


stitate. 


22 
72 


45 
66 


lyel Vm-Vfiralmro- "^ _._ 


High School 









EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 
race — teachers, students, and courses of study — Continued. 



2323 



Pupils eurolled. 




Students. 


Graduates. 




Second- 
ary 
grades. 


Collegi- 
ate 
classes. 


Classical 
courses. 


Scien- 
tific 
courses. 


English 
courses. 


Normal 
courses. 


Business 
courses. 


High 
school 
courses. 


Normal 
courses. 


Collegi- 

ate 
courses. 




6 
13 


6 

a 

14 

40 
81 

66 

350 



56 

31 
18 


6 
15 


a 
1^ 


2 


(0 


6 

1 
18 


"3 


_2 
"3 

i 
40 


"3 



"3 

a 

33 

40 


6 
"3 
3 


"3 
i 

34 



"3 
35 




"3 

a 

36 




6 
"3 


"3 

a 

38 
C 


"3 


"3 
1 
30 



20 

3 



"3 


6 
'3 

a 
® 

33 






17 


19 


31 


33 


39 



7 





31 




7 
58 

2 

92 



44 

36 
4 



23 




7 


7 





4 



3 


IfiQ 


23 


2 


170 
























171 



53 








































7 


24 








172 
171 



18 



8 














44 
32 


56 
28 





n 






2 

7 



4 

5 









174 








175 





















2 








176 































2324 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1896-97. 

Table 10. — Schools for the education of the colored race- 





Name of school. 


Students 
in pro- 
fessional 
courses. 


Pupils 


re- 


Students trained in industrial branches. 




dustrial 
training. 


o 
a 

bJC 

o 
S 


a 



a 
3 


fab 

s 


a 


si 

.5 
"S 

■3 


■i 


<B 

a 
© 

ID 

m 


a 
13 




bb 

a 
I' 

14 




u 





6 
a 


16 




a 

i 
i 

16 




a 
a 

17 






a 
% 

CO 

18 

54 


bb 

3 




19 
6 


% 
u 

u 
<o 
.a 


20 






•a 


6 
1 






a 


's 
o 




1 


2 


3 


4 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 




12 




1 


ALABAMA. 








89 


60 


149 


89 








?l 


Central Alabama Academy* 








3 








20 



16 

80 


36 

80 


25 


1 
















1 


'so 




9 


4 


Lincoln iSTormal School 

State Normal School for 
Colored Students.* 

Agricultural and Mechani- 
cal College. 






















ft 




















6 

7 


11 


25 


36 


99 
49 


148 
59 


247 
108 


19 
4 


34 
45 


1 


1 


3 




21 


... 25 


41 


106 
59 


38 
4 


57 
6 


8 


Alabama Baptist University 


















1 




q 


ie' 6 




16 




109 
45 


229 
60 


338 
105 


30 
65 


'I 












-..i... 


5 



187 
25 


13 
15 


"'6 


10 


Troy Industrial Academy. . - 

















0| 


!'>• 




lo! n 


10 
70 
































13 

H 


Tuskegee Normal and Indus- 
trial School. 

ARKANSAS. 

Arkadelphia Baptist Acad- 
emy. 


70 





706 
15 


336 
36 


1042 
51 


62 
15 


30 


16 


16 


14 


8 


24 


12 


13 


22 


31 
20 


49 
16 


615 


T) 


























Ifi 






















■ 




















17 


Philander Smith College 











15 


88 ins 




















15 


64 


24 




18 
























19 
•JO 


Columbia High School 












57 
45 

34 

38 
113 



23 
35 

6 



44 




80 
80 

40 

38 
157 



'25 

14 



21 

8 

20 

25 
63 



















14 



9 




3 





8 

3 



"35 




8 

35 



13 


^1 


Southland College and Nor- 
mal Institute. 

DELAWARE. 

State College for Colored 
Students. 

DISTRICT OP COLUMBIA. 

High School 








?? 












i 






2 
13 


?s 


















V-l 




256 


9m 








10 






41 


43 




... 


?=> 




















9fi 




39 







39 




p 



30 



30 





















30 










27 

?8 


FLORIDA. 

Graded School No. 1 






































?f< 










































30 










8 


24 

44 


29 

2 
10 

72 




39 
24 

55 



127 

5 



127 


8 

39 

48 

99 


156 

7 

10 

199 




















8 








31 


Emerson Home 


























39 
24 

49 


127 


14 
49 







€{0 


Normal and Manual Train- 
ing School. 

State Normal and Indus- 
trial College. 

GEORGIA. 








44 




"6 


24 
44 



28 

2 



40 


















33 














44 









1 




2 


18 


34 





11 



-0 









11 












aii 




36 


West Broad Street School .. 
Atlanta Baptist Seminary . . 
Atlanta University 
















5 



34 


""6 
21 


37 
38 



















11 


1? 






10 
12 



118 



' statistics of 1895-96. 



a No report. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



2325 



pzofessional and industrial training — equipment and income. 



Chief sources of support. 



21 



22 



23 



s a 
.3 






24 



25 



26 



27 






29 



Tuition and contributions 



$15, 579 



343 
"56 



$22, 204 



$1, 019 



$1, 883 



State and tuition . . . 
Amer. Miss. Assn . 
State and tuition . . . 



2, 700 
10, 000 



State and United States. 
Amer. Miss. Assn 



223 2, 500 



$180 

't.'Soo 

41, 143! 4, 000 



255 



3,000 
136 



Amer. Miss. Assn. auddouations. 

Private contributions , 

Tuition 

Presbyterian Church 

State.'United States, Slater and 
Peabodv funds. 



550 

500 

6,200 

150 



30. 0001 

133, UOO 

1, 700 



19, 500i 



1,000 
4,826 



1,500 
290, 000 



Benevolence . 



Amer. Bapt. H. M. S 

Freedmen's Aid and S. Ed. So. 



State and United States . 
Tuition and benevolence. 



State and United States 



United States 

....do 

....do 

Am. Bapt. H. M.S. 



1,020 

200 



6 



200' 12, 000 



872' 
l,576r$5,"000 
168 40 

4001.... 



3, 933 

10, 424 

1, 659 



2, 726 



100 

600 



60 

3,500 

1,200 



1,200 

13, 000 

619 

2,500 



10, 000 
10. 000 
3U, 000 
20 000 
1,200 
60. 0(10 
27, 000 



17, 800 



125, 000 
700, 000 



140, 000 



1,500 




4, 500 



3, 700 



500, 

1,211 



100 

400 

3,396 






2,200 





C 










IS 


2,000 





4,000 



32, 600 




6, 914 8, 000 



1, OOU 1. 000 



1,227 



4,200 



435 



3, 300 13, 800 
9, 317i 13, 453 



4, 805 

17, 000 

1,807 

400 



7, 126, 12, 902 



1,000 

1, 227 
500 

3,411 

4, 501) 
100 

4,118 



15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
5.396 21 



8, 200; 22 



! 23 

7,000 54,514 24 
I 25 

4, 000 6, 666; 26 



Home Society New York and 
liethlehem Association. 

W. H. M. S. M. E. Ch 

ADier. Miss. Assn 



State and United States 



A. B. H. M. S., Jerual Assn. 
Amer. Miss. Assn., tuition . 
Citv 

A. B. H. M. S. and Friends . 
Tuition and benevolence. . . 



777 



1,200 



100 
380 



208 
100 



3, 000 
9, 400 



7,000 



7,000 
25, 000 



6, 500 

7, 000| , 
3, 000 . 

56, 050, 
252, 000, 






11, 500 



82 
210 



562 
2,000 



1,500 
600 



6.175 
22, 500 



227 
210 



U, 500 



1,524 



8,237 
25, 100 



33 



2326 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1896-97. 

Table 10. — Schools for the education of the colored race- 





Name of school. 


Students 
in pro- 
fessional 
courses. 


Pupils re- 


Students trained in industrial branches. 




dustrial 
training. 




6 
g 

n 
O 


bit 

g 
n 


btl 

.9 

1 

a 

« 


bJD 

a 
-p 

a 
"3 
Pm 

12 


o 

1 

a> 

o 

a 
H 

13 


'5) 

o 
14 


-a 

o 

ft 
o 

? 
6 

•S 

o 

15 


fcb 

a 

3 

i 

o 

Eo 

16 


W) 

.9 
_g 

P^ 
17 


bio 
B 

■^ 
o 

CO 

18 


hi) 

p 

3 

o 
o 

19 


at 
a 

o 

20 




i 


a 


o 
H 




a5 

a 

Q 


o 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


^() 


GEORGIA — continued. 
Morris Brown College 


16 




39 


16 

39 


24 




36 

350 
128 


60 
350 
128 


4 




6 





4 




4 




2 












6 

20 


30 
?90 


6 

-20 



"34 



4n 


















41 




0128 


^9 


Haines Normal and Indus- 
trial School. 
The Paine Institute 












4^ 


41 





41 


































'J't 


































d'i 


Georgia State Industrial 
College. 








37 





37 19 


37 


5 


5 


5 


















40 




























47 










52 

25 






173 
260 

s 


995 




52 


















173 

30 






6 

8 




6 

222 




/fR 










98'1 




















49 


Koswell Puhlic School 








86 












86 





- 


I 






































f;i 




■^'^ 


Gammon School of Theology 
Allen Normal and Indus- 
trial School. 






1 


























^3 





66 


66 






















60 


6 




^i 




























f;^ 


ILLINOIS. 








































f^fi 


INDIJlNA. 








































=.7 










































f;8 


KENTUCKY. 

Berea College 








































fs«) 


State Normal School for Col- 
ored Persons. 








18 


81 


99 


18 


7 


















81 


81 




on 
























r.i 













120 


120 






































120 


«?, 


Christian Bible School 

Central High School 


13 





13 


fi3 


































M 






















2 

91 

82 




95 
83 


2 

186 
165 




















2 


15 








65 

fin 


LOUISIANA. 

Alexandria Academy*. 

G ilhert Academy and Indus- 
trial Coirege. 


15 


10 

11 


10 


1 


1 






10 








40 
38 


44 
20 


80 
50 


67 










68 





38 





5 





43 




25 


14 


39 






































39 


fit) 


New Orleans University 

Southern University 


70 
71 


106 
90 


91 
1.50 


197 

240 


58 



48 
9 










20 



60 








48 








30 


91 

150 






40 



7^ 


MARYLAND. 

Baltimore City Colored High 
School. 








73 


2 





2 


































74 








30 



30 























30 



13 



"6 


75 


Baltimore Normal School 
for Training of Colored 
Teachers. 




















. 





















' Statistics of 1895-96. 



a No report. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



2327 



lirofessional and hidustrlal training — eqmpment and income — Continued. 



Chief sources of support. 



21 



A.M.E.Ch 

■\V. A. H.M. S. Slater fund. 
Tuition and benevolence... 



22 



23 



1, 5Q0 

3,000 

200 



•3S 
•^ .2 
^„ 

O 5* 

tj) © 

**-■ ^ 2 

© P c3 
-1 t< H 



24 



$75, aoo 

150, 000 
20, 000 



25 



^ ■» 



§ 



26 



2,375 
1, 3-10 



_ H 
©<» 



27 



28 



$7, JOG 

18, 030 





.$8, 000 

20, 405 

1,340 



55 



M.E.Ch.S 

"Walker Bapt. A.ssn 

State and United States. 



Tuition , 

Benevolence 

Amer. Miss. Assn., tuition . 

State 

Amer. Miss. Assn 



$1, 000 

3,580 

75 

600 

56 



Endowment 

Am. M, Assn., tuition. 



400 
'366 



1,000 

1, 300 

400 



702 

1,000 

11, 000 

200 



14, 484 
5,000 
25, 000 $16, 000 



40, 000 

10, 000 

25, 000 

3,000 

12, 258 

500, 000 

100, 000 

8,570 



,300 




203 

519 



10, 000 
688 

1,800 
200 

1,513 



$2, 100 



500 
1,000 



6,463 

2,079 



500 

550 

3,200 





468 



12, 000 
1,338 



8,77 

2,598 

16, 000 

11,000 
2 238 
5^000 
1,500 
1,009 



12, 000 

1,806 



State. 



18, 000 



State 

Public school fund. 



State 



Tuition 

Amer. Miss. Assn., tuition. 

Contribiitions 

City and State 

City 



Freedmcn'a Aid, So. Ed. Society 

of M. E. Ch. 
do 



15, 500 
717 

50 
500 
600 
500 

7001 



2,500 



123, 000 
23, 203 



10, 000 
18, 000 



5,000 



3,517 



4,40; 



3,373 



600 
913 



GO, 000 
30, 000 



15, 000 
9,220 



0| 500 

1, 000, 40, 000 



64 



397 

4571 




175 



800 
4,000 




2,400 



250 



7,920 
8,373 



600 60 

1,713 61 

4,175 62 

15,000 63 

9,281 64 



397 65 
3,107 68 



Endowment 

Ereedmen's Aid, So. Ed. Society 
of M. E. Ch. 

State and United States 

Contributions and tuition 



2,000 




600 



1, 000 . 
5,000 



1, 200 

2, 500 



100, 000 



60, 736 
125, 000 



City 



200 
2,500 



9,000 





3,200 



3,500 
300 





240 



45, 000 



State and endowment. 



2, 000 20, 000 



500 
2,000 



2,000 



1,000 
'"246 



2,000 
9,300 



11, 000 



7,000 



5,500 
9,680 



20, 000 
3,440 



10, 000 

500 

2,240 



2328 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1896-97. 

Table 10. — Schools for the education of the colored race^. 





Name of school. 


Students 
in pro- 
fessional 
courses. 


Pupils re- 
ceiving in- 
dustrial 
training. 


Students trained in industrial branches. 




o 

S 
•p 

o 


o 



•r' 


a 

m 

s 


fcio 

_p 

'-+3 
g 


o 

"S 

a 

i 

m 
u 
o 

a 


g 

O 


1 

1 

6 
a 

o 

a 


a 

i 
s 

o 
m 


ti 
a 

a 
'E 


a 
18 


a 

.0 



19 


1 
u 

20 



75 

4 


"so 

20 




a 
-^ 
^ 


Is 
1 


o 




i 

a 

<B 


3 
o 
H 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


76 

77 


MARYLAND — Continued. 

The Industrial Home for 
Colored Teachers. 













48 



18 



80 
10 


134 

43 

45 

5 
60 

24 
100 
90 


134 
91 

45 

23 
60 

24 
180 
100 







8 


















4 



4 





134 


134 


7« 


MISSISSIPPI. 

Mount Hermon Female 

Seminary. 
Southern Christian Institute 
Mississippi State Colored 

Normal School. 




2 










24 




2 


24 














46 

60 

24 
100 
90 


45 

3 


24 


8 


79 


5 



4 

















7 



80 

81 























8^ 


Jackson College 






















83 







20 


20 






















84 


Meridian Academy 






















8.5 


Natchez Colle£;e a 








































86 

87 


Tougaloo University 

Alcorn Agricultural and 
Mechanical College. 

MISSOURI. 

Sumner High School 

Douglass High School 

Lincoln Institute 


3 


8 


11 


95 

157 



65 


108 






65 


203 
157 





130 


25 
60 





90 






' 








'47 






'56 





97 


80 




88 
89 


















31 






















22 




12 






65 










fli 


Lincoln High School 
















W 


George E. Smith College 

NEW JERSEY. 

Manual Training and In- 
dustrial School. 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

■Washburn Seminary 


4 




20 




















4 




20 









28 

35 

153 








75 
23 

52 



266 




75 
51 

87 

153 



266 
























75 
23 

52 

"6 

266 




23 



""0 

266 




15 

'i5 


"6 



93 

94 

P5 


15 



15 




28 

35 

36 








10 







8 






3 









35 









19 








40 




96 

'»7 


Clinton Colored Graded 
Scliool. 











98 
99 

inn 


State Colored Normal School 

State Colored Normal School 

Albion Academy, Normal 
and Industrial School. 

Franklin ton Christian Col- 
lege. 

State Colored Normal 
School, a 

State Colored Normal 
School. * 

Agricultural and Mechani- 
cal College for the Colored 
Race. 

Bennett College a 









































101 

in? 


5 










58 


58 





» 


























58 


... 


... 


103 









57 



19 



76 



5 



50 











5 






45 



5 










19 



5 





in^ 








in^ 








106 


High Point Normal and In- 
dustrial School. * 









31 


117 
138 


117 
169 




4 



2 


























117 
121 



75 





107 








108 


























109 


Barrett Collegiate and In- 
dustrial Institute. 
Plymouth Normal School. . . 
St." Augustine's School 








35 

25' 


23 


50 


58 


75 



25 


4 


10 


6 


10 


2 



10 


5 









8 



15 



8 


50 


^0 


50 





110 

111 







6 



6 




2 









' statistics of 1895-9e 



a No report. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



2329 



professional and industrial training — equipment and income — Continued. 



Chief sources of support. 



21 



State and city. 



Tuition $1,342 



Am. M. Soc. and tuition . 
State 



F. A., S. Ed. Soc. M. E. Ch 
Ain. Bapt. H. M. Society . 
Am. Miss. Assu '. ... 

F. A., So. E<1. Society 



22 



1,000 




470 



798 



100 
200 



400 



1,000 
3,200 



S 

^ .2 

00 07 

O =* 

So.® . 

o +^ ^ 
o a ^ 
s ^ ta 

24 



25 



26 



$35,000 $6,200 
10, 000 4, 200' $1, 200 



27 



25, 000 
12, 000 



3, 500 175, 000 

500 25, 000 

200 2, 500 

120 2, 000 



1,534; 




2,000 



365 



2, ooo; 

l,Oil 
600. 
523, 






88 



tgOS 



1, CIO $10,810 76 
5,40oi 77 



1,6211 78 



; 79 

20 2,385 80 



2,000 81 

5,740, 6,781 82 

[ 600 83 

275, 798 84 

85 

17, 100 "is," 200 86 

17,900 87 



Am. Miss. Assn , 

State and United States 



State 

....do 

State and United States 

State 

F. A., S. Ed. Soc. M. E. Ch . . . 



State. 



Am. Miss. Assn . 



City 



Presb. Church Nortli 

State and Peabody Fund 
State ' 



Christian Church. 



4,500 



5, 000 
2,900 



80,0001 1 1,100 

85, 000 7, 750: 150 $10, 000 



260 6, 000! 4, 000 

500 15, OOOl 2, 000 

50! 85,300 12,000 

I 



200 2, 100 60, 000 



10, 000 



290 



100 



90 



171 



1,500 



1, 000 3, 000; 



7, 000 
, 500: 130, 000 
1 200; 



1, 000, 
100| 
250 
300 



65, 000 
1,000 
1, 500 

10, 000 



1, 500 6, 000 



350 


1, 066] 
1,600 
2,000 

100 




2,000 



25 




1,196 



4,500 

540 



3,000 



350, 1, 225 



4,090 88 

2, 000 89 

13, 367 90 

91 

3,425 92 



3, 000 93 



2, 277i 94 
I 95 

"■ioo! 96 



4, 985i 1.7 
1,606! 98 
1,600 99 
7,000 100 

1,700 101 

102 

1,566 103 

15,212 104 



State and Peabody Fund 
i State 



290 





200 1,566 

625 52, 000! 7, 500 



7,625 



....|105 
547 106 



State 



Am. Miss. Assn 

Tuition 

Subscription and donation. 

State 



200 
400 



3,500 
1,250 



547 



280 
250 



25 
750 



Endowment 5,000 



400, 



331 107 
275 108 
750 109 



110 



2330 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1896-97 



Table 10. — Schools for the education of the colored race- 





Name of scliool. 


Students 
in pro- 
fessional 
courses. 


Pupils re- 
ceiving in- 
dustrial 
training. 


Students trained in industrial branches. 




i 
% 
s 

U 
fcfi 
U 

o 

a 
u 


1 


a 

'P. 

o 


1 


_p 



'3 
ft 


M 
u 
o 

1 

a 

<D 
O 
,^ 

m 

o 
a 
H 

13 


a 

■& 

o 

14 


o 

ft 
o 

6 
a 

'o 
a 

15 


.a 

i 

o 

m 
IS 


g 
a 
ft 
17 


fcb 

a 

o 
18 


tc 

Ft 

i 

o 
C 

19 


1 

2 
o 

20 




(D 

3 


6 

a 
1^ 


o 


1 


6 
'3 

a 

(S 


1 
o 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


^?^ 


NOETH CAROLINA— cont'd. 

Shaw University 


91 





91 


81 


140 


221 


























221 


1R 


Graded School .'. 


























L14 
15 


Livingstone College 

State Colored Normal 

School. * 
(xre/^ory Normal Intitute. .. 
Kan kin-Richards Institute . 











25 


38 


63 


17 


5 


6j 6 


1 











4 


10 


35[ 40 




ifi 















190 
25 


190 
25 




















190 
25 


... 


::: 


17 










1 








IS 


Waters Normal Institute. . . 




























L19 


OHIO. 

TVilberforoo University 

Colored High School 


15 





15 


83 


133 


216 





38 























46 


67 


65 


" 


[21 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

Colored High School 

Lincoln University 



48 








48 


























eO 























23 


Institute for Colored Youth. 


28 

130 



88 

120 



116 

250 





30 



28 

26 



18 















18 

8 



16 

8 



120 



88 

80 



96 

38 



S4 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Schofield Normal and In- 
dustrial school. 

Beaufort Public School 

Harbison Institute 




























25 

•;>,6 











27 


Browning School 











107 


107 






















107 


36 




2S 


Avery N ormal Institute 






























29 
3(1 


AYallingford Academy 

Brainerd Institute 





18 


18 



43 


121 
80 


121 
123 






20 










2 












5 



6 


121 

47 


18 
33 



10 


31 


, Allen University * 


6| 
441 n 


6 

44 
18 










n 


Benedict College 


106 

107 


281 


101 
70 

200 
243 


207 
177 

200 
524 


23 





7 
107 


22 


4 




75 


4 




75 


6 




18 












22 


1 




75 


5 






14 
10 



4 


87 
70 

200 
243 


10 



19 


45 





33 

U 
35 


Penn Industrial and Nor- 
mal School. 

Brewer Normal School 

Clafliu University 







18 



36 


TENNESSEE. 

Howard High School 








37 


Maury County Turner Nor- 
mal and Industrial School* 


1 











1 





8 


20 


55 


21 


63 


41 





8 



















55 


41 


9 


10 





3ft 


























39 


Warner Institute * 


40 


Austin High School 






















41 


KnoxvUle College 


9 





9 


25 


54 


79 


5 


7 
















18 


49 


... 


... 


42 


Freemen's Normal Institute* 
Le Moyne Normal Institute. 
















43 








25 
29 



23 





12 

85 




62 

157 





65 

90 



229 


87 
186 



25 





77 

175 


229 




18 
















27 


^0 


22 
45 



"6 



30 

"6 

■sn 



6 



"6 


44 


Morris'town Normal Acad- 
emy. 
Bradley Academy 






















29157 



10 --- 


4.T 



204 

7 













6 





204 
7 



6 






"6 


"6 




t 

4 

85 













4 













46 


Central Tennessee College. . 
I?isk University 


47 




























8 






65 

90 


229 


48 


Meigs High School 


49 


Eoger Williams University. 

TEXAS. 

Tillotson College 


50 


"6 


"6 


3 











51 
52 


East End High School 

Mary Allen Seminary 














53 


Central High School 








::::::i:;:i 


... 


... 


... 


... 


... 









* statistics of 1895- 



EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 



2331 



2)rof(ssional and industrial irain'mg — equijyment and income — Continued. 



Chief sources of support. 



21 



A. B. H. M. S. Slater Fund. 

City 

Cbnrch 

State 



Am. Miss. Assn., tuition 
State and henevolenco . . . 
A. B. H. M. Society 



State, tiution, cndo-n-raent . 





$5, 125 



650 

850 

1,934 



23 



.9 a 



P F! S 



24 



500! $90, 000 

50; 1, 500 

2, 500 125, 000 



25 



200 15, 000 
600| 3, 500 
2.50l 10, 860 



6, COO 



108, 000 



$1, 150 



1,650 


109 
200 



26 



$3, 045 


789 



27 



$175 
"266 



1,350 



28 



50 



16, 400 1, 822 



1,323 



$20, 009 

50 

3,780 

219 

3,300 

710 

1,934 



29 



$23, 319' 112 
1, 200} 113 
4, 769 114 
1, 869 115 

4, 650] 116 

819! 117 

2,184 118 



28,316 



119 
120 



121 
122 
123 



State 

Endowment and beaovolence . 



14, 000 214, 000 



Eudo'.vnjcut, contributions 



United States and State 

Presb. Board 

M.E.Cliurcb 

A. M. Assn. and tuition 

Presbyterian Church, tuition 

Presbyterian Church 

A. M. E. Cliurch 

Am. Bap. U. M. Society 

Contributions 



745 
1, 000 



A. M. Asso., churcli 

E. A. , S. Ed. So. Slater and Pea- 
body Eviuds. 



City .... 
Tuition , 



Do 

Am. Miss. Assn 

City 

Church and Miss. So. 

New Eug. Y. M 

A. M. A.ssn., tuition.. 
E. A., S.Ed. Society.. 



2,000 

200 
200| 
200 
600 

250 
200 
2, 525 
100 

200 
2,000 



75 
500 

20 
150 
522 



35, 000 



3.500 
6,000 



150 



950 
2,000 



250 1, 000 






355. 



25, 000 

8,000 

10, 000 

30, 000 



2,750 
360 



3,000 



12, 000 
80, 000 



30, 000 



1,000 

1,270 

300 

700 
1,500 



1,100 
11,000 
10, 200 
100, 000 2, 800 



600 
70 



State and County 

E. A., S. Ed. Society 

A. M. Assn., contributions. 
State 

A. B. n. M. S., tuitions 



4,000 
8,000 



150 

35, 365 



Am. Miss. Assn., tuition . 

State and City 

Donations 

State 



150: 
0! 



2, 000 
500' 

I 

o| 

4,000 

6, 3871 

12 . 

4, OOOi 



1,800 



45, 000 
75,000. 

2,100. 
105, 000 
375,000'. 



460 

428! 

4,600 

1,150 



5,000 



350: 

400: 



2, 250 

10 

2, 209' 

4,000, 
8,914 
1,000: 



13, 500 




347 



400 
75 



150, 000 . 



35, 000 

2,000 

40, 000 

17, 000 





4,000 





10. 500 
5,425 



1,500 



775 
15 



350 
2,450 



11,000 

G86 

4, 000 

6,850 



7,750 
'8,'66c 



1,750 

10 

5,500 



6, 400 124 

1, 300 125 
2,755 



5,000 

370 

2,209 

5, 000 

10, 184 



126 
127 
128 
129 
130 
131 
132 



1, 300 133 



700 134 
15, 000, 135 



600 
71 



14,260 
1,114 
8, fiOO 
8,000 



18, 600 
7,875 



9,500 



2,525 
4,025 
5,500 



136 
137 

138 
139 
140 
141 
142 
143 
144 

145 
146 

147 
148 
149 



150 
151 
152 
153 



2332 



EDUCATION REPOET, 1896-97. 

Table 10. — Schools for the education of the colored raoe- 



IJame of school. 



Students 
in pro- 
fessional 
courses. 



Pupils re- 
ceiving in- 
dustrial 
training. 



3 I o 



Students trained in industrial branches. 



10 11 



13 



14 



15 



16 



17 



18 



19 20 



154 



155 
156 



160 
161 

162 
163 

164 

165 

166 
167 
168 

169 

170 

171 

172 
173 



174 



175 
176 



TBXAS — continued. 

Hearne Academy, Normal 

and Industrial School.* 
Bishop College 

"Wiley University 



157 I Colored High School. 
158 

159 



Prairie View State Normal 

School.* 
Paul Quinn College 








VIEGINIA, 



Ingleside Seminary 

Gloucester Agricultural 
and Industrial School. 

Colored Graded School 

Hampton Normal and Agri- 
cultural Institute. 

St. Paul Normal and Indus- 
trial Sciiool. 

Manassas Industrial School 
for Colored Touth. 

Public High School 

Norfollj. Mission College 

Bishop Payne Divinity and 
Industrial School. 

Peabody School 

Virginia Normal and Colle- 
giate Institute. 

Hartshorn Memorial College 

High and Normal School 

Richmond Theological Sem- 
inary. 




53 



WEST VIEGINIA. 

West Virginia Colored In- 
stitute. 

Storer College 

High School 



19 

235 13 
177 


1511 35 

116100 



0- 115 
34! 55 



302 184 

46 30 

1 
40| 53 





15 



27 



28 







5 




115 115 
15 



8107 

6! 12 

47 





28 269 







115 
45 



77 01 




C5 



'^Statistics of 1895-96. 



EDUCATION OF THE COLOKED EACE. 



2333 



professional and industrial training — equipment and income — Continued. 



Chief sources of support. 



O 00 



D a 

O C8 



21 



23 



Bapt.H.M.S 

Am. Bapt. H. M. S 

F.A., So.Ed. S.M.E. Ch. 

City 

StSte 



,650 
150 



Church . 



Presbyterian Church 
Public contributions 



United States and private gifts 

Contributions 

Fees and donations 



4,000 
i6i,'286 



State 

United Presbyterian Church . 
Contributions 



900 

2,500 

100 

300 

1,500 



400 
800 



9,272 

I 
300 

300 

78! 
700 
400 



City and. State. 
State 



Am. Bapt. H. M. S 

State 

Am. Bapt. H. M. S 



State 

Benevolence . 




3,515 



350 

4, 800, 



24 



25 



26 



27 



29 



$94, 000 

35, 000 

1,600 



$1, 693 

9, 200 $200 



,114 
150 



$10. 807 
9,550 



$16, 600 



12, 000 



100, 000 



25, 

18, 

4, 
617, 

50, 

10, 

3, 

50, 

6, 



3,000 




15, 000 


7,550 



600 50, OOOj 15,000 
5, OOOi 60, OOo! 




3,600 



300 



5, 000 33, 900 
3, 610 3, 010 



154 

155 
156 
157 
158 

159 



I...- 160 

3, OOO; 3, 250i 161 



30,2651 144,234 
6, 659; 5, 519 



1,760 




1,085 

556 

60 

364 



3, 0001 
174, 499 



162 
103 



15,778,164 
165 



6, 400' S, 166 
O! 300l 



166 
167 
108 



....| 169 

4oO; 16, 535 170 



4,803 



1,559 



5,000 
4, 609 



5,359 

7,610 



171 
172 
173 



20, 000 174 

6, 553 175 
1 176 






Chapter VT. 
THE HIGHER KHK ATION OF FREEDMEN. 



V 



Besides what has been done ]>y the State in the Southern Cniver- 
sity, alreadj^ described, the following- are the moi-e important asfen- 
cies that serve this end : 

V LBLAND UNIVERSITY* 

Leland University owes its existence to tlie consecrated beneficence 
of Holbrook Chamberlain, of Brooklyn, N. Y., who went to New 
Orleans in 1870, purchased the site, consisting of 4 squares of ground 
fronting on St. Charles avenue, containing about 9 acres, and effected 
an organization of a board of trustees, whose first act of incorporation 
is dated March 26, 1870. The first trustees were Holbrook Chamber- 
lain, E. P]. L. Taylor, Sejnnour Straight, Charles Satchel], James B. 
Simmons, Thomas W. Conwaj', Esau Carter, Jay S. Backus, Hiram 
Hutchins, Richard De Baptist, Nathan Brown, William Howe, and 
Leonard Grimes. Deacon Chamberlain accepted the j)osition of 
treasurer and occupied it until his death, Avhich occurred in 1883, 
giving personal attention to the financial interest of the university 
and contributing liberally to its support. In this he was assisted by 
tlie ITnited States Government, through the Freedman's Bureau, 
which appropriated $17,500 toward the first building, and by the 
American Baptist Home Mission Society, which appropriated $12,500 
toward the purchase of the ground. In addition to this the society 
donated to the trustees, for school purposes, during the years 1874 to 
1880, various sums, averaging over 13,000 annually. During two of 
these years (1884, 1885) the society, bj^ special arrangement, assumed 
the entire support of the teachers, paying over $4,000 each year — in 
1884, 17,544, less $3,468 received from tuition, donations, etc., and 
in 1885, $7,871, less $3,371 received. 

In 1873 a large 3-story brick building, with Mansard roof, 100 feet 
long and 80 feet wide, was erected upon St. Charles avenue. In 1881 
the new dormitory for girls was commenced. This also was of brick, 



"'•This sketch has been furnished the writer by the president, Rev. E. C. Mitch- 
ell, D. D., for fifteen years ijrofessor of biblical interpretation in Baptist theological 
schools at Alton and Chicago, 111., and, more recently, president of a theological 
school in Paris, France. 

149 



150 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN LOUISIANA. 

3 stories high, iOO by 50 feet, with a large basement devoted to laundry 
and boarding purposes. This l)uilding was completed in the fall of 
1884 at a cost of about $25,000. 

The university was named by the founder in honor of liis wife, who 
was a direct descendant of Elder John Leland, of Cheshire, Mass. 
Mrs. Chamberlain died before her husband. When he had finished 
his earthly work, it was found that in his will the bulk of his prop- 
erty, amounting to about $100,000, had been left as an endowment 
fund for the support of the institution to whose interests he had 
devoted much of the later years of his honorable and useful life. A 
memorandum in the jubilee volume (1882) of the American Baptist 
Home Mission Society (p. 36) estimates the aggregate of his gifts to the 
institution during his lifetime at $65,000, and adds: 

With rare devotion and self-forgetfulness, he has for years lived for this object, 
putting time, talents, and possessions into the Christ-like service of lifting the 
lowly lip into a higher life. 

Although the institution was founded with a broad view to higher 
education, and therefore provided with a university charter similar 
in general features to that of American universities, yet, being at 
the same time, by its charter, oi3en to all without distinction of sex 
or color, its first work in that locality was necessarily confined chiefly 
to the education of descendants of the colored race. The beginning 
of its internal work, therefore, was humble and iDrimitive. The 
school, at first a primary grade, gradually advanced to grammar and 
to high-school instruction, and for some years chiefly ijrovided for the 
preparation of teachers to supply the needs of public and j^rivate 
schools then springing up in all the Southern States. The first prin- 
cipal was the Rev. William Rollinson, of IsTew Jersey, who taught 
until October, 1872, and who was succeeded by Rev. S. B. Gregory, 
who died in 1873. Rev. S. B. Barker, his associate in instruction, 
took charge until 1876, when he was succeeded by Rev. Marsena 
Stone, D. D. In 1878, Rev. S. J. Axtell was appointed president. 
His successor was Rev. J. S. Morton, who entered jipon duty October 1, 
1881, ex-President Axtell being appointed to the department of bib- 
lical instruction. In 1882, Rev. H. R. Traver, of Saratoga, N. Y., 
took charge of the institution, remaining in office until 1886. After 
an interim of one year the present faculty were appointed. 

Since that period important changes have taken jjlace, not only in 
the course of instruction, but in the organization of the institution. 
It having become evident that the time had arrived for the university 
to perform its proper work of higher education, the standard of admis- 
sion to the classes was raised, so as to eliminate the lower grades and 
relegate the work of primarj^ instruction to preparatory schools. Full 
normal and college work is now being performed in all departments. 
For the further enlargement of the scope of the university a new char- 
ter was obtained in 1891, more than doubling the number of trustees, 



THE Hir4HER EDTCATIOX OF FREEDMEN. 151 

removinf^- the limitations of its vested funds, and securing' greater 
strength in tlie ijersonalit}' and power of its members, Nc^rtli and 
Soutli. A system of attiliated schools was inaugurated by which the 
faculty of the university could exercise control over the prej^aratory 
course of study in secondary institutions established at impoi-tant 
centers outside of New Orleans. The conditions under which these 
schools are admitted to the auxiliary relation are as follows: 

1. That a property fairly vahied at $2,000 shall be provided by the trustees and 
kept in repair by them, with taxes, insurance, and incidental expenses paid. 

2. That the tuition, to the amount of at least $1 per month for each i^upil, be 
reported and paid to the university before the loth of each school month. 

;J. That the course of stud}' prepared by the Leland faculty for use in prepara- 
tory schools (or •• Leland academies") be adopted by the school with such text- 
booiis as are from time to time prescribed. 

4. The teachers of the school are to be appointed by us in consultation with the 
trustees of the school, and their names will appear as members of our faculty. 
Their salaries are to be paid by the university on terms which may be agreed 
upon, to be adjusted with reference to the apparent needs and probable income of 
the school. 

5. Graduates of the school will be received into the regular normal classes of 
the university without examination. The best scholar in each graduating class 
will receive from the iiniversity a prize of $1 per month deducted from his first 
term bill, and the second best scholar will receive a prize of 50 cents per month 
in the same way. 

The courses of study are as follows: 



Junior year. — First term, algebra, rhetoric, physiology: second term, algebra, 
physical geography, physics. 

Middle year. — Fii-st term, algebra. Latin, physics; .second term, algebra, Latin, 
chemistry. 

Senior year. — First term, geometry, Latin, civil government; second term, 
geometry, Latin, laws and practice of teaching. 

COLLEGIATE. 

Junior and middle years identical with normal. 
Senior year. — Geometry, Latin, Greek. 

COLLEOE COURSE. 

Freshman year. — Latin, Greek, geometry, trigonometry. 

SopJwmore year.— Ijiitin. Greek, analytical geometry, physics. 

Jvnior year. — Rhetoric, logic, English literature, Greek, physics, physiology, 
astronomy. 

Senior yea)-. — Psychology', moral science. Christian evidences, history of civili- 
zation, political economy, chemistry, geology. 

THEOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT. 

Junior year. — Biblical introduction and history, evidences of Christianity and 
Biblical interpretation. 

Middle year. — Biblical geography and archaeology. Biblical interpretation, the- 
ology, church history, sermonizing. 

Senior year. — Biblical interpretation, pastoral theology, saci'ed rhetoric, church 
polity. 



152 HI8T0RY OF EDUCATION IN LOUISIANA. 

STRAIGHT UNIVERSITY.* 

It became evident very early that New Orleans was an imi3ortant 
point at whicli to establish an educational institution for the colored 
people. 

Prominent among those interesting themselves in the matter was 
Hon. Seymour Straight, then engaged in the produce business in this 
city, now of Hudson, Ohio. Hon. Edward Heath, Mr. Charles Heath, 
and others were its Avarm advocates. 

The United States Government was appealed to, and a building was 
erected on the corner of Esplanade and Burgundy streets, the ground 
being the property of the American Missionary Association, and the 
school was to be under their control. 

As Mr. Straight was by far the largest contributor, it Avas in his 
honor named "Straight University." He has always been the firm 
friend and constant benefactor of the institution. The institution 
received her charter from the State legislature, granting her all the 
rights of establishing technical departments, granting degrees, etc. , in 
1869, and the new building was dedicated in February, 1870. 

The notion that education would somehow lift them into a higher 
and better life seemed to take at once a strong hold on the minds of 
these people, and thej^ flocked to this and other scliools, literally by 
thousands. Few of them had unj fair conception of what a school 
was, and many onlj^ remained a few days, others coming in to fill 
their places, and with this irregularity little, comparatively, in the 
way of thorough instruction could be given. 

But things constantly improved, and soon a moi-e perfect organiza- 
tion was effected. Great good was accomplished notwithstanding all 
the drawbacks, and thousands who to-day are occupying prominent 
positions as preachers, teachers, merchants, and farmers look back 
with grateful remembrance to the time they spent at ' ' The Straights " 
or " The Universe," as many of them still call it. 

In 1877 the building on Esplanade street was destroyed by fire, and 
with it niuch that would aid in compiling its history, as well as a val- 
uable library, the gift of Northern friends. School was held for 
some months in Central Church, on Liberty street, but without delay 
a piece of ground was selected on Canal street, its present site, and 
the university building erected and dedicated October 1, 1878. 

In 1881 Mrs. Valina G. Stone, of Maiden, Mass., gave 125,000, with 
which an additional half square of land was purchased, and Stone 
Hall, a beautiful and convenient building three stories high, 100 feet 
front on Canal street, and with wing 190 feet on Rocheblave, was 
erected. This is now occupied as the teachers' home and girls' 
dormitory. 



Account furnished laj^ Rev. R. C. Hitchcock. A. M., president. 



THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF FREEDMEN. 153 

liL Oclobev, I880, tlie Ixtys' dorniitory, Whitiii Hall, was oivcted, 
so naiiied in honor of IIoii. William C. Whitin. Ten thousand dollars 
was received from the estate of Mv. Whitin and I5,0(X) from the .2:ener- 
ous hand of Mr. Straight for the erection of this luiildini;. 

In 1S8C) the building- o('eu]iied as Vermont headquartei'S at the 
exposition was obtained and is now occupied as a library. 

In 1886 an industrial deparlment was added, largely l)y the aid of 
money from the Slater fiind, a shop erected, and now several depart- 
ments of mechanical work are in successful operation. 

The grounds, which are pleasantly situated on Canal street, in the 
most beautiful part of the city, are haiulsoniely laid out and planted 
with trees, vines, ornamental shi'ubs, and flowers, the work all being 
done by students. This year a new and larger shop is to be built, 
and a greenhouse for the education of students in floriculture is in 
contemplation. 

Standing as we do, a central point for the Avhole Gulf coast, facing- 
Mexico and the islands, no school has better promise of a gi-and future 
than Straight. 

Among our stndents are representatives from Cuba, Honduras, 
Mexico, Texas, Arkansas, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, and nearly 
every parish of our own State. 

LAW DEPARTMENT. 

Our law department graduated its first chivss in 1870. Since then it 
has graduated 81, all of whom have been admitted to the bar of this 
or other States. Among these are manj^, both white and colored, 
who take high rank in their profession, and who have filled prominent 
positions. I name: Judge Alfred E. Billings and Hon. L. A. Martinet, 
New Orleans; Hon. Charles A. Baquie, Ilahnville, La.; Hon. Lucien 
Adams, New Orleans, La. ; Thomas De Saliere Tucker, esq. , Pensacola, 
Fla. ; William H. Hodgkins, esq., Nashville, Tenn. ; David E. Temple, 
esq., Vicksbnrg, Miss.; Hon. John F. Pattj^, St. Marys, La.; Hon. 
C. A. Roxborough, Iberville, La. ; Hon. P. B. S. Pinchback, New 
Orleans, La.; Jason L. Jones, esq., Plaquemine, La. 

Among its undergraduates are several who have held important 
positions : Lieutenant-Governor C. C^. Auboine, Shreveport, La. ; Hon. 
Henry C. C. Astwood, United States consul at Santo Domingo; Hon. 
S. A. McElwen, l>nnessee ; J. M. Vance, esq., New Orleans, and others. 

THEOLCXJIOAL DEPARTMENT. 

From this department have gone forth hundreds who are intelli- 
gently preaching God's word in this and neighboring States. Among 
these I name Rev. A. E. P. Albert, D. D., formerly presiding ehler 
of the Methodist Episcoj)al Church, now the popular editcn* of the 
Southwestern. 



154 



HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN LOUISIANA. 



CLASSICAL AND NORMAL. 

From these depart meiits have gone hundreds <jL" teachers, many 
occupjdng prominent places as superintendents of schools in cities 
and towns of Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, and other States. Mr. 
W. H. Raynolds, A. B., is suj)erintendent of colored schools in Vicks- 
bui'g, Miss. , a post he has held several years with much honor. Mr. 
E. C. Freeman has won his waj' to a high place in the public schools 
of Manhattan, Kans. Six are teachers in the public schools of New 
Orleans. 

Our rooms are crowded every year, and had we more room our 
numbers could and would be doubled. 

During the j^ear 1889 our attendance was 569. 

In 1888 University Church was organized, with Rev. M. L. Berger, 
D. D., as pastor, with about fifty memjjers. We have one of the 
largest Sunday schools in the cit5^ 

Our librar}^ numbers about 2,000 volumes. 

The institution was founded in 1869, opened in 1870, burned in 
1877, and rebuilt in 1878. 

PROPERTY. 

University building, 100 by 60 feet, two stories $15, 000 

Stone Hall, 100 by 190 feet, three stories 25, 000 

WhitinHall, 100 by 50 feet, three stories . 15,000 

Library ... .' 1,000 

Shop and equipments . . 800 

Printing ofifice . 800 

Storehouse . 300 

Cisterns and oil tb nil dings ... 1 , 000 

Land 20, 000 

We occupj'^ a whole square of ground, bounded by Canal, Roche- 
blave, Tonti, and Cleveland streets. Our grounds are high, the road- 
ways and sidewalks never flooded; the situation is tlie most healthful 

in the city. 

College course, four years. 



Language. 



Mathematics. 



Science. 



Sophomore 



Junior 



Senior 



Anabasis, three terms. 
Virgil's -^neid, two 

terms. 
Livy, one term, with 

composition. 
Homer's Iliad, three 

terms. 
Livy, one term, with 

composition. 
Horace, two terms. 
Homer's Odyssey, two 

terms. 
Herodotus, with Greek 

composition, one term. 
Tacitus, two terms. 
French, two terms. 
English literature, one 

term. 
Logic, one tet-m. 



Physics, two terms. 
Chemistry, one term. 



Higher algebra, two Science of education. 

terms. 
Geometry, two terms. 



Trigonometry, one term. Geology, one term. 



Review of all common 
branches. 



Mental science, two 
terms. 

Civil government, one 
term. 

Political economy, one 
term. 

Evidences of Christian- 
ity, one term. 

Astronomy, one term. 



THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF FREEDMEN. 155 

NEW ORLEANS UNIVERSITY.* 

The riiioii Norma] Scliool ol' XewOrlcaiis whs ofgaiiized July!), 
186i), with the fol lowing- boai'dof luanagei-.s: Kev. K. K. Diossy, presi- 
dent; Rev. L. C. Matlack, Hon. J. P. Sullivan, Gen. Cyrus Bussey, 
Henry C. Dibble, esq., F. J. Kmley, es(i., Louis Banks, escf., and Rev. 
Robert H. Steptoe. 

As the principal object proposed was the preparation of teachers 
for the education of the colored children of the State, application for 
assistance was made to Bvt. Maj. Gen. Edward Hatch, then in chari^e 
of the Freednian's Bureau in Louisiana. 

A propert}^ well suited to the purposes of the institution, situated on 
the corner of Camp and Race streets, was purchased by General Hatch 
for |!l2,000 and donated to the school. In the fall of 180!) the first session 
\fas opened, and after three years of prosperity the work was enlarged 
by merging the Normal School into the New Orleans LTniversity. 

By an act of the general assembly, approved March 22, 1873, by 
William P. Kellogg, governor of the State of Louisiana, the institu- 
tion was regularly chartered, and J. C. Hartzell, I. S. Leavitt, Cyrus 
Bussey, Emperor Williams, H. C. Dil>ble, John Baldwin, George 
Dardis, W. M. Daily, M. C. Cole, James H. lugraham, C. W. Boothby, 
J. M. Vance, Pierre Landry, W. G. Brown, and J. Barth were consti- 
tuted the first board of trustees. 

The following-named gentlemen have served as j)residents: Rev. 
L S. Leavitt, A. M. ; Rev. W. D. Godman, D. D. ; Rev. James Bean, 
A. M. ; Prof. I. N. Faler, A. M. ; Rev. James Dean, D. D. : Rev. L. G. 
Adkiuson, A. M., D. T>. 

During three j^ears the institution was under the direction of Rev. 

A. F. Hoyt, Ph. D.. and Rev. I. L. Lowe, A. M., Ph. D., as acting 
presidents. 

In 1884 the property on Camp and Race streets was sold and a block 
on the corner of St. Charles and Valmont was purchased, where the 
school is now located. A large brick building, 156 feet front by 120 
feet deep in the L, five stories high, has just been completed. It 
contains six school rooms, chapel, offices, cloakrooms, bathrooms, 
with dormitory rooms and dining-room accommodations for 180 stu- 
dents. The entire property is valued at $75,000. The enrollment, 
including boarding and day students, in January, 1889, was 232. The 
faculty then consisted of Rev. L. G. Adkinson, A. M., D. D., presi- 
dent; Rev. Thomas M. Dart, A. M., professor ancient languages; 
Harvey J. CUements, B. S., professor natural science; Miss ]VIaria C. 
Kilgrove, principal grammar school; Albert R. Adkinson, principal 
model scliool; Miss Belle Adkinson, principal music department; 

B. M. Hubbard and A. P. Camphor, tutors; William Porter, princi- 
pal night school; W. E. Chamberlain, superintendent mechanical 
department; Mrs. M. A. Adkinson, »rincipal sewing department. 



jn-inci 



* Account furnished by President L. G. Adkinson, A. M., D. D. Since this 
account was written a medical department has been added to the institution. 



\ . 



CHAPTER XXVII. 
THE FUTURE OF THE COLORED RACE. 



The Opportunity and Obligation of the Educated Class of the Colored Race 
IN the Southern States. An Address Delivered Before the Agricultural 
AND Mechanical College for Negroes, at Normal, Ala., May 29, 1899, by 
Rev. a. D. Mayo, A. M., LL. D. 

I do not appear before the faculty and students of the Agricultural and Mechan- 
ical College to discuss what the newspapers and politicians call " the race question" 
in the Southern United States. What is here called the "race problem," under 
another form, is equally pressing in the Northern States of the Union. It is only one 
section of the radical problem raised by that new departure in human affairs, the 
original Declaration of American Independence, fought out through eight terrible 
years of the war of the Revolution, and finally embodied in the Constitution of a 
republican government for the United States of America, declared, substantially, by 
Mr. Gladstone to be the most remarkable achievement of original statesmanship ever 
struck out by any body of men in the history of mankind. 

The motive power of that new government and order of society, now a century 
old — the great political dynamo that generates the force which moves and illumines 
the national life — is the radical idea, then for the first time dehberately adopted by 
any government, that it is possible to construct a nationality in which "all orders 
and conditions of people" can live together, each man, woman, and child a vital 
part of the whole, every member protected in all the fundamental rights of human 
nature, including the sovereign right to strive for his own highest jwssibility of man- 
hood or womanhood, and all Vi'orking together for the common good. 

That lofty idea of our new American nationality is only the translation into pub- 
lic affairs of the idea of human nature and possibility announced by Jesus Christ in 
the Sermon on the Mount, the Lord's Prayer, the Beatitudes, the Golden Rule, and 
the Law of Love. After an eighteen-century struggle upward out of the darkness of 
a paganism which held to the fundamental heresy of antiquity that every superior 
man was a brevet deity and all the rest of the world human trash, " in the fullness 
of time" this great American new departure sent greeting buck to Palestine and 
began the mighty experiment of educating all orders and conditions of people upward 
toward that American sovereign citizenship, which truly achieved is the loftiest posi- 
tion in the world, made possible to every son and daughter of God. 

Of course, it was not to be expected that ideals so lofty could at once be wrought 
into the actual life of any people. The entire history of this Republic during ita 
first century is only a record of the intermittent progress toward this exalted declara- 
tion. It was only after the most terrible civil war of modern times, involving the 
slaughter of half a million of the flower of American youth, and the disappearance 
of the earnings of an entire generation of the people in the form of powder and shot, 
with the complete overthrow of the entire organization of human society through 
half the national area and its reorganization through the entire extent that we were 
able to include the whole American people in the world's great roll of honor, Amer- 

1227 



1228 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1898-99. 

ican citizenship, and with that the perilous attempt to confer oii every man tlie la^t 
and most eminent right of free suffrage. Even tliis was only another attempt to 
legislate an ideal into the common life of the nation — an attempt whose realization 
remains for our children. 

But this has been gained. "The past is secure." We begin the twentieth century 
of our Lord and the second century of the nation with the all-around agreement that 
hereafter this sovereign obligation to educate all orders and conditions of people 
toward the high ideal of American society shall proceed by the agencies of peace. 
"Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war." 

Froin this time onward all the forces of the higher civilization of the twentieth 
century are to be concentrated and worked to their uttermost to solve the original 
American problem: How can all these peoples who, since the dawn of history, have 
lived in a chronic state of active warfare, only broken by more or less brief periods of 
truce, here, in the Avorld's greatest Republic, be educated up to living together in a 
government and order of society consecrated to the highest welfare of all? And for 
the solution of this mighty problem the American people presents to the world the 
most original of all its many " new inventions," the people's common school. This, 
the most central and powerful of all our present agencies of American civilization, is 
practically a little republic, planted in 250,000 schoolhouses, in every State, Terri- 
tory, county, city, township, and hamlet of this broad land. It is, Avhen truly 
understood, fitly organized, and well conducted, the most complete and influential 
representative of the practical religion announced and lived by the great Teacher, 
Statesman and Savior of mankind. 

The American ideal of manhood and womanhood is the same as that announced 
and lived by Him, so fitly named by the poet, "the first true gentleman that ever 
lived." The motto of "the first society " in this Republic is simply the old scripture: 
"Let him who is greatest among you be your servant." The American ideal of 
personal superiority that overrides every theory of race, class, culture, power, man- 
hood, or womanhood of the past,' is that all superiority of the individual is only 
another opportunity to serve the whole. We shall never reach the impracticable 
dream of the optimistic philanthropist— a millennium where all people will be equal 
in all respects. The law of human superiority through its myriad of forms will for- 
ever assert itself; it is to-day as relentless and masterful here as in any of the older 
nationalities or in any period of history. All discussion of this most puerile of fancies 
is idle breath. The only question left us to discuss, by the Providence that sets limits 
and bounds to every soul, is what are the opportunities and obligations of every man, 
every class, every race, in its relations to the mass of mankind? And here we face 
the everlasting ordinance: The Son of man and Son of God com.es into this Avorld 
"not to be ministered unto, but to minister." The end of all activity in the family, 
the church, the school, the state, through all the higher agencies of civilization, in 
every Christian land, is to educate the whole i:)eople into the complete possession and 
use of their own superiorities toward the idea of the law of service. This is all there 
is in the "race question" of the South, and the larger question of the welfare of all 
the races and classes now represented in the 75,000,000 American people. 

It is doubtless an interesting question. What are the opportunities and obligations 
of the 65,000,000 American people, made up froin the ingathering here of all the 
European nationalities, toward the 10,000,000 new-made colored citizens in the United 
States, and the 10,000,000 strangers in the islands of the sea that may be thrown 
upon us by the providence of the past year of successful war? But I do not discuss 
this question to-day, although never declining to discuss it, when presented upon 
proper conditions, as an American and not a local or sectional question, at a fit time 
and place. To-day I propose to talk, not at long, but at short, range. I propose to 
inquire. What are the opportunities and obligations of the 100,000 more or less 
youth of the colored race who, in contrast with the remaining 9,900,000, maybe 



THE DUTY OF EDUCATED NEGROES. 1229 

called odue-ated ii. respect to this vast multitude, more than twice as numerous as the 
entire population of the United States under the first Presidency of Washington? 
For this body of the 100,000 colored people this inquiry transcends all others, just 
now, in importance. For, according to the way in which this opportunity and obli- 
gation are understood, accepted and lived out by this 100,000, will depend, not only 
the present welfare of the 10,000,000 colored race at liome, but in large measure the 
future policy of the nation in dealing with the coming multitudes that tlie providence 
of God may bring, through years to come, M'ithin the expanding influence of the 
national life. 

Let us, at first, try to understand the actual condition of affairs among the 10,000,000 
of the colored race in the Southern States, as far as relates to their higher develop- 
ment. The air is darkened, and the sunlight of common sense, not to say common 
humanity, is now obscured by a flock of theories. But we may as w'ell remember 
that this great jiroblem is fianlly to be solved by those who best understand the facts 
of the case, and have the broadest and most profound apprehension of the eternal 
principles of justice and love, to which all our human affairs must sooner or later 
adjust themselves. 

What is the actual condition of the 10,000,000 of the colored race in these sixteen 
United States, which creates the opportunity and obligation of the 100,000, more or 
less, who to-day, by the favor of Providence and largely through the benevolence of 
friendly people in both sections of the country, are recognized as the educated class? 

After twenty years of careful observation in every Southern State, each of which I 
know geographically and educationally as well as I know my native State (Massa- 
chusetts) , I see a few evident facts. 

1. I sec that no people in human history has made such progress out of tlie under^ 
world of paganism and barbarism, from which we all emerged, in three hundred 
years, as the colored people of the United States. I certainly do not undertake to 
defend the institution of negro slavery. But that man must be blind who does 
not see that the 6,000,000 people who in 1865 stepped over the threshold of the 
nation's temple of liberty, were in every essential respect another people than their 
ancestors in the dark continent — perhaps the majority of whom were there not a 
hundred and fifty years before. In all save the education that comes through schools 
and books, the colored race, in 1865, at the close of the civil war, had laid the founda- 
tions of all education in the three great acquirements that underlie our Christian 
civilization. They had learned the art of continuous and profitable work. They had 
learned the English language, the language of the people that leads in the idea of 
constitutional republican government. They had accepted the Christian religion, 
according to the creeds and ideals of conduct prevailing among the vast majority of 
the American people. AVith all its defects, the American people, at that period, 
had made the most headway in the organization of Christian ideals of life in their 
form of society and government, of any people. The whole people was respon- 
sible for the condition of these 6,000,000, of whom it could be said that, on the 
whole, their transition from African barbarism and paganism to American citizen- 
ship had been accomplished with less suffering and general demoralization than the 
similar elevation of any European people during the past thousand years. 

How this came about no theologian, sociologist, or statesman has yet been fully 
able to explain. But practical, everyday men, who are doing the work of this world, 
have come to the conclusion, after eighteen centuries of a half-paganized and half- 
Christianized civilization, that God Almighty is the great moral economist of the 
universe. Whatever may be the status of man as he comes into this world, no man 
is permitted to get out of this world until, by his own will, or over his will, he has 
contributed something to the common cause of the uplift of the human race. If 
there indeed be an eternal hell, no eternal sinner can get there without, at some 
point in his doleful journey, he pays toll at some gate of heaven. Tlie rela- 



1230 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. 

tion of the American people to the present 10,000,000 colored American citizens 
will finally be judged by history, from the fact of the progress. of the colored race 
during its two hundred and fifty years' residence in the country, as revealed by its 
condition in the year of final emancipation, in 1865. 

Indeed, so evident was this fact that the people then representing the Union, in 
due time after the close of the civil war, was moved to confer upon these 6,000,000 
of freedmen the highest earthly distinction — full American citizenship. 

This act now certainly appears the most hazardous experiment of the kind in 
history. But it was only an extension of the established practice of the whole 
country which, in 1860, had already admitted to full citizenship great multitudes of 
the lower orders of European immigrants; hundreds of thousands of whom were, in 
several essential ways, less prepared to use worthily this supreme gift than many 
corresponding thousands of the more intelligent of the colored folk. In fact, this act 
was a compliment to the training of the colored people in the South. And no states- 
man to-day is wise enough to decide with confidence, whether things in the United 
States would have been, on the v/hole, better at the beginning of the second century 
of the national life had not this happened. 

But the most grievous result of this experiment has not been to the white, but to 
the colored man himself. Every European people has been compelled to reach its 
present condition of political and social emancipation through a thousand years of 
war, pestilence, and famine. Every step in the rough road has been gained only after 
a generation, sometimes a century, of conflict that has made Europe the cemetery 
of the human race. But the American colored man received more than any Euro- 
pean people has yet gained, with no conspicuous effort of his own. Still, the 
everlasting law abides, that nothing worth having in this world is won and held 
save through the extreme of toil, suffering and sacrifice. Our 10,000,000 colored 
people in the United States are now passing through their own wilderness on 
their way to the promised land, which, to-day, to all save a superior class, is like a 
far-away mountain range on a distant hoiizon, sighted now and then through clouds 
and storms and mists by the dwellers in the valley below. 

Doubtless there are still some great advantages in the situation. It is such an 
advantage as no people in history has yet enjoyed, that the final destiny of this 
people can be v/rought out through the agencies of peace. We are certainly approach- 
ing that new and blessed era when "Sword, Pestilence, and Famine," the three 
terrible teachers of the past, are being remanded to ancient history. In their place 
the colored man is now invited to take his place in the great miiversity of the new 
American life, whose faculty consists of Professor Free Labor, Professor Free Church, 
and Professor Free School, with the good will of every wise and benevolent man and 
woman in Christendom, and such a prize on the gleaming mountain top has never 
yet allured the hopes and strung the nerves of any race of men. Surely no people 
on earth, at any time in a similar condition of the colored race in these States, has 
had so much to encourage it, so many friends, such powerful forces Avorking in its 
behalf, as these 10,000,000, represented by this institution of learning and civilization 
in which we are gathered to-day. 

2. But another thing I see, just as plainly as what has now been stated. I can not 
help seeing that more than half the 10,000,000 of these colored people are still weighted 
with the bottom disability to the use and enjoyment of full American citizenship, an 
illiteracy that still holds practically in bondage 60 per cent of the entire number. In 
the six States where what is called the "Pace problem" is now the most stringent — 
Louisiana, Alabama, Georgia, South Carolina, Mississippi, and North Carolina — this 
illiteracy, during the present decade, has ranged from 60 per cent of all persona over 
10 years of age in North Carolina and Mississippi, to 64 per cent in South Carolina, 67 
per cent in Georgia, 69 per cent in Alabama, and even to 72 per cent in Louisiana. In 
the District of Columbia, where the national Government, in connection with the 



THE DUTY OF EDUCATED NEGROES. 1231 

District, supports the best coiumon school system in the country for the colored 
race, 35 ^jer cent of these people over 10 years of age are illiterate, largely from the 
constant drifting in of the poorer classes from the neighboring States. 

It i: certainly a great tribute to the American people of all sections that during the 
past thirty-five years this illiteracy of the colored race has been reduced 40 per cent. 
Especially is it honorable to the Southern .people, that $100,000,000 have been 
expended, chiefly by the white race, under conditions that we all know, during the 
past thirty years, for the education of the freedmen in common schools. It is also 
honorable that the Korth and the nation, from the beginning of the civil war to the 
present day, have j)robably contributed an equal sum. The Christian people of the 
Northern States are now spending more than $1,000,000 a year, largely for the superior 
education of Southern colored youth. But this does not change the stubborn fact 
that CO of every 100 colored i>eople in our own 16 Southern States, men, women, and 
children, above the age of 10, are living to-day in the most unfortunate of all condi- 
tions—illiteracy. 

We are all the time discussing this question of illiteracy at cross purposes. It is 
regarded simply as an ignorance of letters; and we are reminded that the use of 
letters, five hundred j-ears ago, v/as the luxury of the few, and that within the mem- 
ory of living men the majority of people in Christendom was in this condition. We 
are called anew to admire the model virtues of people unable to read and write. An 
entire literature has sprung up concerning the colored race, in which the moral and 
social excellencies of the old-time slave jjopulation are duly magnified, sometimes to 
the extent that v:e suspect the author never heard of a respectable colored man who 
could read and write. But all conditions of this sort are perilous or harmless, accord- 
ing to their social and civil environment. Illiteracy in these United States to-day is 
no longer an amiable or, except under conditions rapidly passing away, an excusable 
weakness. Illiteracy in Alabama to-day means ignorance, superstition, shiftlessness, 
vulgarity, and vice, rolled together in the person of one illiterate man or woman, 
and concentrate<i as the bottom slum and slough of every American community. It 
is indeed a great black ocean, j->estilent, hideous, malarious, under every State, com- 
munity and family, steaming up death and destruction through all the lowlands of 
our American semicivilization and drifting in its poisonous moral and social atmos- 
phere through the open door and window of every palace in the land. 

The only condition under which ignorance is apparently a harmless element in 
society is in a social order, organized according to the old-time patriarchal and 
paternal method, guided by an aristocracy of intelligence and character that protects 
the masses from their foes without and their own folly and unrighteousness. Doubt- 
less in some of its localities, and everywhere in some of its aspects, the institution of 
American slavery could be mentioned in this connection. Indeed, even the desire 
for, not to say the possession of, letters, would not only have been a constant peril 
to the institution itself, but under ordinary conditions intelligence could scarcely be 
regarded a blessing to the enslaved. But all this is ancient history. 

To-day every ignorant man, woman, or child in this Republic is in a state of siege 
from the Grand Army that marches under its four generals in chief — Superstition, 
Shiftlessness, Yulgarity, and Vice. His ignorance is not only his great misfortune, 
but his deadliest temptation to all varieties of folly, weakness, and transgression, 
which land their victim in a state more hopeless than any form of "natural 
depravity." 

And even more than this, the illiteracy of any considerable American class is the 
greatest peril to every grade of peoj^le above it. No American community, Anglo- 
Saxon or otherwise, however exalted by wealth and culture and social refinement 
and civic power, even by the Christian religion as it is now undei-stood, preached, 
and practiced, is proof against the terrible temptation from a race in the present 
condition of 60 per cent of the colored people of these sixteen States. I make no 



1232 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. 

charge, and have none to make, concerning the moral superiority or inferiority of 
the Southern people in all that concerns good American manhood and womanhood. 
They, doubtless, like all portions of the American people, have peculiar supersti- 
tions, shadowed by the defects that are the peculiar temptation of every superior or 
dominant race. But no i)eople in history has been able to resist the perpetual 
influence of having among it another people, mixed up with everything in its 
daily life, always accessible, dependent, and always in the way in the hour of 
temptation, sixty of every hundred in the condition that every illiterate colored man 
or Avoman must be; each of them, meanwhile, endowed with all the powers of full 
American citizenship. As well might a colony expect to avoid the blight of malaria 
in the great Dismal Swamp, or expect to live in health and comfort with the base- 
ment story of its houses under water in a Mississippi River overflow, a turbid 
ocean 100 miles wide, choked with drift, swarming with all the fearful, loathsome, 
and malignant creatures driven from their own haunts by the frightful invasion. It 
is not in the South alone that this terrible scourge of illiteracj' is manifest. It is a 
national breeding place of all manner of moral sickness and mental perversion, 
touching the most remote outpost of the republic, turning the national mind and 
conscience upside down, with now and then an explosion, as from the bottomless 
pit, of wrath, fear, and hatred, that often reveals the best man and the most saintly 
AVoman to themselves as a possible rebel against every human sanctity and every 
ordinance of justice, order, and common humanity, established by the experience of 
the human race. 

NoAV I am not here to-day to lecture the white people of these States, as I have 
been talking and writing to and about them for the past twenty years, with the 
encouragement and geuei^al assent and approval of their foremost people in every 
State, city, and hamlet visited, concerning their duty in this emergency. I am not 
here to declare that the North should repent of its great failure in Congress ten years 
ago to put forth the mighty hand of the nation to enable the South to increase the 
quantity and improve the quality of the schooling it had already established for both 
races of its people. I am here to-day to call attention to the opportunity and the 
obligation of the 100,000, more or less, of colored youth below the age of 35, all born 
under the American flag, all American citizens, concerning the deliverance of one- 
half the race out of the submerged district, the lowest slough and slum of the nation, 
which we still choose to cover up by the fine dictionary word — illiteracy. 

3. For, at the opposite end of the social plateau of these 10,000,000 we find a body 
which, in contrast Avith the illiterates, may be named an educated class. It is only 
by a sharp contrast that this distinction can be aAvarded to possibly more than 
100,000 young persons of both sexes, who, during the past thirty-five years, have 
been enrolled for a longer or shorter period in the group of institutions originally 
established by the churches and benevolent associations of the North, but latterly 
supplemented by all the States of the South, for the secondary, higher, and industrial 
training of selected colored youth. Within the past fifteen years every Southern 
State has established one, or more than one, free school of the secondary, normal, 
and industrial grade after the type of the famous Hampton Normal and Industrial 
Institute founded by Gen. S. C. Armstrong, at Hampton, Va., soon after the close of 
the civil war. In the year 1896-97 there Avere 169 schools for the secondary and 
higher education of colored youth in operation in these sixteen States, v/ith 1,795 
professors and teachers, 1,008 of whom were women, 45,402 students, 25,159 girls 
and 20,243 boys; 2,108 of the (1,526 males and 582 females) being in college grades. 
In the secondary, the high, and academical grades there were 15,203 students, a 
majority of 2,000 girls. In the elementary, or Avhat is knoAvn as the primary and 
grammer grades, there Avere 28,091 pupils — 11,773 boys and 16,318 girls. 

Apart from the State normal and industrial seminaries, which, as a rule, do not 
include the classics, and the pupils in attendance on an increasing number of free 



THE DUTY OF EDUCATED NEGROES. 1233 

high schools in citien, there would seem to be at present some 2,410 students in 
classical, 974 in scientific, and 11,340 in higher English studies; 14,724 in all above 
the elementary grades. In the normal classes, but few of which can be regarded as 
2)r()fessional other than in name, there were 5,081 students, about equally divided by 
sex. There were only 295 students in " business courses," of whom 179 were males. 
There were 1,311 professional students named, the large majority in theology and 
medicine. Of the 13,581 included in industrial training, 8,611 were girls and 4,970 
boys, of whom 1,027 were studying farming, 1,498 carpentry, and a smaller number 
other mechanical occupations. 

These schools report 224,794 volumes in libraries. The entire value of their build- 
ings, grounds, etc., is $7,714,958. Their annual income is $1,045,278. All this, save 
$141,262 from tuition money, $271,839 from State or UTunicipal aid, and $92,080 from 
permanent funds, comes in the way of a benefaction from the North, whence this 
entire plant of $7,700,000 has lieen derived. Probably $3,000,000 has been given in 
permanent funds. Many of these higher schools have been in existence for twenty 
or more years. More than a dozen of them, established by the Northern churches, 
have assumed the title "college" or "university," and are organized according to 
the academical and collegiate methods of the leading denominational seminaries in 
both sections of the country fifty years ago, with such additions especially in their 
industrial and normal departments and improved methods of teaching as may have 
been found expedient. 

It is impossible to determine the numljer of colored youth who, since the year 
1870, have been at different times enrolled in these 169 seminaries of the secondary 
and higher education, and who to a greater or less extent have received a permanent 
influence from such attendance. 

The majority have doubtless profited more iu their improved manners and morals 
than in their scholarship by this experience. Still, it would seem impossible that 
any save a perverse or utterly careless youth could spend over a year in one of these 
schools, in contact with these often cultivated and always faithful teachers, really 
surrounded by a new world, without l)ecoming in some way a member of the educa- 
tional in contrast with the illiterate class. 

It is probably not an overestimate and it may be an underestimate to say that of 
the 10,000,000 colored people in the United States 100,000, under the age of 30 years, 
are regarded by the masses of their own people as educated. Certainly more than 
500,000, possibly 1,000,000 children and youth of this race during the thirty-five 
years since emancipation have entered manhood and womanhood with more school- 
ing than George Washington, John Marshall, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, 
Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln, Henry Wilson, Horace Greeley, George Peabody, 
and multitudes of men and women in all sections of the country, who are named in 
history or cherished in the memory of important conununities as leaders in the 
higher region of American life during the first century of the Republic. This is a 
great testimonial to the capacity of the race, the last to step over the threshold of 
civilized life in these modern days. And it should assure the most despondent friend 
of the negro that the destiny of these 10,000,000 is safe in charge of the American 
people. It is only necessary that it be itself awakened to the one supreme obligation 
of every class in the Republic, the duty to learn the great American art of self-help 
and follow its own noblest and wisest leaders toward the "prize of the high calling," 
a complete American citizenship — the grandest prize that now tempts the v^'orthy 
ambition of mankind. 

Of this body of the educated 100,000, 27,000 are now reported as teachers of the 
1,500,000 children enrolled iu the public schools, 900,000 of whom are in "average 
daily attendance." 

The attendance of colored children and youth in public schools is on the whole an 
encouraging tribute to the demand of this people for education. There were 1,460,084 
ED 99 78 



1234 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. 

enrolled in all the public schools for the race in 1896-97. There are 2,816,340 colored 
children and youth between 5 and 18 years of age in the 16 Southern States, 32.65 
per cent of the entire school population of the South. Of this number 51.84 per cent 
were enrolled in public schools, against 67.79 per cent of the white children of 
similar grade. The avei-age daily attendance of those enrolled in colored schools 
was 61.95 per cent, in comparison with 67,58 pev cent of the white. In 1897-98 there 
■was one colored teacher to every 33 colored pupils in average attendance at the 
Southern common schools. The annual cost of the pubhc schooling of these 900,000 
children in 1897-98 was $6,658,000, with probably $2,000,000 additional for the 
secondary and higher education. Of the public school expenditure almost the 
entire sum is obtained by taxation of the white people of the South. But this is 
simply in accordance with the American common school idea, which is that the 
property of the State shall educate the children of the State. As the colored labor- 
ing class of the South, like the corresponding white class in the North, is in large 
measure the creator of the wealth of the country, it is no special hardship that the 
white property owners of the South should largely support the common school 
for all. 

But the historian of education will record to the enduring praise of the Southern 
people that during the past thirty years, despite the overwhelming destruction of 
property and demoralization of society by the greatest civil war of modern times, it 
hag invested $546,600,000 in public schools alone, and several other millions for the 
secondary and higher education; $104,000,000 having been invested in the education 
of children and grandchildren of a people who, in 1860, v/ere held in chattel slavery 
and declared by the Supreme Court of the United States not citizens of the Republic. 
And it is a cause of rejoicing to the country that to-day there are more than 1,000,000 
colored children in the public schools of the South, everyone of whom was born a 
freeman, under the American flag, a citizen of the United States. 

4. Always and everywhere the most favored class is compelled to deal with the less 
favored portion of mankind, for its uplifting, through the agency of the great inter- 
mediate multitude Avho walk in the middle of the road, ' ' the plain people, ' ' who are 
the ' ' bone and sinew ' ' of every civilization. It is of this class of which the Good Book 
says, "the common people heard Jesus gladly." It is to this body, the 40 per cent, 
of the colored race, above 10 years of age, who have risen out of the almost absolute 
illiteracy of forty years ago, and the smaller class who, still deprived of letters, are 
educated (educated by life) above their fellows, that the 1,000,000 of the colored 
educated youth must lurn for the ' ' rank and file ' ' of the grand army of invasion 
of the dism.al realm of ignorance, superstition, shiftlessness, vulgarity ?.nd vice 
that still holds out against all efforts of a republican civihzation working for its 
regeneration since the emancipation of the race. For here, among the better sort 
of those who have enlisted in the army of intelligence and progress, v>dll be fomid the 
most reliable advisers, the fairest counselors, the most faithful allies of the enthusias- 
tic and devoted educated young men and young women, gouig forth to serve the 
Master by "preaching the Gospel to every creature." And here, also, will be found 
the well-to-do in worldly goods, who must be instrticted in the Christian idea of 
using monejf, saving on the lower to spend on the upper side of life. And, above all, 
here is a solid, conservative class, which will restrain the pernicious antics of the pro- 
fessional agitator, visionary enthusiast, the chronic impracticable, and the cranks and 
humbugs of every description, shaping the direction of a sound policy concerning 
public affairs and discerning the most effective manner of meeting and repelling 
every assault upon the rights of the masses. 

Happily for the opportunity of the 100,000 of the new generation now called to the 
leadership of the race, they find in the better sort, the 40 per cent of their people 
who have seen the light of knowledge, a most efficient ally in their great enterprise, 
and not only from the most worthy of this class, but from an increasing number 



THE DUTY OF EDUCATED NEGROES. 1235 

who have not enjoyed the opportunity of schools and letters, will come forth, year 
by year, new levies of people who have no longer "any use" for the " blind leaders 
of the blind," in the pulpit, on the platform, in office, or as advisers in any depart- 
ment of common or public life. And, of all the following to be desired by a wise and 
progressive leader, the most desirable is a people, just in the condition in which sev- 
eral millions of the colored race are now foi»nd. Nowhere do you find such a gen- 
uine respect and even reverence for true and tried superiority; such a confiding 
regard in whoever proves himself a reliable, sound, and steadfast friend of the peo- 
ple's cause, as here. 

Indeed, one of the most inspiring and pathethic spectacles in American life to-day 
is the attitude of hundreds of thousands of the better sort of the colored folk before 
any man or woman, fi-om either race or section, approved as a leader able to lead a 
friend who is neither a flatterer nor a fool; as ready to declare the defects as to recog- 
nize the virtues of his followers; as severe to restrain as courageous to lead tlie advance. 
Here is such an opportunity for the highest achievement of good for great numbers 
of people as has never before, and may never again, be offered to a superior class, 
called by God to go forth and lead the wandering tribes out of the desert, across 
Jordan and into the jiromised land. 

For the present is a transitional period. A generation hence, with the larger 
extension of education, the increase of comfort and a more general prosperity, it 
will be far more difficult than now for any favored 100,000 to go before and marshal 
the army of the Lord for a new exodus out of any Egypt. To-day is the golden 
opportunity for a supreme effort of the class that can honestly call on a generation 
to set its face toward the future. Every young man or woman now going forth from 
one of these great schools is accepted by his friends and has a following, as a repre- 
sentative of good education and all the indescribable blessings connected therewith. 
To every one of these it can be said, as the Master in the Mount said to his new and 
untried disciples: "Ye are the light of the world. A city set on a hill can not 
be hid." You will be received with a great expectation and a hearty welcome. 
And of you it can be said that this attitude of the mind and heart of your constit- 
uency is of itself one of the greatest opportunities given to man to do his uttermost 
for the uplifting of a race. 

And it is a part of this great opportunity that even the illiterate, of whom the 
majority are only in part involved in all the i)erils of their condition, confide in you 
for the instruction of their children with a mighty faith that you will send them out 
from the churches and the schools far better and wiser than themselves, and that 
they will often become, through their children, your most docile and devoted fol- 
lowers. The greatest following of the noblest reformers of the world has often been 
from the class that has been cast away as tlie offscouring of the race by those who 
sit up in the high places of culture and power. Jesus said to the proud Phar- 
isee, the contemptuous Sadducee and the mocking scribe: "These publicans and 
harlots will go into the Kingdom of God before you." It was among the slaves, the 
obscure and afflicted and oppressed lower orders of the Roman Empire that Paul and 
Peter and the other ten found the materials to build the primitive Christian Church. 
Even the "upper ten" of old revolutionary Boston "sailed away at break of day" 
to Halifax when General George Washington marched into town. The true reformer 
should never despise his audience or turn his back upon any .sincere following, for 
the Word of God often comes to the poor and lowly, and the child who was born in a 
stable and cradled in a manger became the leader of the centuries and the Savior of 
mankind. 

Permit me, then, to ask the more thoughtful members of this young army of the 
Lord, "one hundred thousand strong:" "Do you, who by the blessing of God 
and the favor of your friends, have been able to come up out of the darkness into 
the twilight of knowledge, where you now abide, realize the grandeur of your 



1236 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1898-99. 

opportunity?" It is to be acknowledged leaders toward the upper region of Ameri- 
can life of a i^eople twice as numerous as the entire population of the Republic under 
the Presidency of Washington. 

There is one region of American life, and that the highest — the opportunitj^ of all 
others, worked and prayed for by the noblest of mankind — that is yours without 
rivalship or resistance. Nowhere in. this world to-day is a body of 100,000 young 
men and women called to such a ministry of service and sacrifice for the uplift of 
10,000,000 of the human race as you. Any 100,000 young people of any other race 
who should go to work with such a mission as your own would be smothered in the 
great multitude who are already engaged in similar work, and only now and then 
one, a ' ' survivor of the fittest, ' ' would obtain a position where he could show^ him- 
self for what he was. But you stand on this high plateau of opportunity, the observed 
of all observers, with no jealous or hostile body outside your own race to hinder, and 
all Christian jseople, at home or abroad, applauding every success, giving generously 
to you of all sorts of good gifts, bearing up your work on the wings of prayer, that 
signifies as much to-day as in any of the days of old. You have not made this great 
occasion for yourself, and it comes not as any reward of merit, but as an invitation to 
prove yourself fit ' ' soldiers of the cross. ' ' This glorious and unique opportunity was 
created for you by the providence of God. This standing place where you now are 
marshaled was gained for you by the sacrifice of half a million patriotic lives and the 
indescribable suffering of an entire section of our common country. The continued 
benevolence of the friends of the people for a whole generation has made it possible 
that you should be lifted up to this high mount of opportunity and obligation. The 
"gracious favor of Almighty God," invoked by Abraham Lincoln in his proclama- 
tion of freedom, has called you, not because you are especially worthy, but that you 
might be made worthy to answer this summons from on high. 

5. Remember this, every young man and woman that hears me: The wisest and 
best people of every section and community in the United States are always on the 
watch for the appearance of one more young man and woman worthy of their aid 
and encouragement. Your end of the social scale is to do the best that lies in you 
with all your might. If so, eacli of you will be the friend and beloved disciple of Him 
who was fitly called by the poet "the first true gentleman that ever lived," with the 
love of God, "whose favor is life, and whose loving kindness is better than life." 
You can manage to "worry along" with this sort of social consideration vvhile you 
are intrusted by Providence with laying the foundation of the new social order for a 
whole people who, if your life is prolonged to my own age, may number 20,000,000, 
everyone of whom will speak of you, if you deserve it, as the schoolboys and girls 
of my youth spoke of the fathers of the Revolution; as they do now of the heroes and 
statesmen of the war for the Union; and as you speak of your own soldiers, who now, 
under the blazing sun, in the jungles of the tropical islands, are clearing the way for 
a new opportunity for your children, perhaps even gi-eater than your own. If you 
are doing and living up to what God now calls you to be and do, you can well afford 
to wait upon the coming of all the good things for which you long to-day. 

In fact, your present opportunitj^ furnishes the only way by which you can obtain 
all that belongs to any good American citizen. ' ' There is only one way under 
heaven known among men ' ' whereby your great hope can be realized for your peo- 
ple, and that is just the way where you now enjoy an opportunity such as is given 
to no similar class in Christendom — this great labor of love for the uplifting of your 
people, which you can do with "none to molest or make you afraid." 

But someone may reply: "All this is doubtless very fine, but it is somewhat vague 
and vaporous, and does not seem to fit my own case." Let me, then, "descend to 
particulars," and call your attention to several ways in which you are able to serve 
in the great work of training up your people in their present condition of childhood, 



THE DUTY OF EDUCATED NEGROES. 1237 

"ill the way the}' .should go," so tliat, when they rise to their complete status of 
manhood and womanhood, " they shall not depart from it." 

In 1896-97 there were, in the sixteen Southern States,6,000 students in schools, classed 
as normal, theological, and medical, representing the three great liheral professions 
that touch most closely on the common life of the masses of any people. The states- 
man, the lawyer, the author, the artist, and the journalist — all move the superior 
class at setiond-hand, and the illiterate class directly scarcely at all. But the C^hris- 
tian minister, the teacher, and the physician stand "next of kin" to our own flesh 
and blood. Often, if the men and women in these professions are worthy, they 
influence us in a way more personal and radical than is possil>le for the majority of 
people in family relations to minister to each other. 

There are now probably not less than 50,000 young colored men and women 
more or less educated and competent, acting in all these sacred relations among 
the 10,000,000 of the colored people. And there are still only half the colored 
children and youth of school age in the South at school at all. Perhaps half the 
colored people are not living in regular church relations; possibly not attending 
church. And only a small portion of the colored families are living under healthy 
sanitary conditions, or ever see a doctor or a health inspector until in some "tight 
places " wdth a dangerous disease, or warned by a visiting policeman. Now, with the 
exception of the medical profession, the white professional man or woman is almost 
banished from this, the most important field of professional service. Your people 
are no longer gathered, like their fathers and grandfathers, in the gallery of the old 
churc^h, to hear the preaching of the most distinguished divine, but flock around 
their own favorite preachers and religious leaders. The teaching in the public 
schools, outside of a few cities, is all in the hands of 27,000 colored schoolmasters and 
scdioolmistresses. 

What an opportunity is here — the bodily and mental training, and the religious 
ministry to a whole people, covering their entire higher life! Read the testimony of 
the experts who have recently examined the sanitary conditions of great numbers of 
colored people now living in the larger Southern cities, and more every year employed 
in the rapidly increasing manufacturing institutions of the South. What a dismal 
picture of sickness, death, sorrow, and the demoralization of families is this! Almost 
twice the ratio of deaths to the white race, with the imminent danger of the entire 
colored race being involved in the most deadly class of diseases, consumption and its 
attendant complaints, which the best medical skill in the world has only recently 
cheeked among the more careful and protected communities of all the nations. Is 
not this an opportunity given to the faculties of your schools of medicine, such as to 
no other body of physicians, the task of dealing with the physical life of a whole 
people, and in so doing lifting up th.ousands from destructive habits that ai'e the curse 
of the race? And when we read that this terrible mortality and disease is not due so 
much to the physical environment of your people as to their ignorance of the most 
common laws of health and the reckless indulgence in the animalism that, in every 
people in similar conditions, is the great, black, underlying slough and slum of every 
community, is not the opportunity of the colored physician and nurse lifted to a 
great moral ministry? If the medical profession of this race in one generation could 
reduce the death rate from an average of 34 to 1,000 in five of the larger cities of the 
South to some approach to the 20 per thousand of the white race, would it not be an 
achievement worthy the highest aspiration of the most devoted body of young men 
and women, doctors and nurses, as especially in doing this so many of these poor 
children could be saved from the bottomless pit of the animal vices, Avhere all 
manhood and womanhood sink down into an almost hopeless annihilation? 

Think of the 27,000, possibly of all sorts 30,000, teachers of the 1,000,000 children 
and youth now in school, 33 to each teacher in average daily attendance. What an 



1238 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. 

opportunity is this, to have in charge all the children, practically all the time during 
the months allotted to their school life! What a change to multitudes of these 
children, who come from such homes as we know they have, to such a place as you 
can easily make your schoolhouse — make it by the cheerful work of your own jjupils, 
at once transforming a bare and thoroughly unsightly school building to a pleasant 
summer or winter home! Even in doing this you are training every child in the fine 
art of home making, without which there is no better future than to-day for several 
millions of your people. Aiid if, besides this, you can yourself be a Christian man 
or woman in the teacher's chair, as every young man or woman should be in his 
every-day "walk and conversation," an object lesson of that character, without 
which your boasted American citizenship is only "a prelude to a tragedy or a comedy, 
and probably both," you may become a follower of the world's supreme Teacher, 
who said: "Of all that the Father has given me, I shall lose nothing, and raise them 
up again at the last day." And if you can only pry open the darkened window of 
the soul of one of these little ones, so that, as through a little crack, a shaft of golden 
light may cleave the gloom and remind this child of the infinite firmament that 
holds the earth in its embrace, you may have made it possible that this prisoner in 
the abode of ignorance may be aroused to break out of the sleep of mental dullness 
and range at will through all the glorious spaces of the wisdom, beauty, and love 
that are the heritage of every soul that comes into the world. 

And what can be said that has not been said of the minister of religion? Only 
this: That a low, sensual, selfish, suiDerstitious, and, in any essential way, incompetent 
man in this position is a curse more blasting than a pestilence to any youth that 
comes within the moral malaria of his personality. But if he is in truth a good man 
of even common a^bility, really devoted to his sacred calling, trying with ' ' all his 
heart and soul and strength ' ' to serve the people, to protect the young, to warn the 
careless, to rebuke the obstinate, to stand like a rock across the way of any man or 
woman determined to go to the evil one, he is such a blessing as only can be known 
to them who are privileged to be of his flock. And let it be remembered that even 
the superior upper class of the colored flock are more accessible to the influence of a 
worthy Christian ministry than any other sort of our native American people. 

The colored clergyman has a range of opportunity far beyond the ordinary minister 
of religion elsewhere, and an unusual proportion of the larger ability of the race has 
been attracted to the j>ulpit. There, too, is the place where woman can do a work 
possible nowhere else. Remembering all this, we may well realize the height, length, 
breadth, and depth of this great professional opportunity. 

Then remember, you doctor, minister, teacher, that you are by your very position 
compelled to be a missionary. At best you now have access to only a small portion 
of your people. Indeed, the majority of these 10,000,000 of your folk are still to a 
great degree outside your beat. What a call to the good physician to go forth into 
the dark regions of the country and the submerged district of the city life and give 
battle to the enemies of the bodies and souls of the people! What a chance for every 
young man and woman teacher, provided he is not smitten with the personal ambi- 
tion of opening a little private arrangement which will divert the small means of the 
few more favored in their worldly goods to his exclusive use and leave the majority 
to go on in deeper discouragement than before! What an opportunity to go down 
to the hardpan of the bottom strata of the country, break up the crust of ignorance 
and indifference, and persuade the whole people to come up towards a new life! In 
a few years of such Avork he may change a dull and hopeless to an active, hopeful, 
and progressive neighborhood. ~ If you can, at any sacrifice, plant yourself in any 
little countryside, however neglected and deserted, you may shov/ how a good and 
wise man or woman anywhere by faith a,nd hard work may reclaim even a mental 
and moral desert and make it " blossom like the rose." 

Then, beyond this, remember that it is for vou to lift each of these great professions 



THE DUTY OF EDUCATED NEGROES. 1239 

above the condition yin which they liave only been known to your people during the 
first generation of their freedom. It Avas inevitable that the colored minister, the 
doctor, and the teacher of thirty years ago should have been a great contrast to those 
whom the freedmen had known in the old days on the plantation. He was too often 
not good enough or intelligent enough to be intrusted with any responsibility in con- 
nection with the families that he often preyed upon more than he prayed for. We 
need not be too severe now upon the feeble beginnings of the professional life among 
your people; but we must remember that, while "the days of their ignorance God 
winked at. He now calls on all men to repent." It is given to you to lift these, the 
most sacred and important of all the professional callings, to their real dignity. It is 
for you to jjrove that the new minister, doctor, teacher, man or woman, should be 
"the guide, j^hilosopher, and friend " of every man and woman and child. Just such 
an elevation of these three professions as you can achieve during the thirty coming 
years will be in itself a service whose value can only be estimated when it is seen in 
the improving life of the entire people. 

And remember again that your brothers, off in the islands of the sea, are clearing 
the way for your young men and women to go forth on a mission of peace, bearing 
the gifts of knowledge, righteousness, and health to other millions even more in need 
than your own countrymen. I will not enlarge on the great possibilities opening to 
your people in the inauguration of the new colonial policy of the nation; but I believe 
I can see in a not distant future such opportunities for the more enterprising of your 
young peoi^le in the way of an honorable success in life, and especially in the great 
opening for Christian service in the years to come, as in themselves would repay all 
the blood and treasure expended in the past year, or all the toil and trouble of the 
future administration of our new possessions. 

Then I note with great satisfaction, in the last Report of the ITnited States Com- 
missioner of Education, that 13,581 pupils in the 169 superior schools for your race 
in 1896-97 were receiving instruction in the different industries, the boys in the 
various departments of manual training and the girls chiefly in the improved house- 
keeping, cooking, a7id the important art of sewing. I am glad to note that nearly 
twice the nmiiber of girls than boys are thus engaged — 8,611 girls to 4,970 boys — for 
the fundamental industry of any people is the art of making a good home, where, 
on the ordinary income of a few hundred dollars a year, a family can be maintained 
in health, morality, intelligence, and all the refinement possible to the humblest 
abode that shelters a truly mated husband and wife and a group of children, like a 
cluster of roses crowning the altar of a Christian household. Your own good jiresi- 
dent, Councill, and your faithful teachers are all the time telling your people that, 
imtil they rise up and leave the one-room cabin, there is no hope for them this side 
the abode of the blest, even if there is any reasonable chance of getting there at all 
by this, the purgatory line. 

The Queen of England and Empress of India had a habit of giving each of her 
own girls, at an early age, a little house, with strict instructions to each to become a 
first-class housekeeper, if nothing else. And when the little woman had learned to 
cook a good meal, set the table and preside at its head, the Queen accepted an invi- 
vitation to her daughter's first dinner party. So it came about that everyone of 
Victoria's girls, besides receiving the scholarly accomplishments of a cultivated lady, 
became an especially good housekeeper. 

An old keeper of a first-class railroad restaurant in Ohio used to reply to the com- 
pliments of his customers after a particularly good lunch: "Sir, it requires eternal 
vigilance to keep a good eating house." The mental and spiritual and physiological 
responsibility within the next twenty-five years to place the majority of the colored 
people in a good home is itself a " degree" more significant than any college honor, 
and the young graduate of any school, who can achieve that in the house given her 
not by the Queen of England, but by her "king of men," may well be more i^roud 



1240 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1898-99. 

of her neat morning rig in her own kitchen than of the senior uniform in which tlie 
"girl graduates" disguise their good looks on commencement day. 

If Victoria of England is not ashamed to look after the housekeeping of her girls, 
I wonder where the colored American girl anywhere can be found who will set her 
face against the most womanly of occupations, as if it were a "let down" from her 
dignity? "I don't want to he a servant," you say. Well, that is just Avhere you 
differ from the Lord Jesus Christ, who said: "I came not to be ministered unto [i. e., 
to be served, waited on], but to minister [i. e., to be the servant of all men]; and to 
give my life a ransom for many." Oh, my dear girls, I entreat you, put out of your 
heads and hearts this supreme vulgarity and sin of contempt for any necessary labor 
of the hands, for service and sacrifice are the central law of our human life. The 
higher education, according to the last American interpretation, is just this: The art 
of placing an educated mind, a consecrated heart, and a trained will, the whole of a 
refined manhood and womanhood, right at the ends of the ten fingers of both your 
hands, so that "whether you eat or drink, or whatsoever you do," you may "do all 
to the glory of God." 

I say I am especiallj' glad that the , girls are just now giving more attention to 
industrial training than the boys. For there is no great danger that every American 
boy, unless an idiot or a criminal, will not sooner or later be brought down to the 
grindstone of hard woi'k of some sort, for hard work of body, mind, and soul is the 
one qualification of the new American gentleman. 

Every man, of whatever rank or importance, must do his own part of the drudgery 
of common life. The American idea of a gentleman is a man who carries master and 
servant under the same skin. If a gentleman and his servant are two men, under 
two skins, there is always a chance for periodical friction, not to say of permanent 
. disagreement — a strike, a rebellion, anything. But if a gentleman carries his servant 
under his own skin "he has him just where he wants him." He has all the service 
he needs at his hands, and if there is any tussle about it, it concerns nobody but 
. himself. 

Industrial education, as understood by the genuine educators of the country, is the 
art of abolishing drudger_y and menial labor through the invention of labor-saving- 
machinery. A labor-saving machine enables every workman to call in the help of 
God Almighty through his obedient servants, air, water, steam, electricity — all the 
wondrous poAvers of nature, which are the habits of the great Creator and the grand 
dynamo of the universe — to do the work of this world and verify the old prophecy 
concerning man : " Thou hast made him little lower than the angels and crowned 
him with glory and honor. Thou hast put all things under his feet." Don't believe 
any man who tells you that this great movement of industrial education is only a 
clever device of your enemies to crowd dov/n the colored man to the condition of a 
European peasantry, only another name for the old-time chattel slavery. So far from 
this, it is the science of sciences, the supreme art of all the fine arts, the science and 
art of putting the trained mind and the consecrated manhood and womanhood into 
the body, so that all labor may be exalted to a mental and moral discipline and the 
mighty saying of- the great apostle be verified: "Know ye not that ye are the temple 
of God, and the Spirit of God dwelleth in you?" 

I am told, but I hope it is not true, for the fact that 40 per cent of all the colored 
students of the secondary and higher schools of the South is under industrial train- 
ing contradicts it, that there is a growing disinclination among the educated young 
men of this race to take up this department of education. If so, a dark day has come 
to the colored race and to the Southern section of this Republic, for here the oppor- 
tunity of the 100,000 educated youth of your race is such as has never been offered 
before to any special class of young men in the United States. 

Within the coming thirty years this entire Southland is to be reclaimed to what 
God made it to be — one of the most productive and attractive portions of the earth 



THE DUTY OF EDUCATED NEGROES. 1241 

for the occupation and enjoyment of man. As I have gone up and down this mar- 
velous country during the past twenty years, becoming as well acquainted with 
every one of its sixteen Commonwealths as with my own New England, I have not 
been surprised that even the prosaic land agent and the hard-headed railroad presi- 
dent should break forth into eloquence in the attempt to prophesy the wonders of 
its future. 

The cause of this is not hard to /ind. Within the past litvlf century the whole 
civilized, even the oriental world, has l)een awakened as bj^ the voice of "a great 
angel out of heaven ' ' to the fact that the intelligent labor of the masses of mankind, 
under the leadership of the expert captains of industry, is the new gospel for making 
this world a fit place for the abode of civilized and Christianized man. The day of 
the old, slow, stupid drudgery of the toiling millions to keep soul and body together 
is passing by, and the era of that enlightened industry, which makes every laborer 
a "coworker with God" and "an active partner" in business with all the great, 
silent, majestic forces of the universe, is now upon us. 

The South finds itself to-day with a heritage of natural resources of which no man 
has yet compassed the grandeur and possibility, but with a great laboring class, ten 
millions strong, half of whom are still in the bonds of illiteracy and the other half 
just waking up to the understanding of what a creature man can become when joined 
in copartnership with omnii^otenee in dressing and keeping this Southern garden of 
God. 

You are now directly concerned with the opportunity and obligation connected 
with the 10,000,000 of your own people, who, for good or ill, are here "to stay." 
AVho, then, is to superintend the mobilization of this grand colored army of industr}^ 
that shall march forward, conquering and to conquer, over this wide field, where such 
honors and prizes are to be gathered as make all the titles, badges and glories of 
Avar only as tinsel and sounding brass in the presence of line gold? If you, young 
men and women, whom the educational public of the whole nation has put to school 
for this organizing and leading your people, shirk the studies and the exercises that 
will train you to go before your own and lead them in this inspiring campaign 
toward a prosperity sucli as never before came to the Southern people, who will 
take your places? 

For a little while, if you so will it, you may l^e able to disport yourselves as superior 
to your fellows, disdaining to put your own hand to the plow of reform, scorning the 
great leadership now offered to you. But after that, what? In one generation the 
entire lower side of Europe will then be let loose upon you. The labor union will 
inclose you like the iron prison house in the old story, which every day contracted 
itself upon its victim till he was crushed in its awful embrace. I tell you, young men 
and women, unless you do get up early in the morning while "for you it is called 
day," "the hour is coming and now is" when you and your people will be elbowed 
off into the holes and corners of the industrial world, like the young men whom I 
very often see with college diplomas in their pockets, waiting on table, watching a 
hotel bell, doing anything to keep the wolf from the door. And these j'oung 
women — God help the young colored women, educated or ignorant, thirty years 
hence who has not leainred how to keep the house in which she is permitted to live! 

If there be a depth of degradation below the old-time slavery — which was not a 
degradation, but only the inevitable schooling of bondage through which every race 
has been compelled to make its way upward to civilization — it is found in that class 
of young men looking around for a chance to stand up to the crib and be fed, like 
human live stock, by their mothers, "sisters, and cousins, and aunts;" and worst of 
all, by their wives, the mothers of their children. A bright young colored girl in 
Texas said to me: "I don't want to marry. These young men are all such comical 
creatures that their wives have to support them." Such a life — the life of any young 
man who expects to live without solid and continuous work — is like the mask of the 



1242 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. 

old Greelii actor, a double face, half tragedy and half comedy. If half a century 
henct) your people are found where their enemies declare they belong, the "hewers 
of wood and drawers of water" of a superior race, you, the known educated, will 
figure in the pages of history as another of the faikires of the ages — a people that 
were called and would not come. 

Your race will not finally go down with you. For, as in the parable, when those 
that were called to the feast "begged to be excused," the highw^ays and the hedges 
were ransacked and the wedding was furnished with guests. 

The operative industry of the South should in time be largely in the hands of your 
people, for your race has an aptitude for it not inferior to that of any other sort or 
condition. The great mechanical mdustry of the Soutli, which, during the commg 
generation, is to reach gigantic proportions, is to-day in every department open to 
you. What is to prevent you from having your part in the new era of skilled agri- 
culture, fruit raising, the care of animals (dogs left out), in a country where there is 
land enough and to spare, and where every young colored man and woman should 
resolve to own at ]e.ast one square mile of "sacred Southern soil?" There is no 
reason why the higher departments of textile engineering and architectural mdustry 
shall not be open to you. 

And do not talk the foolishness that there is no place for you in this new indus- 
trial revival of the South. Any man or woman of you who can do as good or a bet- 
ter job of work than others, will be called to do it. The new South is now bent on 
having the best of everything. If you can give it the best in any department of 
productive industry, you will find your own place. I am not insensible to the force 
of prejudice and custom; and above all the power of pretentious inferiority over 
modest and deserving worth. But this American people of ours believe iii fair play; 
and, in the long run, every man, class, race, will be estimated for just what it is 
worth in the field, the v/orkshop — in every occupation and art that makes for the 
building up of the nation. Thomas Carlyle says: "JSTo book was ever written down 
except by itself." No set of people in the United States of America can perma- 
nently be kept below its actual worth to the country. You and yours are left to 
decide what that position shall finally be. 

Yes, if you are indeed able to face this mighty opportunity. Here comes in the 
obligation which, like a gloomy shadow, so often tempts the best of us to pray to 
God to be delivered from the greatest opportunities of life, lest in our weakness and 
wickedness they may become our final condemnation. This fundamental obligation 
of all to the one hundi-ed thousand educMed youth of your race, all born under the 
flag of the reconstructed Union, comes down to us through eighteen centuries in the 
stirring words of the great apostle: "V/hen I was a child, I spake as a child, I 
understood as a child, I thought as a child; but when I became a man, I put away 
childish things." The most serious peril to this entire body of the educated young 
manhood and womanhood of the colored race is an inveterate juvenility that views 
this marvelous opportunity as a child takes all the gifts showered upon it as some- 
thing belonging of right to itself, until it can not be satisfied by anything, but 
"claims the earth," and cries for the moon and stars. 

There has not been a generation of youth in American history that has been so 
demoralized or is now in such peril of being demoralized by the greatness of oppor- 
tunity thrown upon it, the magnitude of the favors it has received, and the intoxi- 
cation of a mighty sympathy from the best people in the world, as just this one 
hundred thousand of whom I speak. From out the wilderness of bondage trodden 
by their fathers it has suddenly been transferred, as by magic, to the mountain 
heights of human opportunity, a privilege and position only conquered by any other 
race of men through centuries of conflict, the education which is the greatest gift to 
any generation. And a mighty opportunity like this is like the great hall of a spa- 
cious mansion, full of open doors, broad stairM'ays and swift elevators, that a.dmit to 



THE DUTY OF EDUCATED NEGROES. 1243 

every chamber of magic in life, even to the lofty roof, from which our American 
citizenship lies outspread, beneath, around, and above. 

It must be from this obstinate and protracted childhood that so much of the 
apparent inability to recognize even the commonplace obligation to appreciate this 
opportunity comes. Otherwise I can not understand why so many of those who 
have been its recipients now seem to be more concerned by the impossibility of getting 
something else that just now can not be given by anybody than in considering " what 
manner of men they should be to whom this word of God has come." Why are so 
many of these young men and women apparently so careless in the use of these, the 
choicest gifts of Providence to any youthful generation? Why are they .so greatly 
concerned to use these summits of opportunity to which they have been invited, to 
magnify themselves in the eyes of their less fortunate brothers and sisters, rather 
than to " remember those yet in bonds as bound with them? " Why are they often 
so eager to shoot the track of sane and practical duty at the call to any little personal 
gratification? And above all, why are so many of this class apparently' fixed in the 
idea that they are the especial "wards of the nation," that the friendly people who 
bought their personal freedom "with a great price," and have continued for a genera- 
tion to dispense the supreme bounty of education, are hereafter bound to help those 
who have already been educated to their present opportunity, still to assist in any little 
personal enterprise that may be chosen, even if a bypath away from the hot and 
dusty highway uji which their people must toil in its long journey for success? 

I warn these young men and women that the childish habit of dependence on the 
communities and people that have already done so much for them is their greatest 
peril. These friends, who have caused to be spent the $100,000,000 especially for 
the superior education during the first generation after emancipation, have not done 
it because they propose to keep these beneficiaries in perpetual childhood, or even 
as an attractive and unique spectacle of a precocious development of the race. They 
have done and are still doing this with the expectation that these persons will in due 
time come of age, and, with a grateful acknowledgment for past favors, will only ask 
the future privilege of being the true leaders of their own people to their own place 
in the Republic. 

For if this 100,000 can not attempt this work, who can do it for them? If they 
fail to come forward as a body, each in his or her best way enlisting for life in the 
"good fight," on whom are we to rely? Of course the people of the South under- 
stand this peculiar weakness. They know all about the defects of the negro charac- 
ter, this self-indulgent and dependent habit that holds itself away from the rough 
contact with the hard and repulsive features of the situation and work "on the lines 
of least resistance." Many of the Southern people honestly believe, and are telling 
us with great emphasis, that this is a fatal lack of native capacity, a chronic "race 
habit" that will keep this people forever in the rear, not only of the all-dominating 
Anglo-Saxon, but of all these immigrating European peoples, and that even the edu- 
cated portion of the race may as well be content to retire into their own little corner 
of national life and keep quiet. 

Here is this great opportunity for industrial training, which is welcomed by the 
foremost educators of the Union as one of the peculiar contributions of the age to 
the new life of the Republic. Why do so many of the one hundred thousand edu- 
cated hold back from the most important work for their people, going down to the 
common level of the common school and toiling in the low and dark places of the 
land for the practical schooling of the race? Why can not more of these stu- 
dents wake up out of the childish habit of school life, the habit of becoming the 
bodyguard of every offender of school order and law, as if the chief honor or dig- 
nity of the young man or woman at college was to be a shield for every idle, mis- 
chievous, sensual, or selfish boy or girl, who has come in collision with the govern- 
ment of the institution? I would not judge too hardly of this, the bottom weakness 



1244 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. 

of the class of educated youth, which I summon to-day to such a magnificent 
o^jpovtunity. I do them all honor by holding them up to their loftiest obligation. 
But after twenty years spent among the schools of the South, I long to discover the 
signs of a more manly and womanly habit of life among this class I now address. 
I long to see these young people coming together to make of themselves the new 
American phalanx that, like the embattled 10,000 of old, shall be placed at the 
center of the great wavering multitude of the 10,000,000 to assure it of victory dur- 
ing the century that is before us. 

Indeed, my young friends, this seems to me about all there is in the great problem 
that this j^ear again looms up, black and threatening, above the social and political 
horizon. Can the 100,000 more or less educated colored youth, who, during the first 
generation of their freedom, have been schooled and sent forth to " spy out the land " 
and survey the road along vrhich their people may Avalk up to their own place in our 
many-sided American life, lift themselves, each for himself or herself, out of the little 
environment of personal interest in which they are sunk out of sight of their great 
opportunity, and really open their eyes upon it, stretching like a splendid landscape, 
rising from the lowlands to the foothills, scaling the different plateaus even to the 
azure encirclement of the mysterious mountain ranges that block the horizon? Will 
they take account of stock in their own spiritual condition, and, responding to the 
call from heaven, "show thyself a man," and like the woman who "hath chosen the 
better part, ' ' build themselves up ' ' after the manner of the perfect man, to the measure 
of the stature of the fullness in Christ? " In proportion as you can do this, the reve- 
lation of your opportunity will be the revelation of your sense of obligation. Children 
use the gifts of life as playthings. Men and Avomen, after the j)attern of the Master, 
use opportunities as a summons to new obligations and ever new effort to achieve 
the best given to them to do. 

As I have gone over, in the light of my past exx^erience in the Southern States, 
w"hat I should say to the young men and women who here represent the 100,000 
youth of tlie colored race, my mind has constantly turned to the great original order 
from headquarters, given by the "Captain of our salvation " to his first twelve obscure 
and untried disciples, sent forth to preach the gospel of love to God and man to an 
unbelieving and unrighteous Avorld. 

Wonderful as that tenth chapter of Matthew's record is in its profound insight 
into human nature and perfect comprehension of the conditions of all radical mis- 
sionary effort, it is no less remarkable for its complete adaptation to the opportunities 
and obligations of the body of people for whom I have meditated this discourse. 
How can I find a more fitting climax to all I have said to-day than in reading over 
again this great order No. 1 from headc^uarters, delivered eighteen centuries ago? 

First — Take courage, all of you, from the fact that such an order should have been 
given to these twelve obscure young men, absolutely untried in the great work to 
which they were appointed. Even in the Sermon on the Mount when the disciples 
were only a little group of people attracted by a new preacher, Jesus had said to them : 
' ' Ye are the light of the world. A city that is set on a hill can not be hid. Let your 
light so shine before men that they may see your good works and glorify your Father 
which is in heaven." And to the twelve apostles, two of whom were to fall away 
and all were to "forsake him and flee " in the hour of supreme trial, and later to the 
eleven Avho were to l)e involved in contentions and misunderstandings among 
themselves and the chief of apostles, Paul, he gave such power and authority to 
preach, heal and even "cast out imclean spirits" as would indicate a body of men 
tried and proved as by the fire. He gave them no inspiration that was proof against 
their own folly, conceit or sin, but simply issued his sublime order, demanding the 
most exalted courage, persistence and character, even a consecration unto death. 

This is just what the Lord Christ now says to each of you. It is not given because 



THE DUTY OF EDUCATED NEGROES. 1245 

of any special merit in youryelf. It is given as an inspiration to the grandest and 
most unselfish service for God and man of which you are capable. This ministry 
for God and humanity to which j-ou are invited is in itself the highest " higher edu- 
cation" for every man and woman, strong and sweet and brave, enduring enough to 
receive it. If you can not live up to it, it will appear, aa in many an enthusiastic 
folloM'cr of the Master, who, in the hour of danger, "forsook him and fled." If 
you are made of the right stuff, the call, with all its overwhelming splendor of oppor- 
tunity and weight of obligation, will only introduce you to your better self, and as 
you go on, bring forth qualities in you never suspected by you or by your nearest 
and dearest friends. 

Like the twelve apostles, you are sent, not to deal with the people, friendly or 
(itherwise, among whom your lot is cast. They have their opportunity and their 
obligation in their connection with you, and a responsibility in no respect less im- 
portant to them than yours to yourself. But you are sent to "the lost sheep" of 
your own "house of Israel." First, to the lower strata of your own race, in your 
own commonwealth, 60 per cent of whom are still in the bonds of an illiteracy 
that means everything that should be hateful and abhorrent to every friend of 
mankind. Your order is: "As ye go, preach, saying the kingdom of Heaven is 
at hand." Now is the time for this people, "sitting in darkne.ss," to be "wakened 
out of sleep" as by the shining forth of a great light. The kingdom of Heaven 
to them and all like them is a new birth into the Christian manhood and woman- 
hood that this great Eepublic, no less than the Master, now demands from every 
man and woman on whom it has bestowed the eminent degree of American citi- 
zenship. The sick, the poor, especially the dead-alive, will all be brought to you. 
And if you can cast out the legion of devils and the "unclean spirits" that now tor- 
ment the lower order of these, your unhappy brothers and sisters, great will be your 
reward long before you go to any other heaven than the one you are called to build 
up right here in this commonwealth, in this beautiful and bountiful Southland. 

Do not waste time prospecting for a favorable situation, or give too much thought 
to your supply of gold and silver, or to your own rank in the army of the Lord. 
Shoulder your Bible and go in wherever there is an open door. In anj' city "those 
who are worthy" of your ministry will find you out, and "your peace will come 
upon them. ' ' Otherwise ' ' let your peace return to you. ' ' Al waj-s ' ' keep the peace, ' ' 
for somebody will finally accept it. At the worst "shake the dust from your feet" 
where there is no place for you, and go your way, leaving God, through his all- 
directing providence, to deal with the situation. " If they persecute you in one city, 
flee ye into another," for you will not have gone through even all the cities of Ala- 
bama before the kingdom of God will have come. Somewhere will be found some- 
body who will welcome your coming and "hear the Word with gladness." And the 
kingdom of God always comes in this world when one soul throws open all doors 
and windows and bids the everylasting truth, love and beauty come in and there 
abide. 

Do not imagine that yonr ministry, even if it is confined to living up to the "mark 
of the high calling" in the most common station in life, is to be a promenade, a 
reception, a festival, or even a Sunday-school picnic. Read over again the awful 
words of the Master, prophetic of every sincere endeavor made since He went to the 
Cross to preach and live a new departure in righteousness, intelligence, social or 
political uplifting anywhere. Perhaps the most obstinate of all who resist you will 
be your own people, offended with your call to repentance and newness of life; for 
"a man's foes shall be they of his own household." There is no hatred, contempt, 
or malignity like that of a people " half savage and half child" when shown the true 
picture of themselves. But if you can be " wise as serpents and harmless as doves," 
falling back on God in the hour of emergency to know "what ye shall speak " and 



1246 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. 

do, and especially if you can "endure unto the end," you will be saved and your 
success will be the earthly and spiritual salvation of many of those to whom you 
come. 

Even if you are broken down with only the burden of living up to the best you 
■■tnow, be not disheartened, for what you meditate in darkness will be spoken into 
the light, and what you hear with the ear and fitly speak and worthily do will be 
repeated and done over and over again, till it is shouted from every housetop and 
proclaimed from all the mountain summits around the world. If "the Master of 
the house was called Beelzebub," who are you " of his household," even if you are 
"hated of all men for his name's sake?" Your bodily life is only lent you from 
God to be spent in the service of God for the uplifting of man. Even if taken from 
you, you Avill not di<=i. Your "soul will be marching on." Abraham Lincoln in the 
White House was a man on a mountain top, bracing himself against the tempests and 
thunders of a nation in the throes of a mighty revolution. Abraham Lincoln, the 
martyr President, is now the father of the new Eepublic, honored and everywhere 
beloved throughout the world. 

And finally, never forget that God is the supreme economist in the affairs of this 
world. " Not a sparrow falls to the ground without the Father," and the very hairs 
of the head grown gray or bald in the Master's service are all " numbered." Not a 
word, or act; or thought, or look, if worthy of your high calling, will be lost. And 
' ' whosoever shall give to drink unto one of these little ones a cup of cold water in 
the name of a disciple, verily I say unto you, he shall in nowise lose his reward." 
God grant that, whether the "time of departure " of any of us is far off or "now at 
hand," each one may be able to say with the apostle, " I have fought a good fight. 
I have finished my course. I have kept the faith." 



II. 

How TO Improve the Condition of the Negro. ^ 

We must admit the stern fact that at present the negro, through no choice of his 
own, is living among another race which is far ahead of him in education, property, 
experience, and favorable condition; further, that the negro's pi-esent condition 
makes him dependent upon the white people for most of the things necessary to sus- 
tain life, as well as for his common-school education. In all history those who have 
possessed the property and intelligence have exercised the greatest control in gov- 
ernment, regardless of color, race, or geographical location. This being the case, 
how can the black man in the South improve his present condition? And does the 
Southern white man want him to improve it? 

The negro of the South has it within his power, if he properly utilizes the forces 
at hand, to make of himself such a valuable factor in the life of the South that he 
will not have to seek privileges; they will be freely conferred upon him. To bring 
this about, the negro must begin at the bottom and lay a foundation, and not be 
lured by any temptation into trjdng to rise on a false foundation. While the negro 
is laying this foundation he will need help, sympathy'-, and simple justice. Progress 
by any other method will be but temporary and superficial, and the latter end of it 
will be worse than the beginning. American slavery was a great curse to both races, 
and I would be the last to apologize for it; but, in the presence of God, I believe 
that slavery laid the foundation for the solution of the problem that is noAV before 
us in the South. During slavery the negro was taught every trade, every industry, 
that constitutes the foundation for making a living. Now, if on this foundation — 

1 From "The future of the American negro," by Booker T. Washington. 



THE DUTY OF EDUCATED NEGROES. 1247 

laid in a rather crude way, it is true, but a foundation, nevertheless — we can gradu- 
ally build and improve, the future for us is bright. Let me be more specific. Agri- 
culture is, or has been, the basic industr}'' of nearlj"- every race or nation that has 
succeeded. The negro got a knowledge of this during slavery. Hence, in a large 
measure, he is in possession of this industry in the South to-day. The negro can 
buy land in the South, as a rule, wherever the white man can buy it, and at very 
low prices. Now, since the bulk of our people already have a foundation in agri- 
culture, they are at their best when living in the country, engaged in agricultural 
pursuits. Plainly, then, the best thing, the logical thing, is to turn the larger part 
of our strength in a direction that will make the negro among the most skilled agri- 
cultural people in the world. The man who has learned to do something better than 
anyone else, has learned to do a common thing in an uncommon manner, is tlie 
man who has a power and influence that no adverse circumstances can take from 
him. The negro who can make himself so conspicuous as a successful farmer, a 
large taxpayer, a wise helper of his fellow-men, as to be placed in a position of trust 
and honor, whether the position be political or otherwise, by natural selection, is a 
hundredfold more secure in that position than one placed there by mere outside 
force or pressure. * * * 

What I have said of the opening that awaits the negro in the direction of agriculture 
is almost equally true of mechanics, manufacturing, and all the domestic arts. The 
field is before him and right about him. Will he occupy it? Will he "ca.st down 
his bucket where he is?" Will his friends North and South encourage him and 
prepare him to occupy it? Every city in the South, for example, would give support 
to a first-class architect or housebuilder or contractor of our race. The architect and 
contractor would not only receive support, but, through his example, numbers of 
young colored men w^ould learn such trades as carpentry, brickmasonry, plastering, 
painting, etc., and the race would be put into a position to hold on to many of the 
industries which it is now in danger of losing, because in too many cases brains, 
skill, and dignity are not imparted to the common occupations of life that are about 
his very door. Any individual or race that does not fit itself to occupy in the best 
manner the field or service that is right about it will sooner or later be asked to move 
on, and let some one else occupy it. 

But, it is asked, would you confine the negro to agriculture, mechanics, and domestic 
arts, etc.? Not at all; but along the lines that I have mentioned is where the stress 
should be laid just now and for many years to come. We will need and must have 
many teachers and ministers, some doctors and lawyers and statesmen; but these 
professional men will have a constituency or a foundation from which to draw- support 
just in proportion as the race prospers along the economic lines that I have mentioned. 
During the first fifty or one hundred years of the life of any people are not the 
economic occupations always given the greater attention? This is not only the 
historic, but, I think, the common-sense view. If this generation will lay the material 
foundation, it will be the quickest and surest way for the succeeding generation to 
succeed in the cultivation of the fine arts, and to surround itself even with some of 
the luxuries of life, if desired. What the race now most needs, in my opinion, is a 
whole army of men and v/omen well trained to lead and at the same time infuse 
themselves into agriculture, mechanics, domestic employment, and busine.ss. As to 
the mental training that these educated leaders should be equipped with, I should 
say, give them all the mental training and culture that the circumstances of individuals 
will allow — the more, the better. No race can permanently succeed until its mind 
is awakened and strengthened by the ripest thought. But I would constantly have 
it kept in the thoughts of those who are educated in books that a large proportion of 
those who aref educated should be so trained in hand that they can bring this mental 
strength and knowledge to bear upon the physical conditions in the South which I 
have tried to emphasize. 



1248 EDUCATION REPORT, 1898-99. 

Frederick Douglass, of sainted memory, oiice, in addressing his race, used these 
words: "We are to prove that we can better our own condition. One way to do this 
is to accumulate property. This may sound to you like a new gospel. You haA'e 
been accustomed to hear that money is the root of all evil, etc. On the other hand, 
property — money, if you please — will purchase for us the only condition by which 
any people C9.n rise to the dignitj^ of genuine manhood; for without property there 
can be no leisure, without leisure there can be no thought, without thought there 
can be no invention, without invention there can be no progress." 

The negro should be taught that material development is not an end, but simply 
a means to an end. As Prof. W. E. B. Du Bois puts it, "The idea should not be 
simply to make men carpenters, but to make carpenters men. " The negro has a 
highly religious temperament; but what he needs more and more is to be convinced 
of the importance of Aveaving his religion and morality into the practical affairs of 
daily life. Equally as much does he need to be taught to put so much intelligence 
into his labor that he will see dignity and beauty in the occupation, and love it for 
its own sake. The negro needs to be taught that more of the religion that manifests 
itself in his happiness in the prayer-meeting should be made practical in the per- 
formance of his daily task. The man who owns a home and is in the possession of 
the elements by which he is sure of making a daily living has a great aid to a mora] 
and religious life. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 

ADDRESSES DELIVERED AT THE TENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE SOUTHERN 
EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATION, HELD AT RICHMOND, VA., DECEMBER 27-29, 1900. 

Contents.— Industrial education and the New South, by George T. Winston.— Education and 
production, by Charles W. Dabney.— Negro education in the South, by Paul B. Bai-ringer.— 
Reply, by Julius Dreher.— Discussion, by H. B. Frissell.— Reply, by Paul B. Barringer. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION AND THE NEW SOUTH. 

By George T. Wixston, 
President of the Xo7-th Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. 

The two great forces of modern life are education and machinery. The one ele- 
vates man, the other subdues nature. Together they develop civilization and deter- 
mine the destiny of nations and races. How far removed is the American Indian 
in bark canoe from the modern engineer in iron steamship! Stretch canoe and 
Indian in endless chain around the globe, each within call of the next, multiply 
them by 100,000, and the sum of their power will not equal that of a single trans- 
Atlantic steamer. * * * The little Commonwealth of Massachusetts, with its 
machinery for education and its education for machinery, is more potent in the 
life of the world than the whole continent of South America. The cotton crop 
produced this year by the Southern States could not have been grown, housed, 
picked, spun, and woven a century ago by the entire population of the globe. 

The greatest industrial changes ever wrought within a lifetime have been wit- 
nessed by the generation now living in the South. For more than a hundred years 
we maintained an industrial system in opposition to the industrial forces of the 
world. The long and bitter struggle between North and South, although waged 
apparently in courts of justice and halls of Congress, in pulpits and drawing- 
rooms, on deck of ship and field of battle, was not political, nor legal, nor social, 
nor military, but educational and industrial. It was a struggle between the edu- 
cated Yankee mechanic, astride the steam engine, and the educated Southern 
planter, carrying on his shoulders the negro slave. The heroism of that struggle, 
the courage, the fortitude, the skill, the energy, and the power v/ith which the 
South maintained it in peace and in war, are emphasized, beautified, and almost 
glorified into martyrdom by the absolute certainty, the preordained necessity of 
its total failure. There was no need of Gettysburg or Appomattox. The contest 
had already been settled by the mills and factories, the railways and steamships, 
the power looms and spinning jennies, the reapers, binders, threshers, and other 
machinery of a people leading the world in mechanical invention, in use of 
machinery, in industrial progress, and in public education. Had the South pos- 
sessed resources of skilled and educated labor, of shops and factories, of mills and 
furnaces, of ships and locomotives, of accumulated wealth such as the North pos- 
sessed, had the victory been possible by endurance and fortitude, by courage and 
heroism alone, the boys in graj', under Lee and Jackson, would have been invin- 
cible, not only by the North but by the world. 

509 



510 EDUCATIOE" REPORT, 1900-1901. 

The building up of the South since her overthrow in war, the revival of old 
industries and the establishment of new, the accumulation of wealth, and the 
multiplication of schools, colleges, and universities are the admiration and the 
wonder of the world. But there is nothing wonderful about it. The people who 
were great with slavery and unskilled labor have become greater with freedom and 
education. The apparent emancipation of the negro slave was the real emancipa- 
tion of the Southern white. By Lincoln's proclamation the South v/as freed from 
slavery, and the road v/as cleared to educated labor and industrial development. 
We realize at last that slavery w.is not our riches, but our greatest poverty. We 
dare not picture the condition of the South to- day, with slavery dominant, con- 
trolling her industries, and repressing her development. 

The South is now in touch with the world. She is educating her own children 
and the children of her recent slaves. Through the aid of machinery she is con- 
verting into wealth her large and varied resources. The roll call of her slaves 
will never be heard from Bunker Hill monument, but the whirr of her spindles 
and the click of her looms is already heard in Lowell and Manchester. She is 
shipping iron to Birmingham, coal to Newcastle, calico to Calcutta, and tobacco 
to Turkey. Cotton is still king, but Ms throne is no longer in the field. He rules 
in the mill and hears the music of machiuery instead of the song of slaves. 

But the development of the South is only begun. We are traveling in the right 
direction, but we have not traveled far. We must quicken our pace or we shall 
fall behind in the world's industrial race. As yet our products are chiefly raw 
material, or coarse and cheap fabrics. We ai'e winning our way by cheap prod- 
ucts, cheap labor, and long hours of work; but the day may come when cheaper 
labor and cheaper products and longer hours elsevv^here will drive us from the 
field. Cheap labor is abundant in South America, and in Asia is practically unlim- 
ited in supply. The safety of the South is in better labor and better products. 

The labor unit of the South is still the negro, emancipated, but ignorant, unam- 
bitious, and less trained than when a slave. In his present condition he renders 
difScult, if not impossible, the changes requisite to intensive and diversified agri. 
culture and retards the development of all industries in which he is employed. As 
a race he is less skilled than during slavery. The industrial development of the 
South demands that the negro be either improved or gotten rid of. 

The problem is not political, but purely industrial. With the South it is one of 
development; with the negro, of esisteuce. It must be solved, and solved aright. 
The mistakes of reconstruction must be corrected. The North and the South, 
government and philanthropy, education and religion, all forces, domestic, social, 
and industrial, must combine to make the negro a better workman. The real race 
struggle is for existence, a,nd the negro is ill prepared to win it. Dragged from 
barbarism to civilization, educated through slavery into freedom, cut off suddenly 
by emancipation and enfranchisement from the influences that had given him all 
the power he possessed, he wandered about like a child in the night of reconstruc- 
tion after the false lights of political and social promise, away from the paths that 
led to industrial progress and economic independence. It was in his power for 
twenty years after emancipation to control the industries of the South. Had the 
energies of the race and the ambition of its leaders been directed to obtaining 
homes and acquiring wealth instead of political and civil power its condition to-day 
would be far better, not only from industrial and physical standpoints, but men- 
tally, morally, and even politically. The present ideals and ambitions of the race 
belong to the distant future. For this generation and many yet to come there is 
need of radical change in negro education. His colleges of law, of medicine, of 
theology, and of literature, science, and art should be turned into schools for indus- 
trial training. Hampton Institute and Tuskegee should be duplicated in every 
Southern State— if possible in each Congressional district. The visionary ideals 
of Wendell Phillips and Frederick Douglass should give place to the practical work 



EDUCATIOlsr IN THE SOUTH. 511 

of General Armstrong and Booker "Washington. The wasteful expenditure of 
money for negro literary education in the public schools of the South should be 
changed into jirofitable and useful training in industrial schools, shops, and farms, 
maintained at ijublic expense and under public direction, for negro education in 
each county or township of the South. The entire system of public education for 
the negro race, from top to bottom, should be industrial. As yet all the indus- 
tries of the South are open to his employment. The door of his opportunity is not 
yet closed: but sinless he speedily enter, armed with skill, training, and industrial 
power, it will close, and close forever. The sl:ill and training which the race pos- 
sessed in slavery must be regained. The new generation, now less capable than 
the old. must be taught to work. After handicraft will be time for headcraft. 
The race is not yet out of tutelage. Its industrial apprenticeship, begvm in slav- 
ery, must continue in freedom. We must recognize the fact that the negro is 
still unable to stand alone. But the help he needs is not so much of books and 
" schoolmarms " as of tools and master workmen. lie needs the aid, the sympathy, 
the daii J' instruction of his Southern employer. Every Southern household, farm, 
shop, factory, and mill might be a school for the training of the negro. It was so 
in slavery. But to-day the chasm between the races is deep and wide, forbidding 
interest and sympathy and authority on the part of the whites; docility, obedience, 
and zeal on the part of the blacks. Nothing will bring the races together again 
but the industrial skill and power of the negro. His education should look to this 
end. The race is entitled to live. Justice and humanity demand that it be given 
a chance. The duty and the problem are national. The burden is too large lor 
the South. The National Government should aid in the industrial education of 
the n^gro until he is able to earn a decent living. Then may come independence 
and self-reliance, to be followed finally by culture, learning, and refinement. Give 
the negro a chance, a natural and reasonable chance, for progress, and either, like 
other races, he will aid the development and share the prosperity of great America, 
or, if s'owly dying through race inferiority and incompetency, he linger ages longer, 
a curse and a hindrance to the nation that miade him slave, let it be said that the 
white race through every agency of training and education patiently and bravely 
endeavored to save the negro from extinction and equip him for free existence. 

The necessity of industrial educat'on is almost as great for Southern whites as 
for the negro. The industrial life of the Ne\V South must be based upon educa- 
tion. The education of the New South must lead to industrial life. The Southern 
schoolboy dream of statesmanship must yield to desire for workmanship. Our 
children must be taught to express their thoughts in work as well as in words. 

The healthful happiness, the lasting utility, and the real nobility of genuine, 
downright labor, of labor wrought into things of beauty and value, muat supplant 
the nervous excitement of mere intellect'^al gymnastics and the tiresome weariness 
of the mental treadmill. 

Our present system of education is not in touch with life. The highest expres- 
sion of the worlds pov/er today is not literary but industrial. The world's work 
is growing daily in character, value, and intensity, and is demanding for its per- 
formance not only labor but genius— genius of the highest order and thoroughly 
trained. Ours is an age of action and performance. The world's demand is not 
for skilled talkers but skilled workers. Mountains must be tunneled, rivers 
bridged, oceans led captive over continents, deserts irrigated, cities built into air 
and guarded from fire and filth, enemies to life detected and destroyed in plant 
and animal, goods exchanged between the ends of the earth, nature's forces har- 
nessed to human service, and her crude material, infinite in variety and extent, 
fashioned into forms of beauty and utllitj^ to gratify the ever increasing desires 
and necessities of life. 

This is the age of the engineer, the chemist, and the biologist. 

The educational system of the South needs to be greatly changed, if not recon- 



512 EDUCATION REPOBT, 1900-1901. 

structed. For one hundred years our schools have manufactured orators, states- 
men, and universal geniuses. The supply now exceeds the demand, and a change 
of industrial machinery is necessary. For declamation and dialectics we must 
substitute the microscope and the laboratory, the drawing board and the machine 
shop. The South needs workers, trained and skilled workers, in every department 
of industry. Rude labor will not suffice, even in agriculture. Our cotton crop 
has been trebled in thirty years. Improvements in cultivation, in machinery, in 
fertilizers, and in utilization of waste products have produced this wonderful 
result. The methods of slavery would mean bankruptcy to-day. Thirty years 
hence the crop will be trebled again and the methods of to-day will mean bank- 
rviptcy then. The same is true of all our industries. To remain stationary is 
really to fall behind. As ginning has supplanted hand picking, carding machines 
hand cards, and power looms hand looms, so the i^laids and sheetings of to-day 
must yield to lawns and laces and muslins to-morrow. 

The weavers of Asia are still using hand power. When they rise to steam and 
power looms the South must move up further or else be ruined. Industrial edu- 
cation is our only hope. Other people are employing it and revolutionizing their 
industries. Germany is dotted with industrial schools; of agriculture and for- 
estry, of metal and woodworking, of weaving, bleaching, and dyeing. German 
goods are filling the markets of the v/orld in spite of tariffs and hostile legislation. 
Great Britain is no less active; Japan, after her sleep of centuries, has awoke to 
life through industrial education. Even Russia is preparing for the struggle. 

In the United States, outside of the South, the chief industrial centers have 
organized technical colleges and schools for manual training. In New England 
the public schools from top to bottom are looking to industrial training. Draw- 
ing and designing, wood and metal working, the plastic arts, the microscope and 
the laboratory, unused a century ago, are commoner to-day in the schools of the 
North than books of declamation and treatises on the human understanding. 
But not so in the South. We are stumbling along in the same old paths. Our 
public schools are not arousing public enthusiasm or inspiring public confidence. 
As a rule they do not deserve it. They are not following, much less leading, the 
indiistrial revolution of the South. Our system must be changed. Necessity will 
require it. We have reached the limit of skill and production without the help of 
industrial education. 

Our public schools— kindergarten, primary school, grammar school, and high 
school — all should be strengthened with mantial training. Every child should be 
taught to do something, to make something, and to make it well. Drawing, plaiting, 
weaving, coloring, designing, carving, and molding would be more useful prepa- 
ration for life than learning the ancestry of Tiglathpilezer or the boundaries of 
the world as imagined by Ptolemy. Special industrial schools adapted to the pre- 
vailing industry of each district should be established in all industrial centers. 
The principles underlying each industry — chemical, mathematical, mechanical, or 
biological— should be thoroughly comprehended. Actual manipulation and expe- 
rience in at least the leading lines of work should be required. Such schools 
would supply skilled workmen for every industry— wood workers, metal workers, 
leather workers, workers in field and forest, in mine and mill and factory, skilled 
workers, exchanging in the markets of the world finished goods for raw material, 
skill and knowledge for rude labor. 

The system should be crowned in each State with well-equipped colleges of tech 
nology, offering complete instruction in the applied sciences and furnishing the 
State with an adequate supply of highly trained professional experts; with civil 
engineers for the construction of railways and bridges; with hydraulic engineers 
for the construction of dams and waterways and the transmission of water power; 
with electrical engineers for the creation, transmission, and application of elec- 



EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 513 

trie power; with mechanical, mining, chemical, sanitary, and textile engineers; 
with architects, designers, inventors, industrial promoters, and managers. 

The South must follow the spirit of the age. She will do so from necessity, if 
not from preference. Industrial comi)etition will force her to it. Her resources 
are practically undeveloped and unlimited. She is amply endowed with all three 
requisites for the production of wealth; with natural resources, capital, and labor. 
Her natural wealth is the greatest on the continent. In variety and fertility of 
soil, in diversity and healthfulness of climate, in abundance and "variety of min- 
erals, in forests and fisheries, in water power and fuel, she is rich beyond power 
to calculate. She is accessible to world markets, both for raw material and for 
finished products. Her capital is abundant and easily increased by foreign impor- 
tation; her white labor is native, of English, Scotch, and German stock, reliable, 
intelligent, abundant, and cheap. All conditions are favorable to the production 
of enormous wealth, and with it the promotion to a high degree of popular happi- 
ness and prosperity. The one thing lacking is industrial training and skill. Sup- 
ply these and the South will be the paradise of the world, the realization of per- 
fect democracy, where labor is so productive and wealth so abundant that there 
is leisure and opportunity for vmiversal culture and universal progress. 



EDUCATION AND PRODUCTION. 
By Charles W. Dabney, 

President of the University of Tennessee. 

Every lover of his country must rejoice in the great interest in technical educa- 
tion manifested recently in the South. It shows that we have at last come to rec- 
ognize the deficiencies of our system of education and the one-sidedness of our 
present schools. The recent agitation for technical education grows directly out 
of the desire of the people to work up their own resources, their cotton, wood, 
and iron, and produce more wealth. Are we not in danger of taking too narrow 
a view of this subject? If increased production is our aim, we must begin by edu- 
cating all of our people in the public schools, and not merely a few of them in tech- 
nical schools. As patriotic men and women we want to see all of the people earn 
more, so that they may live better and happier. The difficulty with our system 
of education in the South thus far is that we do not pay enough attention to the 
common schools. We have given most of our thought in the past to the higher 
education and too little to the broader education. A complete educational system 
is like a pyramid; its base must be broader and stronger than any other part of it. 
Our i^resent educational system, as far as we have any at all, is a column with a 
beautifully carved capital upon its top, which is altogether too large for the base 
and the shaft. The reason our institutions of higher education are not attended 
as largely as those of other States is because they have too few public schools to 
support them. 

Technical education is important, but I beg my fellow-countrymen of the South 
not to forget that universal public education is more important. Let xa begin at 
least by putting manual training and scientific branches in the high schools where 
all the children can have an opportunity for the broad training. If greater pro- 
ductivity is our aim we must first have better common schools. If we content 
ourselves with a few technical schools here and there, we will be greatly disap- 
pointed. 

My first proposition, then, is that if we desire to produce more wealth in the 
South we must begin by building better public schools. 

The chief characteristic of the nineteeth century has been the extension of the 

ED 1901 83 



514 EDUCATIOl^T EEPOKT, 1900-1901. 

tenants of education to the masses of the people. Its chief lesson is that ©dtication 
increases the wealth-producing power of a people in direct proportion to its distri- 
bution and thoroughness. In fact, the relations between education and produc- 
tivity are so well understood now that you can measure the wealth-producing 
power of a people by the school privileges which they have enjoyed. Statistics 
show, for example, that the power of the people of the different States to earn 
money is in direct proportion to the length of the period the average citizen has 
attended school. To illustrate ' , the average school period in 1898-99 of each inhab- 
itant of the United States was 4.4 years; of Massachusetts, which has the best 
schools, it was seven years; of Tennessee it was a little less than three years. The 
total annual production of the United States in the year 1800 was less than $30 a 
year, or 10 cents a day, coiinting 308 working days in the year, for each man, 
woman, and child; by 1850 the production had increased to nearly $92 a year, or 
30 cents a day, and in 1899 it was about $170 a year, or 55 cents a day. 



MASS. 



EDUCATION 14 



PRODUCTION 





EDUCATION 8.8 


u. s. 


PRODUCTION 8.5 














EDUCATION 6 




TENN. 


PEODUCT'N 5.8 





The production of Massachusetts in 1899 was $260 for each man, woman, and 
child, or 85 cents a day. The most favorable figures make the* total annual pro- 
duction of the people of Tennessee in 1899 less than $116 a year, or 38 cents a day, 
for each inhabitant. Another way to express it is to say that the average family 
of 5 in Tennessee must live on $580 a year, counting everything produced on the 
farm and in the home, as well as sales and money wages, while the same family 
in Massachusetts has $1,300 a year to spend, and the average family of the United 
States has $850. Put these facts together and we at once see their tremendous 
significance. The proportion between the school period in Massachusetts, the 
school period in the whole United States, and the school period in Tennessee is 
expressed by the figures 7, 4.4, and 3; or, multiplying each by 2, by the figures 14, 
8.8, and 6. The proportion between the prodiictive capacity of each person in 
Massachusetts, in the whole United States, and in Tennessee is expressed by the 
figures 360, 170, and 116; or, dividing by 20 to bring to terms similar to the others, 
we havei^lS, 8.5, and 5.8. Think of this! 

Education is as 14 in Massachusetts to 8.8 in United States to 6 in Tennessee. 

Production is as 13 in Massachusetts to 8.5 in United States to 5.8 in Tennessee. 

This is not a mere coincidence in the case of Massachusetts, the United States, 
and Tennessee. It is the law the world over. The productivity of a people is 
everywhere proportional to their education; that is, their intellectual, physical, and 
moral training. It is not the natural resources, the climate, the soils, and the min- 
erals; it is not even the race, miich as these things count in production, but it is 
education which above everything else determines the wealth-earning power of a 
people. 

The Southern people have made great sacrifices for public education, and espe- 
cially for the education of the negro, but they must prepare to do even more if 

' The data used in this paper were derived from the Reports of the Commissioner of Education 
of the United States and of the State board of educEition of Massachusetts, from Butler's Edu- 
cation in the United States, from articles by Dr. William T. Harris, Commissioner of Education 
of the United States, and from the Tennessee State reports. 



EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 515 

they are to keep up with the other States in production. The States represented 
in this association are still far behind the Eastern and Western States in the man- 
ner in which they support their public schools. Let me take for comparison the 
best school State in the Union— Massachusetts— and my own State of Tennessee, 
which represents, 1 find, the average conditions in the South. 

The population of Massachusetts is 3,805,348; of Tennessee, 3,020.616. They 
have the same number of children to educate. The enrollment and the average 
daily attendance at their public schools in 1898-99 were as follows: 





Enrollment. 


Average daily 
attendance. 


Massachusetts 


471,977 
499, 845 


360,317 
3.52 734 


Tennessee 







Massachusetts tauj^ht school 188 days in the year, and her enrolled pupils 
attended an average of 14.S.5 days. Tennessee taught school only 89 days, and her 
enrolled pupils attended only 63.8 days. The average Tennessee child is absent 
36.3 days in the 89 days of the school session. 

Massachusetts expended for all purposes of her public schools in 1898-99 
$13,889,838, which was $38.55 per pupil in average daily attendance and $5.07 per 
capita of her population. Tennessee expended for her public schools in the same 
year §1,638,313, which is $4.63 per pupil in average daily attendance and only 83 
cents per capita of population. The average expenditure for all the States of the 
Union is $19 per pupil in average daily attendance and $3.67 per capita of the popu- 
lation of the entire country. 

The power of education in production may be presented again in this concrete 
way: From the statistics above it is seen that Massachusetts spent in 1898-99 
$13,361,535 more upon her public s-chools than Tennessee; but see what a return 
she gets. Each one of the 3,805,346 citizens of Massachusetts — men. women, and 
infants— has, as we have said, a productive capacity of $360 a year against $170 a 
year for the average inhabitant of the whole United States and $116 aj^ear for the 
average inhabitant of Tennessee. The inhabitant of Massachusetts has thus an 
excess of $90 a year over the average inhabitant of the United States and $144 a 
year over the average inhabitant of Tennessee. This means that the people of 
Massachusetts earned last year $253,487,140 more than the same number of aver- 
age people of the United States and $403,969,834 more than the same number of 
people in Tennessee. Twelve million dollars invested in superior education yield 
$400,000,000 a year. 

If the people of the South would compete in production with the people of the 
other States and of the world— and they must do so whether they will or not — 
they must educate all their children, not only their white children, but their black; 
and they must educate them all not poorly for a few months in the year and a few 
years in their lives, but thoroughly through a long series of years. If history 
teaches lis anything it is the solidarity of all mankind, that "no man liveth unto 
himself," and "no man dieth unto himself," but that we are each our "brother's 
keeper. " 

Our great resources— climate, soi^s, and minerals— are useless in the hands of an 
untrained people. Moreover, if we do not educate our own people to use these 
resources intelligently the trained men of other States will come in and do so and 
make our native people "the hewers of wood and the drawers of water " in their 
industries. 

Some persons seem to think that the marvelous energy and common sense of our 
people are a sufficient guarantee of their success in the battle of life; but common 
sense and even unmeasured energy do not win in these days without education. 



516 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1900-1901. 

We must give our people knowledge and training or they will surely fail ia the 
hot competition of the twentieth century. Will we not realize that our best 
resources are our own children and that our highest duty is to educate them for 
the greatest usefulness in life? 

Having made x^rovision for the elementary education of the people on this broad 
plan, we may wisely turn our attention to the technical education. A complete 
system of technical schools comprehends the following: 

1. A system of trade schools in which pupils are trained for the leading arts. 

2. Polytechnic schools in which instruction in the applied sciences and techni- 
cal or professional training are offered more advanced stadents. 

3. Institutes of technology or departments of science in universities in which 
the highest professional instruction in the applied sciences is provided. 

There is no difficulty in accounting for our early indifference in the South to 
science and technology. It was in accordance with the history of science the 
world over and with the laws of its development in aJl countries. Up to fifty 
years ago we ha,d all the science, or more than we could use. We were engaged 
in getting out raw uaaterial, in "skinning " our soils, in cutting down our forests, 
and in working a few surface mines. Germany and France supplied us at first 
with our science and England or New England with our technical esperts. 

A young people always view their raw material as their chief source of wealth, 
and they are often too ready to barter it for a mere mess of pottage. When they 
become older, they discover that it is not upon natural wealth alone, but upon the 
culture of the scientific intellect that permanent prosperity depends. England 
was not a manufacturing nation until the Elizabethan age. Though coal, iron, 
and wood were found in abundance in the reign of the Plantagenets, they pro- 
duced little prosperity. Their home-grown wool was sent to Flanders to be man- 
ufactured and turned into cloth. Spain, which had fallen heir to Arabian science, 
was the greatest manufacturing country of those days. When the Moors were 
banished and the loolitical crimes of Spain led to its destruction as a nation, 
England took its position as the leading industrial nation of the world. The 
invasion of the low countries by Philip II drove the Flemish manufacturers, as 
the French persecution drove the Huguenots, to England, and they introduced the 
industries of cotton, wool, and silk in that country. In none of these countries 
was science a subject of study at this time. The acquisition of wealth must pre- 
cede tlie cultivation of science. Technical skill is needed to utilize the raw 
material to the best advantage. The time comes, however, in the history of every 
nation when it must educate its people in science and train them in manufactures 
and industries or it will go down. This higher scientific education is the fore- 
runner of higher prosperity, and the nation which fails to develop the intellectual 
faculty for production must degenerate, for it can not stand still. 

In society, as in biology, there are three states. In the first, the state of primal 
equilibrium, things grow neither better nor worse; the second is the state of evo- 
lution or development, during which animals and plants adapt themselves to their 
environments and take on new characteristics; the third is that of degeneration, 
when they first stand still, then decay, and so go back to the earth from which 
they sprang. The same is true of nations. A nation may remain in equilibrium 
for a brief time in the early stage of its history, but it is imi30ssible to hold its 
forces in balance when its environment is constantlj^ changing. To stand still 
then, is to die. The life of a people industrially is science. We must feed its 
fountains and keep them pure or growth will cease, industry will fall, and the 
nation will die. Our southland stands at the beginning of the second state. We 
have lived as long as we can upon the bounties of nature, and have reached that 
point at which we must study science, learn the arts, use our material resources 
and accumulate wealth, or else fall behind and go down. 

The study of science and the application of science always have gone and always 



EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 517 

mnsfc go hand in hand. As a matter of fact, discoverers and appliers of science are 
often combined in the same person. The interests of pure science and of tech- 
nology are largely identical; and science can not take a step forward without 
opening new fields for indiistrj'. New truth in science always leads to new devel- 
opments in industry. Hence, we must have the inventor as well as the investiga- 
tor. So, on the other hand, every advance of industry facilitates the experimental 
investigation upon which the growth of pure science depends. See how the glass 
industry has promoted the progress of chemistry, and how the electrical industry 
has in our own time aided physics and mechanical engineering. Pure science and 
technology can not be separated. Civilization began with man as a tool-making 
animal; it has grown with man as a machine-making being. It is not the classics 
or philosophy that alone makes a people strong; else India might have been the 
ruling nation of the world and England its province. Historically, technical 
progress did not follow the growth of science, but preceded it. Mining developed 
geology. Fisheries led to biology. 

It is not generally known that General Lee was a great believer in scientific 
and technical education. Says Professor Joynes, his colleague: "General Lee's 
plans for the development of Washington College were distinct and definite. He 
aimed to make this college represent at once the wants and the genius of the coun- 
try. Under his influence the classical and literary schools of the college were 
fully sustained; yet he recognized the fact that material well-being is, for a peo- 
ple, a condition of all high civilization, and, therefore, though utterly out of sym- 
pathy with the modern advocates of materialistic education, he sought to provide 
all the means for the development of science and for its practical applications." 
The Southern people have still to realize the ideals of Lee in education. 



NEGRO EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 
By Paul B. Barringer, 

University of Virginia. 

Those of US of the South who have elected to abide by the South must, for that 
reason if no other, take a proper and natural interest in any specific class of its 
people which numbers nearly 40 per cent of its population. It matters not how 
insignificant this people may be when measured by economic standards, nor how 
humble they may be socially, nor how impotent politically; so long as they consti- 
tute 40 per cent of the population they are a factor which must be taken into seri- 
ous account whenever we think of the South and its future. If this 40 per cent — 
the negro race — improve, the South to that extent will improve; if it go backward, 
it will either carry the South with it, or, failing in this, it will demand as the 
price of progress an expenditure of energy on the part of the whites which no 
people can endure. 

All general questions of humanitarian interest aside, what is the present out- 
look for the negro, and therefore for the South? I say general questions of 
humanitarian interest aside, because he who approaches this great problem in the 
spirit of the doctrinaire has no place in the councils of the South, be he for the 
negro or for the white. This is not a matter of sentiment, but of interest— acute, 
present interest. The question is one land for two peoples, and these the most 
divergent. This one land — who can best rule and administer it with benefit to 
the greatest number, the white man or the black? This is the Southern problem, 
the race problem, the negro problem; but the education of the negro is its most 
important factor. We of the South are to educate him. Shall we prepare him to 
be a political antagonist? Shall we make of him an economic antagonist; or can 
we prevent him from becoming either, and yet have the South, as a whole, 
improve? That is the question. 



518 EDUCATION -REPORT, 1900-1901. 

I am sorry that I have to mention political antagonism, but the case can not be 
•fairly presented without it. The political antagonism between the Southern 
white and black is manifested by the fact that since his enfranchisement the negro 
has, as a race, voted solidly against the measures, local or general, advocated by 
the white people of the South. This is a peculiar fact, because nine times out of 
ten there is a personal friendship between every black and the whites he knows. 
This antagonism, therefore, is not personal, but racial. 

This was not always so, for there are hundreds here who remember the old slave 
days, the manifest affection of the negro for and his pride in the old master, the 
mistress, the young master, and all. * * * After the war, we all remember 
how short was the first racial flight of freedom; how, like birds, startled but not 
affrighted, they circled but to return. It was not then. No, the antagonism 
between the Southern whites and blacks has come since the war, and it is now 
reciprocal. It is now race against race. What has caused it? This question, 
daily asked, is hard to answer, becaiise no one cause is responsible. There are 
two great causes — the one political, the other economic. 

As to the political cause. For over a century preceding the war between the 
States slaveholders dominated this Union. They gave it its flag and thirty-four 
out of forty-four stars on its field. They gav^ this Republic every general that 
carried this South-made flag to victory against America's foes — Washington, Jack- 
son, and Scott. They gave to America every creed and policy which we even now 
invoke as fundamental. Liberty and freedom — Jefferson; the Constitution and its 
father — Madison; no foreign entanglements — Washington; America for the Ameri- 
cans— the Monroe doctrine — Monroe; Southerners all. They gave her everything 
of which she can well be proud and nothing of which she need be ashamed. 

But the war brought a change. With army gone, people, land, and credit 
exhausted, the South stood as "on her sheepskin," expectant. What did her peo- 
ple expect? Thej^ expected to see a new symbol added to the flag of their fathers; 
a steel-blue bar across stars, field, and stripes, and riveted at every joint. This 
would have been truly fitting. They expected, moreover, to see a new amendment 
added to the Constitution which would declare the dogma of State sovereignty for- 
ever dead. They saw neither. The flag still waves as before, the unchanged 
~blazon of their fathers' deeds; and, as far as statute is concerned, the Union is still 
on the basis of the tenth amendment or the "secession of 1787." ¥7hat they did 
see were the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments to the Constitution. 

The purposes of these were quite distinct. The first (thirteenth) gave to the 
negro freedom, while the last two (fourteenth and fifteenth) gave citizenship and 
its attributes. The first, intended by the donors as a recompense to the negro for 
years of servitude, has become a threatening soiirce of racial decay through an 
economicrevolutionnow just becoming evident. The second * * * has failed. 
Its immediate result was the production of race hatred, and is now becoming a 
souyce of peril to our public policy. The attempted degradation of a proud peo- 
ple was simply a sectional crime; but a brake on the wheel of national expansion 
is, if possible, a greater evil still, and this the fifteenth amendment has put. Two 
more Southern stars— Arizona and New Mexico — and then we stop. 

We dare not give statehood to even the islands already under the flag, v/ith their 
Spanish-American, Chinese, Malayan, and Polynesian population. A government 
of the people, by the people, and for the .people can not exist with the franchise for 
such as these. We must, as a nation, now confess that only intelligence can rule, 
for we know the political stability of the Spanish- American and his "republics," 
we know China and the Philippines, and Wilcox is with us! No; the bill for the 
reduction of Southern representation will never pass, and negro disfranchisement 
is to stand. America now sees the handwriting on the wall, for she faces a golden 
opportunity with hands tied. 



EDUCATIOISr IN THE SOUTH. 519 

The fourteenth and fifteenth amendments have been failures. Let us look at 
the thirteenth, which opened the economic problem. 

It has always been a mystery to the people of the North why the nonslaveholding 
class at the South fought so ardently during the war. No explanation seems to 
solve the mystery for them. Let me first note, by way of explanation, that in the 
mountains of North Carolina, Tennessee, and A'irginia (now West Virginia), 
where the negro was unknown, the poor whites did not fight, or else fought on the 
Federal side. Let me also recall that the enormous emigration that took place 
from the South was chiefly a labor emigration, and even the wealthy, when 
threatened with poverty, fled from the South. These things were because every 
workingman who knew the negro looked with a holy fear upon the day of his 
emancipation. With the well-fed chattel, the expensive slave, he could compete; 
but with the starving negro of freedom he had not a ghost of a chance. In the 
fated language of Professor Ross, late of Stanford University, speaking of the 
Chinaman, the .white man can "outdo" the barbarian, but the latter can 
"underlive" him, and there's the rub. 

The laboring man, who alone knows what it means to have to underlive his fel- 
low, will always hate the negro on contact. There are to-day thousands of negroes 
in the South living on a ration that costs 6.5 cents a day, or less than $2 per month, 
while, if pressed, they can live on the half of it. Imagine the fate of the white 
man who has to comi^ete with such labor. 

Lured by higher wages, many negroes are now making pilgrimages to the North — 
to New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago. As a rule they are the best-trained 
workers of their race in the South, and hence the highest livers, but they under- 
live all competition so easily and cut wages with such profit to themselves that 
the hatred of the negro, always felt by the white workers of the South, is beginning 
to be felt at the North; and this is the true and only reason of the late race riots there. 
Wherever the negro gops disenchantment follows. The old slave owner, his 
natural friend, is now, as we have seen, against him as a political foe, and the poor 
whites of the South still haLe him as an economic enemy, while the laboring men 
everywhere now recognize that the " deification of the darkey'" was for them a 
mistake. 

There is one other class in the South, fortunately a small one. I refer to the 
men of wealth or education whom the war and its consequent social chaos 
brought down to poverty and personal manual competition with negro labor. 
Thirty years of unrequited toil has broken and soured them, till any " ism," from 
populism to nihilism, finds fertile soil. They have not risen; they have done well 
even to " mark time" in the ranks; 4)ut through the public schools their children 
are rising, and they are the hope of the South and nation. A distinct generation 
is coining with an hereditary intelligence shai-pened by adversity; but with their 
very mother's milk they have drawn in a hatred of the negro race that is a hate 
infernal. 

I have here briefly presented the facts leading up to present conditions. Some of 
these will change and some will not, and the last to go -will be the bitter economic 
antagonism of the white Southern laborer. When you leave this out, you are leav- 
ing the Southern problem. If the political question is not reopened, the antago- 
nism of the dominant class will be at once withdrawn. This class has never been 
and will never be influenced by negro competition, and if the fifteenth amendment 
is nullified as at present, or, better still, repealed, they will have nothing more to 
ask. Their antagonism will die with politics; the laboring antagonism dies only 
with the man. We might as well be frank. These conditions exist and they seri- 
ously complicate the case as presented by the negro himself, which is about as 
follows: 

Having received from the South, American residence, the English tongue, the 
opportunities of the Christian religion, a sound body, and thorough training ia 



520 EDUCATION" EEPOET, 1900-1901. 

agriculture and all the domestic arts, he, after two centuries, received from the 
North, freedom, citizenship, and the ballot. In the next generation he received 
from the two sections two hundred millions in education, and he still stands a beg- 
gar at the door of the South, now a criminal beggar. What are we to do with him? 

As he has grown in criminality and physical depravity since receiving what he 
has of education, that kind of education is surely a failure. Moreover, he has 
used this education, given in compassion as an arm of defense, as a weapon of 
political offense against those who gave it. Under the circumstances there is a 
natural and growing sentiment in the South demanding that we give him only the 
pittance that he himself produces as a taxpayer, and then let him shift for him- 
self. The object of this paper is to protest against the adoption of this policy as 
economically unwise and as unworthy of the South. We should as soon think 
of withdrawing our subscription to the church because its Sunday school class 
had missed its lesson. It would be better to double your subscriiDtion and get 
better teachers. No! We should not and we will not withdraw from the negro 
the one and only hope of his race — the white man's support. Noblesse oblige. 

So far we have been consistent. Of all the sections the South now alone presents 
in her history that rare virtue. In all the years of her domination, from Roanoke 
Island to Appomattox, she claimed just what she claims now, namely, that Ameri- 
can citizenship was a privilege of the highest kind, reserved for the highest type, 
and that degraded and barbarous races, specifically marked by nature as inferior, 
were unfit for its functions. She set the white man up as the guardian and the 
example for the savage. The North claimed that the Union was an asj'lum for 
all, and that citizenship was for all, regardless of race, color, or previous condition. 
Her sincerity has ever been open to doubt; shall we let ours be so likewise? Ifc 
will be if, claiming that the Southern slave owner was the only sincere friend of 
the negro, we let him revert to savagery imder our very eyes. We can not lay 
down the white man's burden yet. 

It is now suggested that the hope of the negro is industrial education. It is 
hailed as a discovery, and it is shrewdly claimed that this education will check 
political antagonism. This is a mistake. Any education will be used by the 
negro politically; for politics, once successful, is now an instinctive form of war- 
fare. The question, then, plainly put, is simply this: Shall we, having by great 
effort gotten rid of the negro as a political menace, deliberately proceed to equip 
the negro of the future as an economic menace? Shall we, knowing his primitive 
racial needs, arm him and pit him against the poor white of the South? Shall the 
educated class of the South to whom the lower classes, both white and black, look 
for guidance, indorse a policy which will certainly promote racial warfare? 

It is all very well to ignore racial hatred in New York and Chicago, with a police- 
man at every corner and politics behind every policeman, but do it long enough 
even there and a time will come when there will not be policemen enough. To- 
day if the hand of olScial "protection " were withdrawn, the negroes of these cities 
woiild have short shrift. Labor fears and hence hates the man who can underlive 
a church mouse, be he Chinaman, negro, or Malay. Shall we see a negro and 
Malay exclusion act? In the South, policemen do not patrol the fields, and race 
hatred must be kept down if only for the sake of the black. Read any account of 
a Southern race riot and see who usually furnishes the funerals. Almost always 
the black. 

There was never before on the face of the earth a people more law abiding, 
patient, or long suffering in the face of great temptation than our white yeomanry 
of the South, Living beside an alien race which they know to have been the 
cause of their poverty, which they recognize as having corrupted their manners, 
their morals, and their speech, and which, above any other race, degrades labor, 
they spare him. If you have race riots on tap at the North from a beginning labor 
competition, what would happen were that mongrel city brood exposed to the 



EDUCATION m THE SOUTH. 521 

temptations daily long present at the South? Our people have been brought down, 
but they still have the Saxon virtue of the courage that dares refrain. Do not 
press them. 

To see hovp' best to educate our two races at the South, let us look into the recent 
progress of this section and see what it shows. In 1895 there were about two and 
a half million spindles in the South, at the close of 1899 5,000,000 spindles, to-day 
over 6,000,000. What part has the negro labor played in this extension and what 
part the white? In furnishing the raw material, the cotton, he plays the old slave- 
day part, but in the function of the new South, in manufacture, he has no part. 
It may be asked has he had the chance? Yes, in Charlotte, N. C, and in Charles- 
ton, S. C. , he has been tried in the clothing factory and in the cotton mill, and he 
has failed in each case. The reason of his failure was the absolute lack of moral 
responsibility. While perhaps capable enough, an excursion, a circus, or a revival 
always had claims upon him in excess of his obligations as an employee. You 
may make him a perfect physical imitation of the workman, but morally he is the 
negro still. 

Wo have just seen the first great labor strike in the South. For months 4,000 
white mill hands stood out against their employers. These mills could have been 
filled at any time with cheaper negro labor, but it was not done. When the cold, 
practical logic of economy turns down an opportunity like this there is a reason. 
The reason was the absolute mercantile distrust of the moral stamina of the pres- 
ent black. 

While the negro came out of slavery illiterate, he was not ignorant of the trades 
and the mechanic arts. He was the smith, the carpenter, the shoemaker, the tan- 
ner of the plantations of the South. Trained to labor as few white men were, 
and with labor ever in demand, he is still the laborer and the common mechanic; 
rarely the skilled artisan. He has not kept pace with his opportunities. All this 
is suggestive, and leads to the conviction that it would be folly for any State to 
enter upon the industrial training of its deficient race while the laboring class of 
its higher race is equal to any training and any effort. We can not equip both, 
and to equip the negro to the neglect of the poor white would be a grave political 
error and an economic absurdity. 

The average negro is so light-hearted, so gay, and so free from care that he 
gives a pleasant impression, but in all his actions he shows the mimic. He pro- 
vokes an involuntary smile, and we ignore the lack of the genuine article. These 
characteristics are generic, and in varying degrees they make up our idea of the 
negro to the extent that we habitually discount his faults, vices, and defects. In 
fact, we set for this race a different standard from our own. The result is that 
any old suit makes the negro a " dude," reasonably fluent speech makes him seem 
the " orator," while a fair address and intelligence so dumfound us that such a 
negro " shines as a one-eyed man amongst the totally blind." He is never what 
he seems. What we may call a " good " manservant may be, and sometimes is, 
an absolute liar, something of a thief, and quite a rascal. A "good" nurse 
or ccok may be anything, provided she can nurse and cook. We pay no more 
attention, as a rule, to the moral atmosphere of the kitchen than to the stars of 
heaven, and the kitchen and our children suffer. We pour out our blood and 
treasure on the literary heathen of China, and shut our eyes to the greater need of 
missionaries at home. What the negro needs as a race is moral training, some 
"thou shalt not," something to form character. When we have given him a 
morality which will save him from degeneracy and the hand training which will 
make him an even respectable servant or laborer, then, and not till then, may we 
think of the technique of the higher industries. 

The public-school training of this people should be primarily a Sunday-school 
training; a moral training, given by those to whom morals mean more than 
■words. This training the whites must give financially and, in large measure, 



522 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1900-1901. 

personally; for there are not enough properly qualified teachers of the negro race 
to do' this work. In the midst of peace and opportunity we now see daily from 
this race spontaneous evidences of reversion to savagery which make us utterly 
distrust the influence and the capacity of those thus far responsible for their 
training. It seems as if every paper adds something new to the catalogue of 
negro crime. 

Their moral training should be supplemented by the three R"s and such simple 
training in agriculture and the domestic arts as all will need. The negro race is 
essentially a race of peasant farmers and laborers, and their education should 
first be directed to improving them as such. 

It is claimed that since education has raised up for this people its own leaders, 
the problem is solved. Far from it. An education that makes leaders at the 
expense of the led is a failure. Every negro doctor, negro lawyer, negro teacher, 
or other " leader " in excess of the immediate needs of his own people is an anti- 
social product, a social menace. Neither in the North, the South, the East, nor 
the West can such a professional man make a living at his calling through white 
patronage; and to give him the ambition and the capacity, and then to blast his 
opportunity through caste prejudice and racial instinct, is to commit a crime 
against nature. Nature made the white man and the black; it made the natural 
and unaltei'able prejudice between the two races; and hence the crime lies at the 
door of him who knowingly attempts the impossible. In equal measure what is 
true of the professional man is true of every trade and calling in which the 
negro's natural qualifications are not first considered. As a source of cheap labor 
for a warm climate he is beyond competition; everywhere else he is a foreordained 
failure; and as he knows this, he despises his own color. When a race is in such a 
condition that every paper issued by its educated class carries advertisements of 
nostrums openly claiming to produce such changes in hair and skin as will make 
the black man less a black, what are we to think? When its reading, and hence 
its higher, class give such patronage as to maintain these advertisements in their 
papers year after j'ear, what would you give for the influence on them of any 
"leader" whose skin and hair bore, in however slight a degree, the same racial 
stain? The very solution of the negro problem is a part of the white man's burden. 

But it is asked. How are we to continue to educate the negro at all and avoid 
future political ti-ouble? In answer I say: Base his franchise upon a property 
qualification, and give him for once a legitimate stimulus to work. He has never 
been offered an attainable ideal before. To-daj' the partly educated black, jail- 
bird or i)reacher, looks with contempt upon the negro whose only forte is honest 
work and accumulation. Let us change this and make the taxpayer and not the 
politician the racial ideal. The temptation to spend is inherent in the human 
race; to learn to save is to cultivate man's highest power, the power of inhibition. 
When a man can hear and obey any '-thou shalt not," monetary or moral, he is 
improved as a citizen. The Jew has had this mandate longer than any other race, 
and he is the greatest of all accumulators and the least criminal of races. The 
negro is the most criminal, and he needs the mandate. 

One truth about the trouble with our negro ballot in the past is instructive. 

The poor white, in competition with negro labor, has had to work his children 
to live. The negro, easily underliving him, was able to use this same white man's 
taxes in the i^ublic school, and hence has given his children the rudimentary 
knowledge now necessary to vote. This is fast making a reading, voting, paujjer 
class of blacks and an illiterate, working, taxpaying class of whites. Which of 
these classes has most interest in the State and most right to be heard? This 
political paradox must be changed, so changed that it will still allow us to work 
for the salvation of the negro. With an educational suffrage, the first step toward 
improvement— education — is the first act in a political feud. Let us be done with 
it and be free to help him and make him help us. 



EDUCATIOK IN THE SOUTH. 523 

As for ciirselves, let us go back to the old rule of the South and be done forever 
with the frauds of an educational suffrage. Let us break up the game that pro- 
duces political professionalism. Let us return to the political status we had when 
we furnished the men of America. In national politics also let us strive for truth 
and consistency. We can not be high and mighty in the Philippines and high and 
holy in Cuba and maintain the respect of the world. It is now more than a gen- 
eration since the war. and our fanatical altruists have posed long enough. Let 
us see that the hypocrisy that now ties our hands in Cuba is the last act of the 
comed}^ We of the South are by heredity the expansionists of America; and as 
we must expand, let us strive to be honest expansionists. Let us boldly say dollars 
in lieu of duty and land in lieu of liberty. 



NEGRO EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH— A REPLY TO DR. BARRINGER'S 

PAPER. 

By Julius D. Dreher, 

President of Eoaiiokc CoUetje. 

The education of the negro in the South, taken in its broadest sense, is the most 
difficult problem before the American people to-day. It is not a simple, but a 
complex problem. If it were simply to provide good schools for the colored j^eo- 
ple, the task would tax the wisdom and resources of the South, but we have to 
deal with the more difficult question of so ediicating the negroes that their rela- 
tions to the white people may be finally so adjusted that both races may live 
together peaceably on a just economic and political basis. In any serious discus- 
sion of this problem we may as well take it for granted— 

(1) That the negroes will remain in the South; 

(2) That the fifteenth amendment will remain a part of the Constitution; and, 
consequently, 

(3) That the negro will remain a voter. 

We are confronted, therefore, with a great humanitarian problem, which is also 
economic and political, and which, while being national, is also in a peculiar 
sense a Southern problem. How shall we so educate the negro as best to develop 
his manhood, make him a valuable economic factor, and fit him for intelligent 
citizenship? 

After more than thirty years of effort in trying to solve our problem we all 
agree that it was a grave mistake to suppose that with a ballot in his hand and a 
book under his arm the negro could make substantial progress simply by acquir- 
ing a certain amount of knowledge in ordinary schools. We believe that it was 
also a mistake to establish at first so many institutions of higher education, a large 
proportion of these being called universities. But the negro has had thirty-five 
yeai's of freedom, during which he has made considerable progress in ac(iuiring 
education and property, so that it would be a greater mistake to assert to day that 
he does not need higher education at all. If we think for a moment how many 
ignorant teachers and preacher.s are trying to instruct the negroes, we shall be 
quick to recognize their need of many more educated men and women than are 
now to be found among them. In order to advance in civilization everj' race 
needs educated leaders— concrete examples of what the best of the race may aspire 
to be; but what the negro certainly does not need is a class of educated idlers who 
wish to live simply by their wits. 

It seems to me that for many years to come the education of the negro should be 
of a very practical character, such as is given, for instance, at Hampton, and Tus- 
kegee. The prevalence and increase of crime throughout our country may well 



524 EDUCATION REPOET, 1900-1901. 

cause us to suspect that our system of education for the white people might also 
be improved by introducing more of the practical and industrial into our public 
schools. As almost every line of industry and business is open, at least in the 
South, to the competent of both races, there seems to be no need for a radical dif- 
ference in the education of the masses of the tv70 races. It might be well to give 
more attention to moral and religious (not sectarian) instruction in all our schools. 
As to the ' ' Sunday-school training " advocated by Dr. Barringer, that should be 
left mainly to the negro churches; but I believe it would be a distinct advantage 
to the negroes at present if they had more white teachers in their Sunday schools 
and also in their other schools. 

As the white people own nearly all the property, and as the negroes are mainly 
laborei's on farms, the education of the latter should be to as large an extent as 
possible industrial and i^ractical, in order that they may the more readily make a 
living and improve their mode of living. Little can be done to elevate any people 
until they begin to acquire property and independence, until they become self- 
supporting and self-respecting, as we have learned from our costly experience with 
our Indian tribes. We must teach the negro the value of steady habits, so that 
he may become a reliable workman; the necessity of economy, so that he may 
gradually acquire property; the importance of raising the standard of his social 
and domestic life, so that his character may be improved, and the need of education, 
in order that he may be fitted for intelligent and patriotic citizenship. The low 
standard of living among the negroes tends to depress the price of labor, and thus 
in j uriously affects the white workman . Wherever there is a low standard of living 
and of morals among the colored people the white people suffer from it; and if in 
any part of our country there is marked improvement in the general condition of 
the weaker race, the stronger race will be favorably affected by such progress. 

If in any line of industry the negroes bring sharp competition to bear on white 
workmen, it is not a matter to be wholly deplored on account of the latter, for this 
very competition v/ill cause them to become more efficient in their trades, and effi- 
cient labor, as we all know, is a crying need of the South. If there is danger that 
the white mechanic may be displaced by the better- trained negro mechanic, let us 
not for that reason give the latter less industrial training, as suggested by Dr. 
Barringer, but rather let us provide the same sort of education for the white man, 
and then let there be an open field for fair competition on the basis of merit. It 
is to be hoped that our Southern people will not discredit their own profession of 
interest in the negro by shutting against him doors of opportunity for making a 
living as has been done at the North, where his position and inferior advantages 
and opportunities to better his condition are so discouraging as to account largely 
for race deterioration and crime. If odds are to be given in the race of life, indus- 
trial and political, surely the Anglo-Saxon with his centuries of education, achieve- 
ment, and accumulated advantages will not be so lacking in chivalry, generosity, 
and Christian spirit as to ask odds at the expense of a weaker race, which is only 
now fairly setting out, with uncertain step but steady purpose, on the ample high- 
way of a larger freedom and higher civilization. 

In the solution of our problem the fortunes of both races in the South are 
involved. We must help to lift the negroes up or they will drag us down. As 
the Republic could not exist half free and half* slave, so no Commonwealth can 
long prosper with one half of its citizens educated and the other half illiterate. 
We must convince our people that no investment pays better dividends than 
that in brains. In Massachusetts, for instance, where the best educational facilities 
are freely provided for all classes alike, the average price of a day's labor is more 
than double the average price in the Southern States; and, although that Common- 
wealth is the most densely peopled in the Union, the census just taken shows that 
its population increased more than 35 per cent in the last decade, while that of Vir- 
ginia increased less than 13 per cent. In the South every effort should be made to 



EDUCATION IN THE SOUTH. 525 

lengthen the school term for the children of both races, and we ought to hear 
nothing more of that unwise and unpatriotic suggestion to divide the school fund 
between the races in the proportion of taxes paid by each, a proposition against 
which I am happy to know that Dr. Barringer protests. 

The more education and property the colored people acquire the better for the 
State, for they will thus become more valuable citizens. If the negroes of Virginia 
had as much property per caput, and as high an average in intelligence and educa- 
tion as the white people, does anyone doubt that the State would be immensely 
benefited? And if we could to-day lift up the entire colored population in the 
South 100 per cent in property, education, character, and general civilization, 
would we not be far on the way toward the solution of our problem? That prob- 
lem, as well as all the other problems of humanity, must be solved, if solved at 
all, by the power of religion and the right sort of education. 

After a somewhat careful study, I have come to the conclusion that the negroes 
are generally more eager to educate their children and improve their condition in life 
than are the middle and the poorer classes of white people. The self-denials and 
sacrifices of colored parents to educate their children would make a story at once 
pathetic and inspiring. The present able State superintendent of schools in Geor- 
gia told me nearly two years ago that he had frequently used with good effect the 
example of the negroes when he was urging white people to take more interest in 
the education of their own children. 

We who have spent our lives in the South, and especially those of us whose 
experience and observation antedate the civil war, know well how much the con- 
tact of the white people did to civilize the negroes during slavery. Wherever this 
contact brought the races into relations of closest sympathy and interest, the best 
results were produced. As educators we know that unless a teacher has the con- 
fidence of his pupils, he can do little more than instruct them from the text-books, 
while the more important work of molding character is scarcely touched. So in 
adjusting the relations of the races in the South, mutual sympathy and confidence 
are as much needed as education from books and in trades. The negro is natur- 
ally influenced more by the acts and example of the white man than by his words. 
In working out our problem it is of the highest importance that the negro should 
trust the white man as a friend and well-wisher, and that the latter should set an 
example of absolute fairness and justice in all his dealings, as well as in making 
and executing laws. The blighting results of reconstruction left a wide political 
gulf between the races. To bridge that gulf should be the aim of the statesman, 
teacher, minister, editor — of every true patriot of both races in public or in private 
station. 

It must be counted as unfortunate, therefore, that recent legislation in several 
States has seemed to justify the negro's belief that the white people are unwilling 
to do him justice; and it is also to be deplored that in so many cases of all sorts of 
crimes mols of white men in all parts of our country have trampled law under 
foot by undertaking to do what should be left to the calm deliberation and deci- 
sion of courts and juries, after the evidence on both sides has been duly pre- 
sented and considered. Such examples of injustice in making laws and of lack of 
respect for laws on the statute book hinder the good work of establishing and 
maintaining harmonious relations between the races, and thus far render the 
solution of our problem still more difficult. Example is more powerful than pre- 
cept. Lawlessness breeds lawlessness, hatred begets hatred, revenge incites to 
revenge. If we sow the seeds of wrong and injustice, of hatred and revenge, of 
cruelty and brutality, we can not expect to reap the fair fruits of Christian 
civilization. 

If it be true, as Dr. Barringer asserts, that "a distinct generati^^n is coming 
withan hereditary intelligence sharpened by adversity, but with their very mother's 
milk they have drawn in a hatred of the negro race that is a hate infernal," then 



526 EDUCATIOlSr REFOET, 1900-1901. 

it is high time to do missionary work to save the civilization of the white people 
of the South. Such hatred is no part of our religion, and has no place in our civi- 
lization. And if white people are growing up with such diabolical hatred of the 
negro, what answer do you expect this " man with the hoe "' to make to such a 
challenge in the next generation? But I do not believe that Southern mothers are 
teaching such bitter hatred to their children, and it is difficult for me founder- 
stand why Dr. Barringer makes such a bold assertion. It eeems to me to have 
little, if any, foundation to support it; and if I did not know that his creed is that 
of the stern orthodoxy of the Presbyterian Church in the South, I would suspect 
that he had been reading Universalist books and had thus been persuaded to 
adopt a much milder idea of things infernal; or else we must charitably stippose 
that when Dr. Barringer speaks of "a hatred of the negro race that is a hate 
infernal,'' he is simply indulging in superfluous rhetoric. 

As one deeply interested in all the facts bearing on our problem, I wish Dr. Bar- 
ringer would produce some proof to substantiate also the statement that " we now 
see daily from this race spontaneous evidences of reversion to savagery." White 
men occasionally act like barbarians in America, as they have been recently act- 
ing also in China and elsewhere, but we do not believe for that reason that the 
race is reverting to savagery. Neither do I believe it about the negroes. 

At the present time, when the negro is being eliminated as a political factor, it 
may seem inopportune to si:>eak of educating him as a voter; but I am discussing 
this question in the firm belief that it can not be settled by temporary makeshifts 
of doubtful morals and still more doubtful expediency. "Whether it takes one 
century, or two, or five, to solve this problem, we may be sure of one thing, and 
that is that it will never be settled by injustice. The truth may be so obscured 
now as to be only dimly apprehended by people in the South, but it remains true 
that it is the chief glory of our country that it is great enough to give equal rights 
before the law to all classes of its citizens of whatever race or condition. If it be 
taken for granted that the suffrage has been made too free throughout our coun- 
try, it must, nevertheless, be admitted that at the present stage of the negro's 
advancement whatever restrictions are placed on the elective franchise, whether 
of education, or property, or both, should apply with equal justice and fairness 
to the voters of both races alike. And it should be borne in mind that it is a far 
wiser policy to fit men for intelligent citizenship than to disfranchise any consid- 
erable number on account of illiteracy or poverty. For as James Russell Lowell 
so pertinently says in his address on democracy: " It may be conjectured that it is 
cheaper in the long run to lift men up than to hold them down, and that the bal- 
lot in their hands is less dangerous to society than a sense of wrong in their 
heads," 

Our Southern people, with their love of fair play, will not long tolerate laws 
which put a iDremium on the intelligence of the negro and on the ignorance of the 
white man — laws which incite the former to make the utmost efforts to qualify 
himself for the intelligent exercise of the elective franchise, and which encourage 
the latter to remain in a state of chronic apathy with regard to education. A law 
which in the letter discriminates against the negro and which has an ' ' understand- 
ing clause " by which it is intended that he shall be further discriminated against 
at the ballot box according to the whims of the officers in charge is a discredit to 
any civilized State that pretends to legislate on a basis of equal justice to all its 
citizens. Such laws operate to the injury of both races. The negro is profoundly 
discouraged in his efforts to educate and improve himself; ne resents the injustice 
done to him and still further distrusts the white man, while the latter loses respect 
for laws which permit such injustice. Already from Mississippi and Louisiana 
we are hearing reports of alarming apathy among the white voters, indicating 
that there is little iwlitical life in those States. As a matter of fact, the election 
returns of last fall show that there is one Congressional district in West Virginia 



EDUCATION IN" THE SOUTH. 527 

and others in various Northern and Western States in each of which more votes 
virere cast than in all the Congressional districts together in either Mississippi or 
Lonisiana. 

We have happily passed the period when negro domination was possible any- 
where in our country. Any State in the South could now pass laws of absolute 
fairness to restrict the suffrage without the least risk that the evils of the recon- 
struction period would ever be repeated. Hence it is our plain duty, as well as 
good political policy, to treat the negro with sympathy, justice, and absolute 
fairness, and to condemn in individuals or States anything like duplicity, chican- 
ery, and injustice in dealing with them. 

Let us not forget that the negroes are not to be blamed for their present situa- 
tion. They did not come to America of their own accord; they were i)atient and 
submissive through generations of slavery; and the}' had little to do in gaining 
their freedom. Instead of taking partin the struggle which involved their freedom, 
the slaves, as guardians and protectors of the families on the plantations, exhib- 
ited a faithfulness to their trust which should entitle them to the lasting gratitude, 
kind consideration, and patient forbearance of the white people of the South. 
The suffrage was thrust upon the freed negro when he was wholly unprepared to 
appreciate and discharge such grave responsibilities; and, in spite of his mistakes 
and blunders, it should be said in justice to him that in his political life he has 
been rather sinned against than sinning. But he is learning. His political illu- 
sions, with others, have been dispelled by the stern logic of events. He now real- 
izes that the road to manhood and character and independence is a long one, and 
the journey painfully tedious; that there are no short cuts, and that he must at 
last work out his own civilization as the Anglo-Saxon gained his, through centu- 
ries of effort and struggle and conflict. We can not, however, turn a deaf ear to 
this last child of the centuries in his appeal for all the help and encouragement 
we can give him. 

The negro is now our trust, our charge, and our burden. We dare not be faith- 
less to that trust. We should not forget that the white man's burden will become 
even heavier in the coming years if he withholds his sympathy and help from the 
black man in his efforts to lift up himself and his race. We dare not do him 
injustice by any policy of industrial or political repression or suppression, and we 
can not afford to degrade our Anglo-Saxon manhood by hating or wronging onr 
weaker brother in black. By as much as we are superior to him in civilization, 
by just so much are we under the greater obligation to help the less favored race" 
in every worthy endeavor for moral, social, and inaterial progress. Whatever 
may be the fate of the negro in the future, we should not shrink from the respon- 
sibility of doing our duty manfully in the present; and if we do the right as God 
gives us to see the right, we may with unfaltering faith leave the consequences to 
that gracious Providence which has blessed our nation through all the eventful 
years of its history. 

For right is right, since God is God; 

And right the day must win; 
To doubt would be disloyalty, 
To falter would be sin. 



DISCUSSION. 

By H. B. Frissell, 
Principal of Hampton Institute. 

I approach the discussion of the subject before us with a certain reluctance, for 
1 realize that there are men in this audience and on this platform who know much 
more about this problem than I do. For though I have lived in Virginia for many 
years, I am not to the manner born. I realize that this is a Southern mans prob- 



528 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1900-1901. 

lem; that if it is to be worked out at all he is to do it, and that we of the North 
can only help. If I have any fitness for the task it is because I have had such 
good teachers. For years I have sat at the feet of Dr. Curry, whose grand work 
in the cause of common-school education is known to you. I am glad of a chance 
to express publicly to-night my sense of obligation to him for the sympathy and 
help that he has rendered Hampton. I take no such dark view of the relation of 
the races as Dr. Barringer does. I have lived in Virginia for twenty years. Dur- 
ing all that time I have worked alongside of Southern white men, most of them 
mechanics, and I do not believe that the average Southern white man hates the 
black or that there is any danger of a race war. Most of our shops at the Hamp- 
ton school are in charge of Southern white men, and I have never fonnd a more 
loyal, devoted body of men, or men more interested in the improvement and uplift 
of the negro j^outh. I should be glad if I had time to tell you stories showing the 
pride that these white men take in the progress of their black proteges. ; 

I live in a community where the blacks largely outnumber the whites, and where 
both whites and blacks receive the highest wages that are paid in any part of this 
State. There is the least possible friction between the two races. It may be that 
I am not an unprejudiced witness in this matter of the relation of whites and 
blacks, for I have been connected with a negro school that has received continually 
the strongest evidences of sympathy and interest from the governor and superin- 
tendent of instruction down to the plainest citizen of the State. Year after year 
the Senators and Representatives of this State have pleaded in the Halls of Con- 
gress for an appropriation for Indians. Through Dr. Curry, that eloquent apostle 
of education for every man, white or black, the school has received generous 
approijriations from the Slater and Peabody funds, and from every part of the 
country have come assurances of kind feeling. It is not easy under such circum.- 
stances for me to believe in race hatred or race wars. ♦ 

Some years ago there was a suggestion that the school's industries, which are 
quite extensive, were interfering with the industries of the town. It was pro- 
posed by the citizens, and cordially seconded by the school authorities, that a com- 
mittee of the senate and house of delegates be sent down to investigate the matter. 
A hearing of three days was given in the county court-house. Witnesses were sum- 
moned from every walk of life — merchants, mechanics, and farmers — white and 
black. There was not a single case of a man who wished the school withdrawn. 
Not only was it shown that the school was bringing thousands and tens of thousands 
of dollars into the town, not only did merchants show that their trade was largely 
helped by this negro school, but one white contractor after another testified that 
he had gotten his first start in his business in helping to erect some one of the 
school's sixty buildings. The farmers testified as to the better stock and machines 
and the improved methods of farming which the school had brought into the com- 
munity. From every class there came the most cordial witness to the fact that 
the school was not only not a hindrance but a great help, not only to the blacks 
but to the whites. They showed what I firmly believe to be always the case, that 
just as one finger can not be fattened without tlie others, so you can not lift up 
one portion of a community without lifting up all of it. 

The report of the joint committee of the senate and house of delegates is one of 
the strongest campaign documents that the school has ever received. In it Judge 
Cardwell and his associates say: "The institute has been a great benefit to this 
county and to Hampton, giving employment to a large number of citizens, white 
and colored, bringing annually tens of "thousands of dollars to the community. It 
has been one of the means of building up this part of the State; population has 
increased, every branch of business has been made more prosperous, and, indeed, 
it is a self-evident fact that the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute has 
spent a vast amount of money in the community, bringing great benefit to all classes 
of citizens." 

This testimony as to the value to all classes of the proper education of the blacks, 
and the kindly relations resulting from it. comes from some of the wisest lawyers 
and business men of this State. But similar testimony to that given in regard to 
Hampton has been given in the case of the schools started by its graduates all over 
the South. Booker Washington was a graduate from Hampton, and started a 
school on the same plan in Tuskegee, Ala. We have sent 50 of our graduates to 
help him carry it on. In his autobiography, which is just appearing in the Out- 
look, he bears witness to the uniform kindness shown him and the school by every 
class in that community. He was called to make the chief address at the opening 
of the Atlanta Exposition and was cheered to the echo. I much doubt if there is 
any white man in the South more cordially loved and honored by the whole South 
and the whole country than this black son of Hampton and the Old Dominion. 
I What Mr. Washington has done at Tuskegee in a large way, hundreds of Hamp- 
ton graduates have done all through the South in a small way. I went not long 



EDUCATIOlSr IN THE SOUTH. 529 

since to the town of Lawrenceville, in Brunswick County, in this State, where a 
Hampton graduate has started an industrial school. I met the leading white phy- 
sician of the place. He told me that he was the school physician, and commended 
the work. I found that the leading lawyer of the place was the school's treasurer. 
Every white man in the town whom I met had only pleasant words to say of this 
colored teacher who had started in the black belt of Virginia a smaller Hampton. 

I couM take you to certain counties in this State where not many years ago the 
blacks bore no part of the burden of taxation, but to-day are paying one-fifth of 
the property tax. I could take j'ou to counties where crime is reduced to a min- 
imum and the relations between the races are of the pleasantest. There has been 
an increase of the land holdings of the blacks in the country districts of Virginia 
of nearly one-third in the last six years. Hampton has sent out between five and 
six thousand young people since its founding. So far as we can find out there has 
been only one' of them behind the bars, and there has been absolutely no complaint 
of unkind treatment by the whites. 

What has been true of Hampton graduates has been true of the blacks that 
other schools have sent out. The leading citizens of Winston>Salem, N. C, have 
helped a young colored man to start a school, a model black colony, and a farm. 
They have themselves subscribed generously, and have done all in their power 
to improve the blacks. When I was last in their beautiful city they told me that 
in that black community of hundreds of souls there had never been an arrest made 
or a legal paper served. That shows what can be done when Southern white men 
really take this negro problem in hand. Prof. .Jerome Dowd, a professor in Trin- 
ity College. North Carolina, in an excellent article in the December Century, on 
"Paths of Hope for the Negro," says: " The field is broad enough for both races 
to attain all that is possible for them. In spite of the periodic political conflicts 
and occasional local riots and acts of individual violence, the relation between the 
races iu respect to nine-tenths of the population are very friendly." 

1 have watched with great interest for the last ten years the labor problem 
being worked out near my home, in one of the largest shipyards in the world, 
where whites and blacks labor side by side. There have been fewer strikes and 
less labor trouble in that great yard, with its thousands of workmen, than in 
almost any yard of its size in the world. Instead of the blacks pulling down the 
wages of the whites, the wages paid to both are the highest in the market. In an 
undevelox'ed country like the South, which needs all the labor that it can possibly 
obtain, with vast tracts of land waiting to be cultivated, with untold resources of 
iron and coal to be developed, the last thing to be feared, it seems to me, is a race 
labor war. I have traveled largely in the South; I have talked with all classes of 
men. The one thing that faces planters and manufacturers is scarcity of labor. 
The planters tell me that their men are drawn off to the mines and the railroads. 
The wage of the laboring man, both white and black, is rising, and that means 
prosperity for both races, but especially for the white man. 

The Hon, John Temple Graves pleads eloquently for the removal of the blacks. 
But whenever there is a hint of the removal of any of them there comes the loudest 
protest from every class in the community. Not long since a movement was made 
in one of the agricultural counties of Georgia to take away the blacks. The 
planters begged that the exodus be stopped, declaring that if it went on they would 
be ruined. A friend of mine tried to move a colony of blacks from Alabama and 
Mississippi to Mexico. He declared to me that the greatest difficulty he had to 
encounter was the opposition of the Southern white man. The trutla is, people 
all over the world are turning their eyes continually toward the Southern negro 
laborer, realizing what many a Southern man has told me, that the blacks, when 
properly treated, are the best laborers in the world. Shrewd, long-headed Ger- 
many has asked Booker Washington to send some of his men to raise cotton in 
South Africa. In the December number of the International Monthly, Mr. Wash- 
ington says that within the last two months he has received letters from the Sand- 
wich Islands, Cuba, and South America asking that the American negro be 
induced to go to these places as laborers. In each case, as he says, there would 
seem to be an abundance of labor already in the places named. It is there, but it 
seems not to be of the quality and value of that of the negro in the United States. 

In the testimony given recently before the United States Industrial Commission, 
again and again Southern white men have stated in the most emphatic language 
that the negro is the best laborer that the South has ever had, and is the best the 
South is likely to get in the future. 

We have been hearing much of late to the effect that the negro is dying out, 
that he is thoroughly criminal, that education ruins him, and that he is altogether 
valueless as a laborer. The census seems to show that he has increased from 
four to nearly ten millions since the war, that he has accumulated nearly a billion 

ED 1901 34 



530 EDUCATIOIT REPORT, 1900-1901. 

dollars' worth of property of his own, and that as a free laborer he raised four 
times as much cotton in J 899 as he did as a slave in 1850. 

Is it quite just to say ot this people that it "stands at the door of the South a 
criixiinal beggar? " It is not strange that in the demoraiization following emanci- 
pation crime should have increased, that the negro should have often confused 
freedom with license and thought that it meant freedom from labor, that the 
negro father and mother should have had little idea of family life or of the proper 
way to train thoir children, but the suggestion that education is the cause of 
crime, or that an increase of intelligence in any part of the community is harmful 
is certainly not to be entertained in this home of Thomas Jeiferson. 

Mr. Washington has received fx-om 300 prominent Southern white men answers 
to tiiese questions: 

1. Has education made the negro a more useful citzen? 

2. Has it made him more economical and more inclined to acquire wealth? 

3. Has it made him a more valuable workman, especially where thought and 
skill are required? 

Nine-tenths answered all three questions emphatically in the affirmative. A 
few expressed doubt; only one answered no. 



REPLY 

By Paul B. Barringeb. 

[By previons.arrangeinent Dr. Dreher and Dr. Frissell replied to Dr. Barringer's paper, and 
in reply to Dr. Fris-sell's criticism of the words " criminal beggar," Dr. Barringer presented the 
following statements.] 

A few years ago a balance sheet for the blacks and whites of Virginia stood as 
follows : 

For negro criminal expenses $204, 018 

For negro education _ _ 324, 364 

For negro lunatics - -., 80,000 

Total negro expenses 608, 383 

ToLal negro taxes , 103, 565 

Annual loss to Virginia on account of negro 504, 817 

The above report was made by the State auditor, and was quoted in Hoffman's 
Race Ti'aits and Tendencies, page 301. It will bo seen from it that the annual 
net loss on the negro population of this State (Virginia) is over a. half a million of 
dollars, and that the total negro taxes paid is even less by |100,000 than the sum 
annually expended by the whites to repress negro crime. 

Secondly, Br. Barringer called attention to the report of the Virginia Peniten- 
tiary for 1899, where there were among the State convicts only 404 whites as 
against 1,694 blacks, giving on the basis of population negro criminality as 7.4 
times greater than the white. The latest reports of the State penitentia,ries from 
Maryland to Texas show about the same results, rising to 9.4 and 8 in Georgia, 
wliere progressive muuieipal administration draws the negro to town, and falling 
as low as 5.4 in Mis-sissippi, where the negroes live in the country, and v/here 
white domination and negro disfranchisement are most complete. 

These facts. Dr. Ba.rringer stated, warranted him in making this clear state- 
ment of the situation. 



CHAPTER XVL 

THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 

By Kelly Miller, 

Professor of Mathematics, Hoioard University. 



TOPICAL OUTLINE. 

PART I.— THE ECONOMIC BASIS OF NEGRO EDUCATION. 

I. The Educational Significance of the Growth and Tendency of the Negro 

Population. 

The growth and spread of the negro popnlation in the United States. The bulk remains in 
the South. Localization of national problem calls for national aid. Slight tendency toward 
North and West. Mixed schools in North and West. Dwindling of race in border States. 
Social isolation the cause. Difficulty of maintaining adequate separate school system for sparse 
negro element in border States. Decline of negro population in Kentucky. Black belts of the 
South. Area in which negroes are more than twice as numerous as whites. Area and relative 
density of region in which negroes are in the majority. Causes tending to perpetuate black 
belts. The social and educational problems of black belts. 

II. Early Struggle for Education, Personal Risk, and Economic Sacrifice. 

The negro's desire to taste of the forbidden tree of knowledge. How Frederick Douglass 
learned to read and write. The experience of John M. Langston. Regulations in the several 
Southern States against the instruction of the negro. Negro schools in the large cities. The 
colored schools of Wa.shington, D. C. Kind-hearted slave owners who taught their slaves to 
read. Negroes attending school in slave States, 1S50 and 1860. The establishment of negi'o 
schools by Freedmeu's Bureau and other agencies. The negro ever eager and anxious to learn. 

III. Separate School Provisions. 

Establishment of public schools by reconstruction governments. Laws and regulations of 
the several States establishing separate schools for the two races. Density of population of 
white and colored elements. The effect of division of school fund where population is sparse. 
Equal provision for both races. Total and per capita cost of education of the two races. Sources 
of public-school funds. The extent to which negroes ijay for their own schooling. General 
educational statistics showing school population, enrollment, number of teachers, average salary, 
and length of school term for the two races. 

IV. Negro Owners and Tenants of Farms and Homes. 

Negroes who own and hire their own homes and farms, and negro property owners in Georgia, 
North Carolina, and Virginia. Unsupported assertions as to support of negro schools. The 
Democratic purpose of public schools. White and negro population in slave States. Number of 
negi-oes who own and hire their homes and farms. Reuters are bona fide taxpayers. Negro 
property holders in Georgia, North Carolina, and Virginia. Ownership of corporate enterprises. 

V. Occupations of Negroes. 

The negro as a contributing factor to the industrial life of the South. Persons engaged in 
gainfiil pursuits. Occupations of white and negro women. Negro agi'icultiiral laborers, farmers, 
planters, and overseers. Negro laborers acquiring self- direction. Negro employed mainly in 
agriculture and domestic service. Few employed in the trades or in the arts. Domestic service 
the chief employment in the border States. Education should be directed to industrial condi- 
tions. Persons employed during portion of the year. The negro the most important industrial 
factor in the South. His labor the basis of production and accumulated property. 

731 



732 EDUOATIOlsr EEPORT, 1900-1901. 

VI. Special Studies of the Economic Condition of the Negko. 

The importance of the studies undertaken by the Labor Bureau. The negroes of Sandy 
Springs, Md. The negroes of Farmville, Va. Negroes in the black belt (six groups). The city 
negro. Economic lesson derived from these special studies. Negro spends and is spent for the 
good of the several communities in which he resides. He is everywhere a contributing factor. 

VII. The Education of the City Negro. 

The relative status of the urban and rustic negro. City and country school provisions in the 
South. Negro city schools fairly well equipped. The practical aim of education not fulfilled. 
The adaptation of school program to the needs of the negro race. Special features of negro 
schools. The importance of kindergarten training. The large function of negro education. 
Negro teachers must awaken moral enthusiasm. The necessity for training in concrete things. 
The need of practical judgment. Baleful effect of smattering. Industrial training. The city 
negro a servant and bodily laborer. The predominance of the female element influences city 
schools. The negro shoiild be taught concerning himself and the condition of his race. The 
city schools are centers of light for the entire race. 

PART II.-THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 

I. The Intellectual, Capacity of the Negro. 

The negro regarded as an inferior order of creation. Higher susceptibilities denied, since 
they were not needed. Ill usage and proscription based upon innate inferiority. Intellectual 
manifestation the highest measure of the man and the race. The negro able to master Euro- 
pean courses of study. Relative capacity of the races. Arguments and testimony to uphold 
negro's claim. Why the negro has not produced great names in the intellectual arena. Charge 
of Thomas Nelson Page. Plea of Thomas Jefferson. Intellectual glory depends upon social and 
political status. Distribution of ability in America. The intellectual position of women analo- 
gous to that of the negro. The negro has shown surprising intellectual exuberance. 

11. The Need of the Higher Education. 

Knowledge is its own reward. The negro must connect with civilization in its best form and 
at its highest point. Education must assist evolution. Choice youth must assimilate culture 
and hand it down to the masses below. Contact with superior race can not produce civilization. 
Education will foster self-reliant activity and teach the impersonal quality of knowledge and 
virtue. The negro has to compete with white youth and needs the same helpful influence to 
prepare him for his work. The higher education necessary to produce leadership. The evil of 
poorly equipped leaders. Historical example of race development. Backward races perish for 
want of competent leadership. The culture influence of the ancient languages. Higher educa- 
tion discriminates between the real and the apparent. It gives a larger tolerance for existing 
conditions. It fosters and stimulates industrial activities. 

Ill Objections to the Higher Education of the Negro Answered. 

The money spent on higher education has been wasted. Education has not eradicated the 
negro's evil and criminal disposition. Higher education lifts the negro above the needs of his 
people. The negro is leaving the farm and shop for the college and the university. Education 
has not solved the race question. 

IV. The Relative Claims of Industrial and Higher Education. 

The two phases of education not antagonistic, but supplementary. The white people believe 
that the negro's place is to work. Philanthropist's interest in helping the most needy. The 
negro's view of the question. It would be useless to equip large numbers of colored men with 
trades in the cities. The white laborer will neither compete nor combine on equal terms. The 
value of industrial schools. The educational impulse proceeds from above. Life is more than 
meat. Agricultural and domestic education. The need of knowledge to direct. 

V. The Higher Education op Colored Women. 

The weaker element of the weaker race. The attitude toward the higher culture of women 
in general. Analogy between the cause of women and that of the negro. The lowly status of 
colored women. The power of education to reach and to uplift her. Home life the base of the 
real advancement of the race. The education of the colored women should be mainly industrial 
and domestic. Room for the ambitious few. Number of colored women who have graduated 
from Northern and Southern colleges. Examples of successful college-bred colored women. 
Their work in the future. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 733 

VI. The Origin of the Negro College. 

The educational status of the negro before the war. Toleration in Northern colleges. Ober- 
lin College invites negro students. Intellectual darkness at the close of the war. The North- 
ern missionaries came as angels of mercy. The educational work of Freedmen's Bureau. Rise 
of denominational educational movements. The reconstruction government. The State col- 
lege. Date of f oimding of negro colleges. 

VII. "Work, Ways, and Future of Negro Colleges. 

The old and the new function of the negro college. Rivalry between public and private 
schools. Negro universities largely secondary and primary schools. A college should measure 
up to standard. Requirements of admission and curricula of negro colleges. Relative influence 
of white and colored teachers. State schools imder control of colored men. Small productive 
resources. Colleges are too numerous. Extravagant abuse of literary degrees. Occupations 
of graduates of negro colleges. Their religious and philanthropic activity. Leaders in the 
learned professions. Captains of industry. The future of the negro college. What they have 
done and what they are calculated to do. Sensible modification and adaptations needed. 

VIII. The Negro in Northern Colleges. 

The benefits and disadvantages of mixed schools. What makes an institution great. The 
existence of negro colleges does not estop colored students from attending Northern institu- 
tions. The negro college gives the negro racial enthusiasm. It develops negro scholarship 
by giving negroes a chance to develop beyond graduation. It does not put a damper upon his 
self-respect. Northern colleges do not contemplate the needs of the negro race. Northern 
institutions can not be relied on to take a considerable number of colored students. Negro 
colleges do not perpetuate prejudice. Negro graduates of Northern colleges. 

IX. Colored Men in the Professions. 

The element of society from which professional men usually come. The rise of the colored 
clergy. The negro teacher. The negro lawyer and physician. Early negro practitioners. 
Statistics of professional occupations. 

X. Negroes who have Achieved Distinction along Lines Calling for Definite 

Intellectual Activity. 

The individual the proof of the race. The African in contact with the European has pro- 
duced distinguished names. Sources of information. Phiilis Wheatley, Benjamin Banneker, 
H. O. Tanner, Paul L. Dunbar, and others. 



PART I.— THE ECONOMIC BASIS OF NEGRO EDUCATION. 

I. The Educatioxal Significance of the Growth and Tendency of the 
Negro Population in the United States. 

Popnlatiou lies at the basis of all human problems. All progress, development, 
and civilization are merely emergencies from man in the mass. A persistent group 
of people, however lowly its present state may be, contains all the potential pos- 
sibilities of the human race. The development and expansion of population, there- 
fore, afford the surest measure of advancement. 

The one striking feature about the American negro is his physical persistence 
and expansion. The half million Africans who were imported into this country 
from their native land have so multiplied and ramified as to complicate every factor 
in the equation of American life. The negro element in the United States to-day 
exceeds the entire population of ninety years ago. The negro is found in every 
State and Territory, in almost every town and hamlet, ranging in relative density 
from fifteen to one in the black counties of the South to less than one in a hundred 
in the higher latitudes. This widespread distribution among the white population 
gives an African flavor to local and national problems. No question can be con- 
sidered on its merits apart from its bearing upon the black man and brother. 
Religious, political, industrial, and educational problems all take on racial color 
and tinge. 



734 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1900-1901. 

Of all uplifting agencies one would say that education is the common lever, i 
applies alike to all without regard to ethnic considerations. And yet the edu 
tion of the negro constitutes as urgent a special problem as any that confronts 1 
American people for solution. A study, then, of the distribution of the negro e 
ment among the general mass of the population is essential to a clear understand 
ing of the educational needs of the situation. It is only by this knowledge tha 
we can locate the area where the need is greatest and where the call for agencies 
of enlightenment is loudest. A localized Imowledge of the negro peoples will also 
enable the educator to adapt plans and methods to the requirements of a variant 
situation. No greater mistake can possibly be made than to suppose that the entire 
negTorace requires one fixed and inflexible programme of treatment, with no varia- 
tion to meet local and special conditions. A race of 9,000,000 souls, scattered over 
so wide a geographical area and endowed with divergent aptitudes and capacities, 
encompasses the entire circle of human needs. 

There are four phases of the negro population which entail important educa- 
tional consequences. 

(1) The movement toward the Northern and Western States, where there are no 
separate schools, places a portion of the race on the same educational footing with 
children of European descent. A broad distinction, therefore, must be made 
between the States which divide the schools on racial lines and those which do not. 
Owing to the relative density of the negro population in the two sections, the scho- 
lastic separation of the races follows quite closely the line of cleavage between the 
slave and free States. The half million negroes in the Northern States constitute 
no special educational problem. 

(2) The tendency of population to drift into cities presents important educa- 
tional suggestions. This tendency is no doubt due, in part, to the better school 
facilities which the cities afford. The million negroes in the large centers have 
fairly adequate and ample educational facilities. The South is too poor to pro- 
vide adequate schools for the population sparsely scattered over the rural area, 
and especially so under the policy of separate instruction for the two races. But 
in the cities, where the population is dense and where the wealth is amassed, the 
conditions are much more favorable. Nor does the duplication of schools work 
such an economic hardship; for where there are sufficient numbers of both races 
to maintain the schools with a full complement of pupils there is little waste in the 
dual system. The education of the city negro will be treated in a separate chapter. 

(3) The thinning out of the African element in the border States, where separate 
schools exist for the two races, must eventually raise the question of the feasi- 
bility of maintaining an independent system of schools for so sparse a population. 
In the State of Missouri 150,000 negroes scattered throughout the State wovild 
demand in equity almost as many schools as 16 times as many whites, and on a 
corresponding scale of cost. Oftentimes there are not enough negroes in a whole 
county to supply children for a single school, and yet these few children may be 
scattered over four or five hundred square miles. This is merely suggestive of the 
special educational problem of the border States. 

(4) The segregative tendency of the negro population to lodge itself in certain 
sections of the Southern States localizes what might otherwise be a national prob- 
lem. If this black mass were equably diffused throughout the country, the 
problem, in its educational aspect at least, would lose in intensity what was 
gained in extension. But the stubborn tendency of this mass to settle into knots 
and ganglia where the institution of slavery planted it most thickly emphasizes 
the pressing need of special remedial agencies. The condition of the negro in 
these congested localities and the utter inadequacy of local provision call more 
loudly than anything else for national aid to popular education. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



735 



A detailed study of the negro population will bring these problems more clearly 

to light: 

Negro population of tlie United States. 



Year. 


Colored 
popula- 
tion. 


Decennial 
increase. 


Per cent 
Increase, of total 
per cent, popula- 
tion. 


1790 


752,208 
1,0(K,037 
1,377,808 
1, 771, 656 
3,338,642 
3,873,648 
3,638,808 
4,441,830 
5,391,000 
6, 580, 793 
7, 470, aw 
8,840,789 






19.27 


1800 


344,839 
375, 771 
393,848 
556,986 
545,006 
765, 169 
803,023 
949,170 

1, 189, 793 
889,247 

1,570,749 


33.33 
37.50 
28.50 
31.44 
33.44 
26.63 
23.07 
31.37 
33.07 
13.51 
18.35 


18.88 


1810 


19.03 


1820 . 1 


18.89 


1830 


18.10 


1840 - 


16.84 


ISiiO . - ..-,... 


15.69 


1800 


14.13 


18701 


13.84 


1880 


13.12 


1890 - 


11.93 


1900 - 


11.57 







1 Estimated by Gen- Francis A. Walker. 

If we begin with 1810, the first census year after the constitutional abolition of 
the slave trade, we see that the growth of the negro element followed the ordinary 
laws of population, viz, a gradual decline in the rate of increase. In 1810 there 
were 1,377,808 negroes in the United States. In eighty years this number had 
swollen to 7,470,040. It more than quintupled itself in eight decades. The relative 
decline of the African element as a factor of the general popiilation is due to the 
influx of foreign white immigration. Seven hundred thousand negro females in 
eighty years produced a progeny of 7,000,000. The African is without question 
the most prolific element in America. The race will not only persist as a physical 
factor of the American people, but its natural increase will be sufficient to per- 
petuate the race problem in unabated force. This fact suggests the wisdom of 
immediate action, in so far as the problem will yield to ascertained methods of 
treatment. To delay is not only dangerous, but is expensive as well. While it is 
conceded on all hands that the negro has made wonderful strides in education, yet 
there are probably more illiterate negroes in the United States to-day than there 
were in 1860. The additive difficulties keep fully abreast of the agencies of relief: 
If national aid to education had been extended ten years ago there is no doubt that 
some of the phases of the race problem v/ould have been much nearer solution than 
they are to-day. Procrastination to-day will only add new comx^lications for 
to-morrow. ' 

Negro population of the United States, by slave and free States. 



State. 



Alabama 

Arlcansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia- 
Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky .-. 

Louisiana 

Maryland- 

Missouri 

Mississippi -. 

North Carolina 



1890. 



678,489 
309, 117 
28, 386 
75, 573 
166, 180 
858, 815 
268, 071 
5.59, 193 
215, 657 
150, 184 
743, 5.59 
561,018 



1880. 



600,103 
210, 666 
26, 443 
59, 596 
126, 090 
725, 133 
271,4.51 
483. 655 
310, 330 
145,350 
656, 291 
531,277 



1870. 



475,510 
123, 169 
23,794 
43,404 
91,689 
.545, 142 
232, 210 
364, 210 
175, 391 
U8, 071 
444, 201 
391,650 



1860. 



437, 770 
111,259 
21, 627 
14,316 
62, 6V7 
465, 698 
236,167 
3.50, 373 
171,131 
118,503 
437, 404 
361,523 



1850. 



345, 109 

47,708 

20, 363 

13,746 

40, 343 

.384, 613 

220, 993 

263, 271 

165. 091 

90, 040 

310, 808 

316,011 



1 Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro, by Frederick L. Hoffman, which was 
published in 1896, predicted the rapid decline of the American negro through the operation of 
inherent degenerative agencies. This work at the time attracted wide attention. The Twelfth 
Census has progressed far enough to show the utter erroneousness of Mr. Hoffman's conclusions. 
For answer to Mr. Hoffman's argument see Occasional Papers No. 1, American Negro Academy. 



736 EDUCATIOK REPOET, 1900-1901. 

Negro population of the United States, by slave and free States — Continued. 



State. 


1890. 


1880. 


1870. 


1860. 


1850. 




688, 934 
430, 678 
488, 171 
635,438 
32,690 


604,332 
403, 151 
393, 384 
631, 616 

25,886 


415,814 
333, 331 
353, 475 
512,841 
17,980 


413,320 
2a3, 019 
183, 921 
548,907 


393, 944 




245, 881 




58, 558 




520, 861 














6,889,153 


6,104,253 


4,538,882 


4,315,614 


3, 433, 338 








1,190 
614 

937 
22, 144 
7,393 
13,303 
70,092 
47, 638 
107,596 


1,451 

685 
1,057 
18,697 
6,488 
11, 547 
65, 104 
38, 853 
85,535 


1,606 

580 

934 

13,947 

4,980 

9,668 

52,081 

30,658 

65,294 


1,327 
494 

709 
9,603 
3,953 
8,637 
49,005 
25,336 
56, 949 


1,356 




530 




718 


Massaclin setts 


9,064 


Rhode Island . . 


3,670 




7,693 




49, 069 




34,046 




53,636 








269,906 


229,417 


179, 738 


156,001 


149, 763 








87,113 

45,215 

57,028 

15,223 

2,444 

3,683 

10,685 

150,184 

373 

541 

8,913 

49,710 


79,900 

39,228 

46,368 

15,100 

2,702 

1,564 

9,516 

145,350 

401 


63,213 

24,560 

28, 762 

11,849 

2,113 

759 

5,763 

118,071 

94 


36,673 

11,428 

7,638 

6,799 

1,171 

259 

1,069 

118,503 


35, 279 




11,263 




5,436 




2,583 


Wisconsin. .. 


635 




39 




a33 


Missouri' .. . 


90, 040 






Soutli Dakota . -... - .. 








2,385 
43, 107 


789 
17,108 


82 
627 












North Central Division 


280,938 


240,271 


155,009 


65, 736 


45, 567 








1,490 

933 

6,215 

1,956 

1,357 

588 

243 

301 

1,603 

1,186 

11,822 


846 

298 

3,435 

1,015 

155 

333 

488 

53 

335 

487 

6,018 


183 
183 
456 
173 

26 
118 
357 

60 

207 

346 

4,273 












Colorado . 


46 

85 






33 






Utah 


59 
45 


50 












30 

128 

4,086 






207 


California 








Western division ., ,. 


27,081 


11,853 


6,380 


4,479 


1,240 






Total free States 


580, 888 
6,889,152 


476,540 
6,104,253 


341,137 

4,538,882 


336,316 
4,21.5,614 


196,570 




8, 432, 238 






United States 


7,470,040 


6, 580, 793 


4,880,009 


4,441,830 


3,628,808 







1 Included in slave States. 

This table shows that the tendencj^ of the race is to settle in the Southern States. 
Notwithstanding considerable waves of immigration toward the North, 92 per 
cent of the race is still found in the South. Nor is there the slightest intimation 
that the mass center of the race will be disturbed by the northward movement. 
The dust may fly, but the solid earth will remain. Notwithstanding the influx of 
negroes toward the liberal States since emancipation, the increment in the free 
States from 1860 to 1890 had scarcely more than kept pace with the growth of the 
general negro population. All rivers run into the sea, and jet the sea is not full. 
This suggests the inability of the colored race to maintain itself in a higher lati- 
tude. But whether this inability is due to the rigidity of the climate or the fri- 
gidity of the social atmosphere is not apparent. The essential fact, however, 
remains. The Northern States are not likely to receive the negroes in such num- 
bers as to relieve the South of its congested condition. It is often suggested as 
remarkable that the negro does not rush to the freer conditions of the North as a 
gas from a denser to a rarer medium. There civil and political rights are guaran- 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NECIKO. 



737 



teed, and educational privileges are ample and free alike to all. Why a peopla 
should prefer to remain in a region of repression, where their children must per- 
force be brought up without ample educational equipment, when they might 
remove many of these disabilities by crossing an imaginary line, might seem to be^ 
a great sociological mystery. But there are other deterrent causes that hinder. 
The negro is essentially a conservative race. It would rather bear the ills it has 
than fly to those it knows not of. The industrial proscription of the North is 
scarcely less depressing than the political suppression in the South. In the New" 
England States, where the sentiment toward the negro is freest, there is evinced 
the least tendency to immigration. In all New England there are fewer negroes 
than can be found in the city of New Orleans. The increase of the negro element- 
in the North Atlantic States from 18G0 to 1890 was 73 per cent, or only 3 per cent- 
above the general growth. The movement toward the West has been more gen- 
eral, but even this has not been marked enough to indicate a shifting of the base 
of population. A glance at the table showing the growth of the negro population 
by geogra-phical divisions is sufficient to enforce the truth of this statement. 

Negro population of the United States by geographical divisions. 





1890. 


1880. 


1870. 


1860. 


Increase- 

from 1800 

to 1890. 




7,470,040 


6,580,793 


4,880,009 


1,441,830 


3,028,210 








6,889,152 


6,104,253 


4,538,882 


4,215,614 


2,673,538- 








269,906 

280,938 

30,054 


229,417 

240,270 

11,853 


179, 738 

155,009 

6,380 


156,001 

65,736 

4,479 


113, 90& 




215, 193- 




25,575 






Total in free States . 


580,888 


476,540 


»tl,137 


326,216 


354,673 







' Missouri is taken out of the column of the North Central States and placed with the slave 
States. 

The above table shows that the increment in all the free States for the three> 
decades from 1880 to 1890 was only 354,672, against 2,673,538 in the slave States. 
The entire negro population in the free States has remained constantly less than, 
the colored element in the State of Alabama. 





1890. 


1880. 


1870. 


1860. 


Negroes in — 


678,489 

580,888 


600,103 
476,540 


475, .510 
341,137 


437,770 




226,316 







There is no mistaking the tendency of the bulk of the negro population to 
remain in the Southern States. The fascinating attractions of the North allure 
them not. The educational as well as the general sociological problems growing 
oiTt of the presence of the negro must be -jvorked out in the South, where the black 
man is destined to abide. As the localization of a national problem places too 
great burden on the afflicted States, the General Government should lend a hand 
toward wiping out the national reproach. 



ED 1901- 



47 



788 



EDUCATION BEPORT, 1900-1901. 
Negro population in border States. 



States. 



Delaware 

Kentucky 

Maryland 

Missouri 

Tennessee 

Virginia 

West Virginia . 

Total 



1860. 



21, 
236, 
171, 
118, 
283, 



1,379,354 



1870. 



23, 794 
233, 310 
175,391 
118,071 
333, 331 
514, 841 

17, 980 



1, 391, 618 



1880. 



36, 443 
271, 451 
310, 2:50 
145, 350 
403, 161 
631,616 

35, 886 



1,714,136 



1890. 



28,386 
268, 071 
215, 657 
150, 184 
430,678 
635, 438 

33,690 



1,761,104 



Increase 

from 1860 

to 1890. 



363, 770 



the table shows that throughout all this region the race increase in thirty- 
years was only 363,770, or 26 per cent, while the negro population at laige 
increased during the same period 70 per cent. This slight apparent increment is 
due almost wholly to the growth of the city element. The rural negro in this sec- 
tion is growing scarcer and scarcer. If we could separate portions of West Ten- 
nessee, southeast Virginia, and southern Maryland, where the negro population is 
relatively dense and where its increase -is normal, from the rest of the section 
under discussion, the tendency would be greatly accentuated. 



Per 



cent of negro population in border States frovi 1860 to 1S90, shoiving its rela- 
tive decline. 



States. 



1860. 


1870. 


1880. 


30.43 


16.82 


16.47 


26.36 


23.46 


32.49 


10.03 


6.86 


7.16 


27.07 


25.63 


26.14 


34 


49 


41 


4 


4 


4.1 



1890. 



Kentucky 

Maryland 

Missouri 

Tennessee 

Virginia 

West Virginia 



14.42 

21.07 

5.61 

34.37 

38 
4.3 



We see that there has been a rapid relative decline throughout this section. In 
Kentucky the negro element declined in thirty years from 30 to 14 per cent and in 
Missouri from 10 to less than 6 per cent of the total population of the State. 

Absohite decline of negro pop>ulation outside of cities in the border States from 

ISSO to 1S90. 



States. 



Outside of — 



Decrease. 



Delaware 

Kentucky 

Maryland , 

Missouri 

Tennessee , 

Virginia 

West Virginia . 



1 city... 
3 cities . 
Icity... 

2 cities . 

3 cities . 
3 cities . 



358 
13, 186 
7,961 
5,333 
6,910 
6,807 
1 6, 801 



1 Increase. 

If we except a few cities, we see that there has been an absolute decline throu-gh- 
out the border region, except in West Virginia, which has had a great influx of 
negroes, owing to special industrial conditions which prevail. The reason for this 
tendency is not hard to seek or far to find. Where the negro is sparsely scattered 
among the white population, he is made painfully conscious of his isolation. He 
pines for con,sort with those of his color and kind. There are no schools for his 
children, or churches to meet his religious aspirations, or organizations to satisfy 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



739 



his social desires. He is shut up to the dull routine of toil and can get only such 
social relaxations as the cold tolerance of his white neighbors may accord him. 
He is really in social cai^tivity and pines for those communities where a more con- 
genial environment prevails. The result is he either rushes to the cities or leaves 
the section for those communities where society is more congenial. The same 
tendency is noticeable in the Northern negro, or, rather, in the Southern negro 
who goes to the North. Although he comes from the farm, with whose life and 
methods he is tolerably well acqiiainted, he rarely seeks agricultural work in his 
new home, but goes to the cities, where he may affiliate with others of his race. 
The growth of negro churches in the North is significant of the same tendency. 
Wherever two or three dozen negroes meet together in a Northern community, 
there a colored church springs up among them to meet, in a large measure, their 
social needs and aspirations. This tendency is not to be marveled at, for the con- 
sciousness of kind is a strong incentive in all races. The Anglo-Saxon, with the 
spirit of enterprise, goes to the utmost ends of the earth to dwell among all kinds 
and conditions of men. but he never loses touch with the higher life of his race 
and is determined to live above the social level of the peoxDle among whom he 
dwells. He is a^so inspired by the hopa of gaining a competency, so as to return 
to the congenial environment from whence he came or of making his new envi- 
ronment congenial by bringing it under control of his own race and its higher 
institutional life. If, however, he had to live like the negro, below the level of his 
social environment, with no conceivable outlook, he would doubtless pine as does 
the negro, and at the first opportunity fly to more congenial companionship with 
his own race and color. 

Whatever maj' be the cause and its justification the effect remains the same. 

Ill order to bring more prominently to light the serious educational problem that 
this movement in the population entails, let us notice a few typical counties in a 
single border State. 

Negro population of certain counties of Kentucky from 1860 to 1890. 



County. 



Adair 

Bath. 

Boyle 

Butler 

Carroll 

Clay 

Edmonson 

Floyd 

Grant 

Hancock- 

Henderson ... 

Jefferson 

Knox 

Leslie 

Logan 

Magoffin 

Meade 

Montgomery. 

Ohio 

Perry 

Rockcastle . . . 

Simpson 

Trimble 

Webster 





Negro po] 


Area. 






1860. 


1870. 


Sq. miles. 






400 


1,663 


1,836 


270 


2,641 


3,703 


180 


3,714 


3,679 


453 


795 


643 


165 


1,087 


540 


580 


611 


495 


348 


284 


326 


410 


220 


171 


380 


736 


.509 


200 


831 


739 


473 


.5,844 


5,990 


375 


13,311 


19, 146 


350 


673 


557 


420 






544 


6,726 


5,733 


300 


147 


179 


333 


1,954 


1,294 


200 


3,893 


2,699 


610 


1,331 


1,393 


448 


87 


96 


280 


397 


369 


330 


3.4a3 


3, 167 


155 


•-3C 


4.56 


340 


l.lld 


1,355 



2.171 

2; 017 

4,737 

830 

771 

706 

5.55 

199 

733 

803 

7, .572 

25,995 

663 

28 

7,381 

150 

1,274 

3, .566 

1,464 

1.39 

437 

2, 797 

577 

1,666 



1890. 



1,828 

1,.578 

4,809 

773 

757 

413 

458 

151 

483 

758 

8, 233 

33,617 

778 

33 

6,569 

100 

769 

.3,643 

1,346 

160 

155 

3, 374 

331 

1,912 



Number of negroes to square 
mile. 



1860. 



4.1 

9.8 

20.6 

1.5 

6.6 

1.1 

.8 

.5 

3.6 

4.3 

13.5 

33.8 

1.9 



13.3 
.5 
6 

14.4 
3 3 
.2 
1.4 
7.5 
5.3 
3.3 



1870. 



4.5 
10 • 
20.4 
1.4 
3.3 
.8 

!4 
1.8 
3.6 
13.6 
50.1 
1.6 



10.5 
.6 

3.9 
13.5 

3.3 

1^3 

6.8 
3.9 
3.9 



1880. 



5.4 
7.5 

26.3 
1.8 
4.7 
1.3 
1.6 
.5 
2.6 
4 

16 

79.3 
L9 
.06 

15 
.5 
3.8 

17.8 
3.4 
.3 
1.5 
8.7 
3.7 
4.7 



1890. 



4.5 

5.8 

26.7 

1.7 

4.6 

.7 

L3 

.4 

L7 

3.3 

17.4 

86.9 

2.3 

.08 

13 

.5 

2.3 

18 3 

2.2 

.S 

.6 

7.4 

2 

5.6 



Number 

of ne- 
groes to 

lUO 
whites 
in 1890. 



15 
14 
59 
59 

9 

3 

6 

1 

4 

9 

70 

20 

.6 

.8 

30 

1.7 

8 
41 

6 

2 

i.5 

38 

4 

13 



The foregoing table shows the evolution, or rather the retroaction, of the negro 
population in several counties in the State of Kentucky. In order that the coun- 



740 



EDUCATIOISr EEPOET, 1900-1901. 



ties selected might be impartially chosen, every fifth county was taken in alpha- 
betical arrangement. It appears that in 19 out of 24 counties there were less than 
10 negroes to the square mile, and in 6 counties the race did not average 1 to 
the square mile. It is also seen that there has been an absolute decline from 1860 
to 1890 in 12 of the counties, and in 15 from 1880 to 1890, Throughout the counties 
under discussion it will be noticed that the negro element is very thin as compared 
with the white. If we suppose that this relation holds good for the entire State, 
as indeed we have every reason to believe, it will be seen that in two-thirds of the 
counties in Kentucky the negro averages less than 10 persons to the square mile, 
and in one-third of the State the average is less than 1 negro to the square mile. 
Not only is this true of Kentucky, but equally, or rather to a greater degree, will 
it hold for Missouri, and to a lesser extent, perhaps, for the other border States. 

These States are pledged to the maintenance of separate schools with equal 
facilities for both races. How this can be done for the less numerous element of 
the population at a reasonable cost is the special ediTcational problem which the 
border States present. 

The growth and expansion of the so-called black belts in the South possess great 
sociological significance. Although our modern statesmanship has not consciously 
set apart a land of Goshen for the abiding place of the sable sojourners, neverthe- 
less, this land is establishing itself by the sheer force of racial gravitation. The 
tendency of the negro population to cluster about black centers notwithstanding 
the operation of potent dispersive influences has been widely noted and remarked 
upon. A careful study of this population shows that it is solidifying along the 
river courses and in the fertile plains of the South, where it was most thickly 
planted by the institution of slavery. In order to bring this tendency clearly into 
evidence the following tables have been prepared on the basis of the Federal 
censuses. 

Table I shows the number of counties in each State in which the negroes are 
more than twice as numerous as the whites, the aggregate areas of such counties, 
and their progressive changes during the three census decades, 1860-1890. The 
growth of this Africanized area has been remarkable. It increased from 71 coun- 
ties with an aggregate area of 35,732 square miles in 1860 to 103 counties and 
66,084 miles in 1890. While these "black belts "would have covered a territory 
as large as South Carolina at the beginning of the civil war, thirty years later 
they had grown to an area greater than that of all the New England States. 



Table I. — Counties in wMcJi negroes exceed the whites more than tioo to one. 





1860. 


1870. 


1880. 


1890. 


State. 


Number 
of coun- 
ties. 


Area. 


Number 
of coun- 
ties. 


Area. 


Number 
of coun- 
ties. 


Area. 


Number 
of coun- 
ties. 


Area. 




7 

1 

1 

13 

13 
17 

1 
8 


Sq. miles. 

5,863 

760 

910 

6,598 

7, 183 

10,994 

454 

8,186 


11 
3 
3 

14 

14 

15 

2 

8 


Sq. miles. 
8,676 
2,024 
3,793 
7,063 
8,376 
9,292 
1,134 
5,456 


11 

6 

3 

18 

17 

22 

3 

12 

1 

3 

7 


Sq.m.iles. 
8,676 
4,103 
1,510 
7,888 
9,597 
13,037 
1,6.54 
9,343 
630 
3,200 
2,059 


11 
6 
2 
33 
16 
33 
3 

3 

4 


Sq. m,iles. 
8,676 




4,103 


Florida 


1,510 




10, 100 




9,007 




13,757 


North Carolina 

South Carolina 


1,134 

11,699 

630 




2 

8 


3,230 
3,236 


3 
6 


3,300 
1,756 


3,300 


Virginia 


1,318 






Total 


71 


35, 732 


79 


48,568 


93 


62, 707 


103 


66, 084 







THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGHO. 



741 



Table II. — "Black belts" in trJiicJi negroes exceed vJdtes more than tiro to one. 







1860. 






1870. 




States in which the "black belt" 
is located. 


Negro 
popula- 
tion. 


White 
popula- 
tion. 


Negroes 
to 100 
whites. 


Negro 
popula- 
tion. 


White 
popula- 
tion. 


Negroes 
to 100 
whites. 


Alabama 


147.396 
7, .513 
9, 149 
85.298 
129, .568 
210,968 
10,803 
145,839 


52,293 

1,723 

3,194 

ai,331 

3:3,948 

61,382 

4,923 

48,885 


281 
436 
284 
345 
3.52 
342 
219 
298 


220,9.50 
18,469 
34,631 
103, 682 
101,7.54 
179,2.37 
26,483 
164,771 


73,085 
7,940 
11,3:11 
37,809 
40, 730 
60,004 
11,694 
64,294 


315 
233 




305 




271 




248 




298 


North Carolina 


236 




256 






Texas 


9,242 
48,554 


4,047 
20,669 


228 
240 


20, 167 
35,978 


7, 705 
15,989 


264 


Virginia 


325 






Total 


804,329 


265,393 


303 


911,131 


330,581 


276 







States in which the 'black belt' 
is located. 



1880. 



Negro 
popula- 
tion. 



White 
popula- 
tion. 



Negroes 

to 100 

whites. 



1890. 



Negro 
popula- 
tion. 



White 
popula- 
tion. 



Negroes 
to 100 
whites. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Florida 

Georgia 

Louisiana 

Mississippi 

North Carolina 
Soiith Carolina. 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

Total 



274, 

64, 

29, 

193, 

191, 

350, 

66, 

303, 

22, 

33, 

49, 



76, 910 
20,827 
6,219 
76, 131 
55, 890 

101,001 
23, 481 

118,904 

9,633 

12,097 

21,2.59 



368 
309 
476 
254 
341 
347 
296 
255 
231 
266 
234 



28.5,513 

93,398 

26,830 

210,075 

200, 620 

401,639 

33,774 

318, 113 

20, 492 

35, 695 

26,309 



75,fU0 
26, 898 
6,679 
79,806 
.55,925 

110,436 
15, 494 

114, 806 
8,386 
13,116 
11,985 



311 

402 
261 
358 
363 
211 
377 
244 
272 
219 



1,583,244 



531,342 



304 



1,652,458 



517,571 



319 



Table III. — Counties in icliich there are from 100 to SOO negroes to 100 whites. 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Florida 

Georgia 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

United States 



Number of counties. 



1860. 1870, 



166 



170 



1880. 1890 



178 



165 



Population in 1890. 



Negro. White 



106,387 

67,375 

80, 834 

380, 435 

176, 695 

13,201 

191,420 

142,.496 

274,330 

77,209 

36, 895 

251,367 



1,772,614 



81,738 

52,818 

57,631 

278, 863 

120, 435 

11, 8.50 

147,016 

105,115 

184,9.54 

59, 089 

28, .595 

183,905 



1,312,009 



Number 

of ne- 
groes to 

100 
whites. 



130 
127 
140 
136 
147 
119 
130 
135 
147 
130 
128 
137 



i;35 



Table II shows the relative density of the negro population within the area 
described by Table I. There are, on the average, more than three negroes to each 
white person. The negro population is increasing far more rapidly than the v/hite, 
having increased from 3.03 times the white in 1860 to 3.19 times in 1890; and, 
what is, perhaps, more surprising, is the rapid increase of this ratio during the 
census decade 1880-1890, which showed such a marked decline In the general 
increment of the negro population; 1,652,458 negroes, or nearly one- fourth of che 
entire race, were found in these "black belts ' m 1890, against 804,329, or about 
one-fifth of the race, in 1860. 



742 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1900-1901. 

Tables I and II, taken together, show an unmistakable tendency of these " black 
belts " to increase, both in extent and intensity. The probability is that they will 
not only maintain themselves, but will expand with the coming decade. Much 
criticism has been heaped upon the successive censuses on account of alleged 
errors, both of an excessive and defective character; but the discrepant enumera- 
tions do not affect the tendency herein noted. This growth is steady and unmis- 
takable. We can predict with fullest assurance that the twelfth census will 
confirm this general law of growth. 

Table III shows the number of counties in each State in which the negroes are 
in the majority but less than twice as numerous as the whites, together with the 
aggregate population of such counties in 1890, and the number of negroes to eyerj 
100 whites. This area is much larger than that considered in Table I, and has 
remained almost stationary during the decades under consideration. There are 
165 counties and about 100,000 square miles in this region. There are, on the 
average, 135 negroes to every 100 whites. Tables I and III show that the entire 
reo-ion in which negroes are in the numerical majority embraces 268 counties and 
covers an area as large as the North Atlantic division of States. There are 
3,400,000 negroes, against 1,800,000 whites. Nearly one-half of the entire race is 
found within this Goshenized territory. We often speak of the ' ' black belts " as 
being congested, but this miist refer to the constantly thickening darkness and 
not to the absolute density of the population; for, as noted above, these belts form 
an area about the size of the North Atlantic States. The total population is about 
5,000,000, while the North Atlantic States have a population of 17,000,000. The 
average density of the population is less than one-third that of the States in the 
higher latitude. The indications are that the negro will be able to maintain the 
ground already gained, but will not be able to make further headv/ay against the 
" white man's country." 

The opposite tendency in the Southern population is also noticeable. Just as 
the black spots are growing blacker the white spots are growing whiter. The 
line of cleavage seems to take place where the two races are about evenly balanced, 
and the relative densities increase in both directions. In those counties where 
the negroes constitute only a small fraction of the total population their relative 
decline is notable. 

If we turn to the cities, we find the same tendency toward a geographical sepa- 
ration of the races. There are 25 cities with a total negro population of more 
than half a million. A careful study of their distribution will show that they 
are segregated in districts and wards as definitely marked as the "black belts" 
of the South. The politician is as familiar with the black and the white wards 
of ou,r large cities as is a seaman with the depths and shallows of the sea. 

There are several causes which conspire to perpetuate the segregative tendencies 
of the negro population: 

1. Under the social conditions nov/ prevailing the negro is compelled to flock 
with his kind. He is thrown back upon himself by the expulsive pov/er of preju- 
dice. The negro possesses the social instinct in a high degree, and can not endure 
isolation. The thinly veneered tolerance which he receives when scattered pro- 
miscuously among the whites by no means satisfies his longings. He longs for 
his own church and society and forms of social life. 

2. The white population shuns open rivalry or contact with the negro on terms 
of equality. Wherever white men and women have to work for a living, they 
avoid those sectioBS where they have to compete with the negroes; and if indige- 
nous to such localities, they often migrate to where the black rival is less numerous. 
For this reason immigration avoids the "black belts." Whenever a community 
of Northern agriculturists settle in the South, they usually select a white neigh- 
borhood, and, in some instances at least, they have been known to "freeze out" 
the negroes by methods of their own devising. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 743 

3. As manufacturing industry moves southward, the poor country whites will 
be drawn to the cities as operatives and workmen along lines of higher mechanical 
skill, leaving the negro in vast numerical preponderance in the agricultural 
districts. 

These factors operating separately and cooperating conjointly will perpetuate 
the "black belts" of the South and make permanent this modern land of Goshen. 

The political, social, and industrial future of these localities is a matter of serious 
importance. These belts are so distributed among the States that they can not 
maintain political integrity. They do not follow the Atlantic coast line, but are 
only tangential to it at several points, and therefore their commercial importance 
is materially lessened. The negro constitutes a majority in only two States; but 
even in these the white man's superior political sagacity will enable him to main- 
tain governmental control for any calculable period of time. 

The educational, social, and industrial life must be elevated by the negro him- 
self under the stimulus of local and national assistance. It is here that must be 
worked out the future of the race on this continent. The great masses will be 
gathered in these belts or in the corresponding black wards of our large cities, 
from which the volatile particles will fly off in all directions to be dissipated and 
lost. 

It is no reproach to these people to say that if left to themselves they would 
lapse into barbarism. No people, unaided, can lift themselves from a lower to a 
higher level of civilization. It is a social, as it is a physical, impossibility to lift 
one's self by pulling against the straps of one's own boots. But this land of 
Goshen is not to be left alone; there will always be a number of whites affiliating 
with the negroes for purposes of philanthropy or gain. Hampton and Tuskegee 
and Fisk are types of philanthropic helpfulness. There is need of autochthonous 
enterprise. Young men of ambition and education will be forced to such commu- 
nities as a field to exploit their powers. The secret and method of New England 
may thus be transplanted to the South by the hands and brains of sons of Ethiopia. 
It is here that the great educational and developmental problems must be worked 
out.' 

II. — The Struggle for Education — Personal and Economic Sacrifice. 

A full knowledge of the education of the negro can not be had without making 
some reference to the earlier educational efforts. It is well known that .slavery 
discouraged the dissemination of literary knowledge among persons of African 
descent, and, in most cases, this discouragement amounted to a positive prohibi- 
tion. But despite the rigid regulations of the slave regime there were many 
kind-hearted slaveholders who taught their slaves to read and write. Many others 
picked up such knowledge in ways which it is mysterious to comprehend. The 
fact that book information was withheld from the negro made him all the more 
anxious to acquire it. Stolen waters are sweet, and the fact that they are forbid- 
den leads those from whom the privilege is withheld to suspect that they possess 
mysterious efficacy. Such hungering and thirsting after knowledge amid dark 
and dismal discouragements is surely a compliment to the intellectual taste of the 
African. The antebellum struggles of tht free colored people and the more ambi- 
tious slaves to acquire the use of printed characters is almost incomprehensible, 
in view of the liberal educational provisions of these latter days. The experience 
of Frederick Douglass was not without many j)arallels and counterparts. In his 
autobiography he tells us: 

The most interesting feature of my stay here [in Baltimore] was my learning to 
read and write under somewhat marked disadvantages. In obtaining this knowl- 



1 This chapter was written before the figures of the Twelfth Census were available. This 
census, however, in so far as it has been coinpleted, coufirras the conclusions of this chapter in 
every essential particular. See Forum, February, 1903, ''Expansion of the Negro Population." 



744 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1900-1901. 

edge I was compelled to resort to indirections by no means congenial to my nature 
and which were really humiliating to my sense of candor and uprightness. My 
mistress, checked in her benevolent designs toward me, not only ceased instruct- 
ing me herself, but set her face as a flint against my learning to read by any means. ^ 

She would rush at me with the utmost fury, and snatch the book or paper from 
my hand with something of the wrath and consternation which a traitor might 
be supposed to feel on being discovered in a plot by some dangerous spy. The 
conviction once thoroughly established in her mind that education and slavery 
were incompatible with each other, I was most narrowly watched in all my 
movements. If I remained in a separate room from the family for any consider- 
able length of time, I was sure to be suspected of having a book, and was at once 
called to give an account of myself. Teaching me the alphabet had been the 
"inch" given; I was now waiting only for the opportunity to take the "ell." 
Filled with determination to read at any cost, I hit upon many expedients to attain 
my desired end. The plan which I mainly adopted, and the one which was most 
successful, was that of using my white playmates, with whom I met in the streets, 
as teachers. I used to carry almost constantly a copy of Webster's Spelling Book 
in my pocket, and when sent on errands, or when playtime was allowed me, I 
would step aside with my young friends and take a lesson in spelling.' 

Meanwhile, I resolved to add to my educational attainments the art of writing. 
After this manner I began to learn to write. I was much in the shipyard, and 
observed that the carpenters, after hewing and getting ready a piece of timber to use, 
wrote on the initials of the name of that part of the ship for which it was intended. 
When, for instance, a piece of timber was ready for the starboard side, it was 
marked with a capital "S"; a piece for the larboard side was marked "L "; lar- 
board aft marked "L. A."; starboard aft "S. A."; starboard forward "S.F." I 
soon learned these letters, and for what they were placed on the timbers. My work 
now was to keep fire under the steambox, and to watch the shipyard while the 
carpenters had gone to dinner. This interval gave me a fine opportunity to copy 
the letters named. I soon astonished myself with the ease in which I made the 
letters, and the thought was soon present, if I can make four letters, I can make 
more. With playmates for my teachers, fences and pavement for my copy books, 
and chalk for my pen and ink, I learned to write.-^ 

This was the university training of the most illustrious American negro, which 
could be duplicated by thousands of his fellow-slaves Avho remained ' ' mute and 
inglorious." 

A different and less strenuous phase of early educational opportunities may be 
found in the experience of another distinguished colored American, the late Prof. 
John Mercer Langston. Mr. Langston thus recounts the early schooling of his 
brother: 

His father (a Virginia white man), manifesting the deepest interest in him, 
sought by his own efforts and influence to give him such thorough English educa- 
tion, with general information, and mental and moral improvement, as to make 
him a useful man. He [at 7 years] was required to appear for his recitations in 
his father's special apartments the year around at 5 o'clock in the morning.^ 

A second brother was put through the same regime, and John M., though too 
young for definite training when his father died, had ample provision made for 
his education.^ 

These citations represent two phases of negro education before the civil war. 
The one gives a picture of the dauntless, self-impelling determination to gain 
knowledge at any cost; the other, the kind and genial disposition of a father- 
master, in spite of the rigorous requirements of the law. These instances may be 
regarded as typical, and might be multiplied by hundreds and thousands. There 
were also organized efforts for the education of the colored race. Schools were 
established for the free colored people within the limits of the slave territory. 
These were mainly in the large cities. A careful and detailed study of such early 
educational efforts for the several States and cities affords a rich field for interest- 
ing and valuable monographic writing. This chapter attempts little more than to 



1 Life and Times of Frederick Doiiglass, p. 72. 

2 Ibid, p. 74. 3 Ibid, pp. 85-86. 

4 From Virginia Plantation to the National Capitol, by John M. Langston, pp. 19-20. 
=Ibid, p. 30. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGEO. 745 

present some of the hindrances, embarrassments, personal and economic sacrifices 
under which the negro in the slave territory labored dnring the dark daj's of slaverj^ 
in order to secure what he considered the talismanic power of knowledge. 

The Report of the Commissioner of Education for 18S8 contains an interesting 
and exhaustive study upon " The legal status of the colored population in respect 
to schools and education in the different States." As this work is now out of 
print, a recount of some of the antebellum school laws and regulations may not 
be without interest. The sources of information for the following citations are 
the Report just referred to, Williams's History of the Negro Race, Chapter XII on 
Negro School Laws, and R. R. Wright's Historical Sketch of Negro Education in 
Georgia. 

In Alabama the law of 1832 j)rovided that " any person or persons that shall 
attempt to teach any free person of color, or slave, to spell, read, or write, shall, 
upon conviction thereof by indictment, be fined in a sum not less than $250, nor 
more than $oOO." 

In 1833 the mayor and aldermen of the city of Mobile were authorized by law 
to grant licenses to such persons as they might deem suitable to instruct for limi- 
ted periods the free colored creole children within the city and in the counties of 
Mobile and Baldwin, who were the descendants of colored Creoles residing in said 
city and counties in April, 1803, provided, that said children first receive permis- 
sion to be taught from the mayor and aldermen and have their names recorded in 
a boo\- kept for the purpose. This was done, as set forth in the preamble of the 
law, because there were many colored Creoles there whose ancestors, under the 
treaty between France and the United States in 1803, had the rights and privileges 
of citizens of the United States secured to them. 

Arkansas seems to have had no law on the statute book prohibiting the teaching 
of persons of African descent, although the law of 1838 forbade any white persons 
or free negro from being found in the company of slaves or in any unlawful meet- 
ing, under severe penalty for each offense. In 1843 all migrations of free negroes 
and mulattoes into the State was forbidden. 

There was no law expressly forbidding the instruction of slaves or free colored 
people in the State of Delaware until 18G3, when a positive enactment against all 
assemblages for the instruction of colored people, and forbidding all meetings 
except for religious purpor-es and for the burial of the dead, was made. 

While the free colored people were taxed to a certain extent for school purposes, 
they could not enjoy the privileges of public instruction thus provided, and were 
left for many years to rely principally upon individual efforts among themselves 
and friends for the support of a few occasional schools. In 1840 the Friends 
formed the African School Association in the city of Wilmington, and by its aia 
two very good schools, male and female, were established in that place. 

In 1828 the State of Florida passed an act to provide for the establishment of 
common schools, but white children only of a specified school age were entitled to 
school privileges. 

In Georgia the following law was enacted in 1829: 

If any slave, negro, or free person of color, or any white person, shall teach any 
other slave, negro, or free person of color to read or write, either written or printed 
characters, the said free person of color or slave shall be punished by fine and whip- 
ping, or fine or whipping, at the discretion of the court; and if a white person so 
offend he, she, or they shall be punished with a fine not exceeding $500 and impris- 
onment in the common jail, at the discretion of the court. 

In 1833 a penalty not exceeding $500 was provided for the employment of any 
slave or free person of color in setting up type or other labor about a printing 
office requiring a knowledge of reading or writing. The code remained in force 
until swept away by events of the civil war. 

In 1833 the city of Savannah adopted an ordinance that if any person should 
teach or cause to be taught any slave or free person of color to read or write within 



746 EDUCATION BEPOET, 1900-1901. 

the city or who shall keep a school for that purpose, he or she shall be fined in a 
sum not exceeding $100 for each and every such offense; and if the offender be a 
slave or free person of color, he or she may also be whipped not exceeding ;{9 lashes. 

Notwithstanding this severe enactment, there were, nevertheless, several schools 
for colored children clandestinely kept in Augusta and Savannah. The poor 
whites would often teach negro children clandestinely. If an of&cer of the law 
came round the children were hastily dispatched to the fictitious duty of "picking 
up chips." The most noted ne^ro school was opened in 1818 or 1819 by a colored 
man from Santo Domingo. Up to 1829 this school was taught openly. The law 
of that year made concealment and secrecy a necessity.^ 

In Kentucky the school system was established in 1830. In this provision the 
property of colored people was included in the basis of taxation, but they were 
excluded from school privileges. 

Louisiana, in 1830, provided that whoever should write, publish, or describe any- 
thing having a tendency to produce discontent among the free population or 
insubordination among the slaves, should upon conviction be imprisoned at hard 
labor for life or suffer death, at the discretion of the court. It was also provided 
that all persons who should teach or permit or cause to be taught any slave to 
read or write should be imprisoned not less than one month or more than twelve. 

In 1847 a system of public schools was established for the education of white 
youth, and one mill on the dollar upon the ad valorem amount of the general list 
of taxable property might be levied for its support. Prior to the civil war the 
only schools for colored youth in Louisiana were a few private ones in the city of 
New Orleans among the Creoles. 

St. Francis Academy for colored girls was founded in connection with the 
Oblate Sisters, in Baltimore, Md., and received the sanction of the Holy See Octo- 
ber 2, 1831. There were many colored Catholic refugees who came to Baltimore 
from Santo Domingo. The colored women who formed the original society which 
founded the convent and seminary were from Santo Domingo. The Sisters of 
Providence is the name of a religious society of colored women who renounced 
the world to consecrate themselves to the Christian education of colored girls. 
This school is still in successful operation. A colored man by the name of Nelson 
Wells left by will to trustees $7,000, the income of which was to be applied to the 
education of free colored children. The Nelson Wells school continued from 1835 
to the close of the civil war. 

Dr. Bokkelen, State superintendent of education, recommended in 1864 the 
establishment of colored schools on the same basis as those of the whites, and states 
in his recommendation— 

1 am informed that the amount of school tax paid annually by these (colored) 
people to educate the white children in the city of Baltimore for many years has 
been more than $500. The rule of fair play would require that this be refunded 
unless the State at once provided schools under this title. 

By an act of January, 1833, the legislature of Mississippi provided that the 
meeting of slaves and mulattoes above the number. of five at any place or public 
resort or meeting-house in the night or at any schoolhouse for teaching reading or 
writing in the day or night was to be considered an unlawful assembly. In 1846 
an act was passed establishing a system of public schools from all escheats and all 
fines, forfeitures, and amercement from licenses to hawkers and all income from 
school lands. The:e schools were for the education of white youths. 

The legislature of Missouri in 1847 provided that no person should teach any 
schools for negroes or mulattoes. 

In North Carolina until 1835 public opinion permitted the colored residents to 
maintain schools for the education of their children. These were taught some- 
times by white persons, but frequently by colored teachers. After this period 
colored children could only be educated by confining their teaching within the 

1 Negro Education in Georgia, by B. R. Wright, p. 20. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 747 

circle of their own family or by going out of the limits of their own State, in 
which event they were prohibited by law from returning home. The public sys- 
tem of North Carolina declared that no descendant of negro ancestors to the 
fourth generation, inclusive, should enjoy the benefits thereof. 

In 1740, while yet a British colon}-, South Carolina took the lead in directlj- leg- 
islating against the education of the colored race — 

Whereas the having of slaves taught to write, or suffering them to be employed 
in writing, may be attended with inconvenience, be it enacted, That all and any 
person or persons whatsoever, who shall hereafter teach or cause any slave or 
slaves to be taught, or shall use or employ any slave as scribe in any manner of 
writing whatever, hereafter tau.ght to write, every such person or persons shall 
for every such offense forfeit the sum of £100 current money. 

In 1800 free colored people were included in this provision. In 1834 it was pro- 
vided — 

If any person shall hereafter teach any slave to read or write, or shall aid or 
assist in teaching any slave to read or write, or cause or procure any slave to be 
taught to read or write, such person, if a free white i^erson, upon conviction 
thereof shall, for each and every offense against this act, be fined not exceeding 
$100and [suffer] imprisonmentnotmore than sis months: orif a free person of color, 
shall be whipped not exceeding 50 lashes. * * * And if any free person of color 
or slave shall keep any school or other place of instruction for teaching any slave 
or free person of color to read or write, such free person of color or slave shall be 
liable to the same fine, imprisonment, and corporeal punishment. 

And yet there were colored schools in Charleston from 1744 to the close of the 
civil war. 

In 1838 Tennessee provided a system of public schools for the education of white 
children between the ages of 6 and 16, but the colored children never enjoyed any 
of its benefits, although the free colored i^eople contributed their due share of the 
public fund. 

Texas never exiiressly forbade the instruction of negroes, although the harsh 
and severe restrictions placed upon the race made such a ijrovision scarcely 
necessary. 

In 1831 the general assembly of Virginia enacted, among others, the following 
provisions: 

That all meetings of free negroes or mulattoes at any schoolhouse, c'.iurch, meet- 
inghouse, or other place for teaching them reading or writing, either in the day or 
night, under whatsoever pretext, shall be deemed an unlawful assembly. * * * 
If any white person or persons assemble with free negroes or mulattoes at any school- 
house, church, meetinghouse, or other place for the purpose of instructing such 
free negroes or mulattoes to read or write, such person or persons shall, on con- 
viction thereof, be fined in a sum not exceeding $50, and, moreover, may be impris- 
oned, at the discretion of a jury, not exceeding two months. 

It is known, however, that schools for colored children were established and 
maintained in such cities as Petersburg, Norfolk, and Richmond, 

The early educational efforts of the colored people of the District of Columbia 
have been studied with more fullness than those of any other Southern commu- 
nity. He who presents the movement in Baltimore, Richmond, Louisiana, Charles- 
ton, and other Southern centers with as much detail and accuracy will render no 
inconsiderable service to the history of education. 

There does not seem to have been any express law forbidding the education of 
colored people in this District. In 1807 the first schoolhouse for the use of colored 
pupils was erected by three colored men— George Bell, Nicholas Franklin, and 
Moses Liverpool — not one of whom knew a letter of the alphabet. They had been 
former slaves in Virginia, and, like others of their condition, had an exalted notion 
of literary knowledge, A white teacher was secured. From this time to the open- 
ing of the new regime, brought on by the civil war, there was a tolerably adequate 
number of schools, supported mainly by the colored people themselves, but not 



748 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1900-1901. 



without assistance from Northern philanthropy. But that these schools did not 
alwaj-s have plain and smooth sailing may be gathered from the fact that in 1835, 
on account of an alleged indiscreet utterance of a colored resident, colored schools 
were attacked by a mob, some of them burned, and property destroyed, while the 
most conspicuous negro teacher, Mr. John F. Cook, was compelled to flee for his 
life. This outbreak is known as the snow riot. 

Many of the best-known names in the District were both products of and factors 
in these early schools, the most noted of whom, perhaps, is Mr. John F. Cook, who 
subsequently became tax collector of the District of Columbia. For substance, 
dignity, and influence he stands as one of the conspicuous names of the national 
capital, regardless of race distinction. His brother, George F. T. Cook, who was 
both a pupil and a teacher in the antebellum schools, subsequently became super- 
intendent of the colored public schools of Washington and Georgetown, which 
position he held for thirty years. 

This survey has been limited to the Southern or slave States. In the free States 
of the North the negro had a more picturesque and exciting educational expe- 
rience. The Northern States did not expressly forbid the education of colored 
persons, but the hostility to such movements is attested by many a local outbreak. 

It was amid such dangers and difficulties that the negro began his educational 
career. It must not be for a moment supposed, however, that the laws above 
referred to were rigidly enforced. It is known that pious and generous slave- 
holders quite generally taught their favorite slaves to read, regardless of the inex- 
orable provisions of law. Quite a goodly number also learned the art of letters 
somewhat after the furtive method of Frederick Douglass, and in the cities 
schools for negroes were conducted in avoidance, connivance, or defiance of ordi- 
nances and enactments. 

In 1865 there was to be found in every Southern community a goodly sprinkling 
of colored men and women who had previously learned how to read and write. 

The censuses of 1850 and 1860 give the number of free colored people attending 
school in the several States. These figures, for obvious reasons, represent only a 
small fraction of the negroes, free and slave, who were openly or furtively gain- 
ing the elements of literary knowledge. The decline in avowed school attend- 
ance between 1850 and 1860 is dvxe to the growing intensity of feeling which cul- 
minated during that decade. 

Free negroes attending school. 



State. 



Delaware 

Maryland 

District of Columbia . 

Virginia 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 



1850. 



187 

1,616 

i67 

64 

217 

80 

1 

66 
08 



1,319 



1860. 



350 
1,355 

678 
41 

133 

365 
7 
9 

114 
3 

275 



State. 



Texas 

Arkansas .. 
Tennessee.. 
Kentucky .. 
Missouri 

Slave States 
Free States. 

Total .. 



1850. 



20 
11 

70 

288 
40 



4,414 
28,313 



32, 627 



11 
5 

53 
209 
155 



8,661 

23,800 



26,461 



It will be noticed that most of the enactments against the education of the 
negro were made subsequently to 1830. The Nat Turner insurrection and the open- 
ing up of the antislavery campaign in the North had a decidedly reactionary 
effect in the slave territory. 

A people who have made such sacrifice and run such risks for the sake of 
knowledge, who of their own scanty means were ever willing t.o support schools 
for the education of their children, although their property had been taxed for 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 749 

the support of an educational system from which they were excluded, surely 
deserves a larger and fuller draught of that knowledge of which the regime of 
slavery permitted them to gain only a foretaste. The civil war wiped out all of 
these restrictions, and at its close the Freedmen's Bureau, religious and benevo- 
lent associations, and the reconstructed governments of the former slave States 
threw wide open the gate of knowledge. 

The avidity and zeal with which the erstwhile suppressed population seized upon 
the new opportunity furnishes the most interesting chapter in the history of 
American education. Educational opportunities were thus thrown open to a 
people who desired and needed them above all, and who had shown by long and 
persistent endeavor that they were fully worthy and deserving of them. 

III. Separate School Provisions. 

Although the reconstruction governments have been charged with every known 
public sin, yet they have one conspicuous countervailing claim to the everlasting 
gratitude of the South. They established the public school system upon a broad 
and enduring foundation, making provision for the education of all children 
regardless of race or color. The South will search its records in vain for another 
act of statesmanship fraught with so much wisdom and beneficent consequences. 
No one has yet had the temerity to question the wisdom of this one redeeming 
memorial to the hated reconstruction regime. Be it said to the credit of the white 
people of the South, that when they regained political ascendency they undertook 
to strengthen, rather than to upset the educational propagandaoriginated by their 
political foes. 

The avowed policy of the Southern people is that equal, but separate, educa- 
tional facilities shall be provided for the two races. This is with them a funda- 
mental principle, concerning the wisdom of which it would be a mere waste of 
time to contend. It is the most vital clause in their social creed, and has become 
embedded in the fundamental and organic laws of the several States, being as 
fixed and invariable as the laws of the Medes and Persians. The following cita- 
tions will show the imanimity of the several Southern States as to scholastic sepa- 
ration of the races: 

Alabama. — The general assembly shall establish, organize, and maintain a sys- 
tem of public schools throughout the State for the equal benefit of the children 
thereof between the ages of 7 and 21 years: but separate schools shall be provided 
for children of African descent. (School Laws, p. 3. ) 

Arkansas. — Intelligence and virtue being the safeguards of liberty, and the bul-. 
wark of free and good government, the State shall ever maintain a general, suit- 
able, and sufficient system of free schools, whereby all persons in the State, 
between the ages of 6 and 21 years, may receive gratuitous instruction. (School 
Laws, 1897, p. 9.) 

The said board shall make provisions for establishing separate schools for white 
and colored children atid youths. (Ibid., p. 48.) 

District of Columbia. — Separate schools for white children and for colored chil- 
dren shall be provided, (Rules of Board of Education, 1901, p. 1.) 

Florida, — White and colored children shall not be taught in the same school, 
but impartial provisions shall be made for both, (School Laws, 1897, p. 13,) 

It shall be a penal offense for any individual, body of individuals, corporation 
or association, to conduct within this State any school of any grade, public, pri- 
vate, or parochial, wherein white persons "and negroes shall be instructed or 
boarded within the same building, or taught in the same class, or at the same time 
by the same teacher. (Ibid,, chaps, 43-45, sec. 1.) 

Any person or persons violating the provisions of section 1 of this act, by patron- 
izing or teaching in such school shall, upon conviction thereof, be fined in a sum 
not less than $150 nor more than $500, or imprisoned in the county jail for not 
less than three months nor more than six months for every such offense. (Ibid,, 
bee. 2,) 

Georgia. — It shall be the duty of said board of education to make arrangements 
for the instruction of the children of the white and colored races in separate 



750 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1900-1901. 

schools. They shall, as far as practicable, provide the same facilities for both 
races in respect to attainments and abilities of teachers and length of term time; 
but the children of the white and colored races shall not be taught together in 
any common or public school of this State. cSchool Laws, 1897, p. 15.) 

Kentucky. — There shall be maintained throughout the State of Kentticky a nni- 
form system of common schools. * * * It shall not be lawful, under any of 
the provisions of this chapter, for any white child to attend any common school 
provided for colored children, or for any colored child to attend any common 
school provided for white children. (School Laws, 1897, chap. 151.) 

Maryland. — It shall be the duty of the board of county school commissioners 
to establish one or more public schools in each election district for all colored 
youth between 6 and 20 years of age, to which admission shall be free, and which 
shall be kept open as long as the other public schools of the county: Provided, 
The average attendance be not less than 10 scholars for two consecutive terms. 
(School Laws, 1898, sec. 96.) 

Each colored school shall be under a separate board of school trustees, to bo 
appointed by the board of county school commissioners, and shall be under the 
same laws for its government and furnish instruction in the same branches as 
schools for white children. (Ibid., sec. 7.) 

Mississippi. — There shall be maintained a uniform system of free public schools 
for all children between the ages of 5 and 21 years. (School Laws, 1894, sec. 3162. ) 

Separate schools shall be maintained for children of the white and colored 
races. (Ibid., sec. 207.) 

Missouri. — Separate free schools shall be established for the education of chil- 
dren of African descent; and it shall hereafter be unlawful in public schools of 
this State for any colored child to attend any white school or for any white child 
to attend any colored school. (School LaAvs, 1893, p. 17.) 

North Carolina. — The school commissioners shall establish and locate in the 
districts, schools for the white race and schools for the colored race. (School 
Laws, 1897, sec. 2550.) 

South Carolina. — The general assembly shall provide for a liberal system of 
free public schools for all children between the ages of and 21 years. — (Constitu- 
tion, 1895.) 

Separate schools shall be provided for children of the white and colored races, 
and no child of either race shall ever be permitted to attend a school provided for 
children of the other race. (Ibid.) 

Tennessee. — There shall be established and maintained in this State a uniform 
system of public schools. (School Laws, 1895, sec. 1.) 

Nothing in this act shall be so construed as to allow or permit mixed schools of 
the white and colored population, but such schools shall be taught separately, as 
now provided by law. (Ibid., p. 23.) 

Texas. — The children of the white and colored races shall be taught in separate 
schools, and in no case shall any school consisting partly of white and partly of 
colored children receive any aid from the public school ftind. (School Laws, 
1899, sec. 16.) 

All the available public school funds of this State shall be appropriated in each 
county for the education alike of white and colored children, and impartial 
provisions shall be made for both races. (Ibid., sec. 13.) 

Virginia. — White and colored persons shall not be taught in the same school, 
but in separate schools, under the same general regulations as to management, 
usefulness, and efficiency. (School Laws, 1892, sec. 77.) 

West Virginia. — White and colored persons shall not be taught in the same 
school, (School Laws, 1897, p. 17.) 

This separation of races raises important economic questions. It is well known 
that a 'dual scheme of schools covering a sparsely settled territory practically 
duplicates the expense of a unified system. Although race prejudice proves to 
be very expensive, yet the white South is pledged to its maintenance at any cost. 
The wisdom of this policy is not a profitable subject of discussion. The policy 
emphasizes the necessity of outside aid for the education of both classes of 
children. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 
Number of persons to the square mile, 1S90. 



751 



state. 


Total. 


White. 


Colored. 




22.11 
41.81 
36.39 
271. 48 
317.44 
154. 03 
125. 95 
193. 82 
116.88 
























Rhode Island . - 






Colli) ectifut 
















Pennsylvania 












North Atlantic Division 


101.37 














85.97 

105. 72 

3,839.87 

•41.27 

30.95 

33.30 

30.18 

31.15 

7.22 


60. 49 
83. a5 
2, 590. 40 
25. 44 
29. 65 
21.85 
15. 43 
10. 00 
4.17 


14 48 


Maryland 


21 87 




1 249 47 


Virginia . . .. ... 


15 83 


West Virgrinla . 


1 30 




11.45 


South Carolina 


23.74 


Georgia ,. 


14 55 




3 05 






South Atlantic Division .- 


32.98 












North Central States 


29.68 
18. 94 
2. 58 
3S.98 
46.47 






South Central Divisi;m 






Western Division .. 






Missouri 


36.79 
39. 76 


2.19 


Kentucky.. 


6 71 






United States 


21.31 









The accompanying table shows the relative density of the population for the 
several geographical divisions of the United States. It is noticeable that the slave 
States as a group are more sparsely settled than any other section of the country, 
excepting, of course, the far West, with its vast stretches of uninhabited and 
uninhabitable spaces. The difficulty of maintaining a duplicate system of schools 
for such a population is clearly apparent. The inevitable result is inferior scho- 
lastic accommodations and greater hardship on the part of the pupils in securing 
them. Pennsylvania has an average density of 116 persons to the square mile, 
while Georgia has only 31, or, to count the two independent component elements, 
lOA white, and 14^ colored. The State must be covered with a dual sj^stem of 
schools for the accommodation of the two component classes. If the two States 
were equal in proportional financial ability, and if both had a unified system, 
Pennsylvania could maintain far more efficient schools, because of the relative 
density of the pupils to be taught; but when we take into account the relative 
fiscal status and the solidified system in the one, and the bifurcation of funds and 
facilities in the other, the educational po.ssibilities of the two become startingly dis- 
proportional. Georgia and Iowa have approximately the same area and popula- 
tion. The school expenditure for Georgia in 1899-1900 was $1,807,815; for Iowa, 
§8,583,417. The population in both States is mainly rural. And yet Georgia, with 
only one-fourth of the school funds, must do twice the work of its northern coun- 
terpart. The result is inevitable. A dollar will go no further in Georgia than in 
Iowa, and a dollar applied to the education of the negro will accomplish no more 
than one applied to the education of a white child. 

These instances are but typical of the relative educational conditions which 
prevail in the Northern and Southern States. National aid alone can bring the 
latter up to the requisite educational status. 

In the second place these States, by clear declaration or imperative inference, 
are pledged to equal school facilities for both races. The general school fund 
should therefore be apportioned between the races on the basis of relative numer- 
ical strength. The colored element being shorn of political power, is wholly at the 



752 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1900-1901. 

mercy of the whites for the carrying out of this provision. It will be seen also 
that the schools for the less numerous race, provided equal facilities are afforded, 
must be proportionately more expensive than for the race numerically dominant. 
In all the Southern States, therefore, except South Carolina, Mississippi, and 
Louisiana,' the cost of education of the negro would relatively esceed that of the 
whites. Several of the States— notably Maryland, Kentucky, and Delaware — appor- 
tion only that portion of local school taxes paid by colored property holders to col- 
ored schools. The Maryland law requires that "the total amount of taxes paid 
for school ptirposes by the colored people of any county, or in the city of Balti- 
more, together with any donation that may be made for this purpose, shall be 
devoted to the maintenance of schools for colored children.'"^ 

This does not of necessity limit the provision for colored schools to the taxes 
paid by colored people. It is not imperative, but permissory; and in some of the 
counties at least the practice prevails. 

The school laws of Kentucky are more emphatic: "But no tax shall be levied 
upon the property or poll or any services required of any white person for the 
benefit of a school for colored children ; and no tax shall be levied upon the prop- 
erty or poll or any services required of any colored person for the benefit of a 
school for white children."^ 

In the school report for the county of Sussex, Del., 1892, we find the following 
components of the educational fund for the colored race: 

Amount from State $3,783.33 

Unexpended balance for books 114. 93 

Amount of colored taxes 569. 89 

Unexpended balance for salaries 45. 78 

Total 3,513.93 

Reserved for books -. 464. 04 

Balance applied to salaries 3, 049. 89 

The State fund is of course distributed equally according to population, the 
application of taxes frozn negro property holders to negro education applying only 
to county or local provisions. 

In these States we have an indication of the general policy which has sometimes 
been advocated of assigning to colored education only the proportional taxes paid 
by that race. As a matter of fact the educational fund in the South is not equably 
apportioned between the two races except in a few States. The accomiDanying 
table clearly indicates the inequality of distribution: 

Per capita expense of tvhite and colored schools, 1S97-9S^ 



State. 



District of Columbia 

Florida 

Kentucky 

Maryland , 

North Carolina 



Expenditure. 



"White. Colored. 



s $693, 547 

565,405 

6 3,586,033 

3, 388, 731 

7 454,970 



6 §373, 383 
171, 486 

6 333, 333 
330, 383 

' 340, 446 



Estimated number of 
children 5 to 18. 



White. Colored. 



46, 720 

95, 460 

570,000 

373, 700 

387, 600 



35,700 
75,040 
97,500 
78,700 
233,400 



Per capita cost of 
education. 



White. Colored. 



$14. 83 
5.93 

«4.59 
8.76 
1.17 



$10. 64 
3.37 

6 3.34 
4.07 
1.03 



1 The Twelfth Census gives a clear -white majority in Louisiana. 

2 School Laws, 1898, sectino 94. 

3 School Laws, 1897. 

* Report of Commissioner of Education, 1898-99, vol. 1, p. Ixssix et seq. 

^Does not include permanent improvements. 

« 1896-97. 

'Excluding certain sums not classified by race, and a few counties not reported. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



75a 



School expenditure of the sixteen former slave States and the District of Columhia 
approximately cla,ssified by race. ' 



Year. 


Estimated expenditure 
for each race. 


Estimated school 
population for 
each race. 


Expenditure per 
capita of school 
population. 




White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


1870-71 


S9, 605. 158 
11,397,560 
10,133,542 
12,730,938 
16,392,646 
21,24.5,685 
24,432,222 
24, 765, 544 


S780,306 
1, 723 954 


3,236,630 
.1 K17 Asn 


1,578,170 
1,794,870 
2,042,1,50 
2,331,9.30 
3,383,570 
3, .551,. 511 
2,761,205 
3,844,570 


$2.97 
3.18 
2.60 
3.96 
3.44 
4.06 
4.30 
4.35 


$0.49 
96 


1874-75 


1878-79 


2,050,599 3,900,2.'>0 
3,633,533 4 snfi mn 


1 (X) 


1883-83 


1 63 


1886-87 


4,429,323 
5,444,625 
5,011,362 
6,451,935 


4, 7.59, 100 
5,230,115 
5,679,755 
5,828,980 


1 86 


1890-91 


2 13 


1894-95 


1 81 


1897-98 


3 27 






TotaP 


444,769,585 


101,860,661 

















' Report of Commissioner of Education, 1898-99, vol. 1. 

* Specimen items are here presented at intervals of five years in order to show the progressiva 
character of these provisions. The total is taken from the full table as prepared by the Bureau 
of Education. 

These tables show that the per capita expense of the education of the negro 
child is, in the Southern States, at present about one-half of that of the white 
child. In North Carolina the two are nearly even, being $1.17 for the white and 
$1.03 for the colored, while in Florida the proportion is §5.92 to §3.37. The 
encouraging suggestion of these fierures is that the cost of the education of the col- 
ored race has been steadily increasing both absolutely and relatively since 1870. 
In that year the per capita cost of the education of the white child was $3.97 and of 
the colored child $0.49, whereas in 1897 the figures were $4.25 to $3.27, respectivel.y. 
It is but fair to slate that part of the disproportion is due to the fact that the 
schools of the white race represent a higher grade of scholastic attainments and, 
as is well known, advanced courses are more expensive than the elementary 
branches. 

The State, in so far as it controls education, must, by the very nature and theory 
of its function, furnish e^ual accommodations for all of its citizens. The funds 
are the common property of all the people, and therefore should not be appor- 
tioned according to class or race distinction. It is interesting to study the sources 
of these funds as furnishing light as to their justapi)ortionment between the races. 

Sources of public-school funds. 

ALABAMA (1898). 

Balance §42,727.50 

Apportionate 407, 579. 25 

White poll tax. 107,480.86 

Colored poll tax 37,344.77 

Total 595,133.38 

ARKANSAS (1900). 

Amount on hand §570,595.20 

Common-school fund 446, 557. 55 

District tax 805,412.54 

Other sources 19,111.91 

Total income 1,841,677.20 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 

Congi-essional appropriation, one-half being chargeable to the District. 
ED 1901 48 



754 EDUCATIO]Sr report, 1900-1901. 

FLORIDA (1900). 

Cash on hand.. -- $74,608.00 

Interest on State fund 35, 557 . 00 

One-mill apportionment . . 88, 892. 00 

County levies 371,539.00 

Back taxes 68,418.00 

Poll taxes. - 36,432.00 

Back poll taxes ---- 11,396.00 

Examination fees --- 1,967.00 

Nonresident pupils .-. -. ,. 402.00 

School district taxes - --- 40,234.00 

All other sources 24,627.00 

Total income... 754,072.00 

GEORGIA (1899). 

Poll tax - - $238,515.00 

Direct tax 800,000.00 

Eent W. andS. R. R -... 210,006.00 

Liquor tax ,.- 142,452.00 

Inspection of fertilizers 6, 173.00 

Convict lease -.. 24,255.00 

Dividend from stock , - 2,046.00 

Show tax 4,692.00 

Oil fees.. 12,503.00 

Total 1,440,642.00 

KENTUCKY (1896). 

Balance $44,060.76 

Sheriffs' revenue 1,161,055.36 

Interest on old school bonds 79, 620. 00 

Interest on new school bonds 36, 399. 01 

Tax on banks 275,000.00 

Tax on railroads 120,000.00 

Tax on distilled spirits 20,000 00 

Tax on miscellaneous corporations _ 25, 000. 00 

Licenses, fines, etc 245,000.00 

Dividends in banks of Kentucky 5,880.00 

Miscellaneous 30,000.00 

Total. 2,042,015.13 

MISSISSIPPI (1898-99). 

Balance $142,091.89 

Stats distribution 617,780.62 

Polls ., 246,305.67 

Institute fund. 8,279.91 

Sixteenth section 77,712.12 

Chickasaw fund.. 47,492.54 

Special tax for old warrants 164. 20 

County levy 33, 937. 89 

Interest on 3 per cent funds 18, 352.74 

Separate school districts 342,589.47 

Two and 3 per cent fund 3, 699. 90 

Total income 1,538,466.95 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 755 

NORTH CAROLINA (1899). 

Balance ---. §189, 681. H 

State and county poll tax 303,;^13.2r 

General property special tax 483, 8^'6. 44 

Special property local tax ,..- 15, 781 . 35 

Fines, penalties, etc - 14,413.15 

Liquor licenses - - - 71, 122. 36 

Auctioneers - -- -- 1,435.00 

State treasury - -• - 8, 975. 36 

Other sources ^ - - - - - 56, 275. 36 

Total - - 1,059,213.13 

SOUTH CAROLINA (1899). 

Balance $99,131.30 

Foil - 121,383.72 

Three-mill tax. 437,310.09 

Dispensary - 76, 672. 65 

Special levy - - 93,088.49 

Total..- - 827,586.25 

TENNESSEE (1899). 

Balance - - §633,233.06 

From State..- - 157,245.98 

From counties -- 1,407,082.10 

From other sources. — 170,366.21 

Total 2,367,927.35 

TEXAS (1896-97). 

Balance - - $323,879.18 

State appropriation, 1895-96 152,904.20 

State appropriation, 1898-97 2,977,429.60 

Apportionment to towns and cities. 307,660. 96 

Local, county, city, and town taxes 807,600. 19 

Transfer of pupils 24,897.27 

Tuition 41,170.80 

Other sources --. -- -- -. 82,094.66 

Total-.. -.-- 4,717,636.36 

VIRGINIA (1899). 

Statefund $764,282.01 

Direct appropriation by legislature 200,000.00 

Interest on literary fund 47,532.96 

County fund --- - 259,654.44 

City fund 3:i2.352.14 

Other local funds -- 55,462.78 

District fund.. 291,339.20 

Total... - ...-.-. 2,010,623.53 



These figures of nearly all of the Southern States are sufficient to show the 
general amounts and sources of school funds. 

It has recently been urged that the negro pays only a small percentage of the 
cost of his own education, while the great burden falls upon the shoulders of the 
white taxpayer. A study of the sources of the public school funds will throw 
much light upon the theory sought to be upheld in this assertion. The figures for 
the State of Georgia are perhaps more easily analyzed than those of any other State. 
This question was studied by the recent Atlanta conference, with the conclusion 
that the negro, to a much greater degree than is generally supposed, pays for his 
own education, 

"It was estimated that the negroes of Georgia paid during 1899 §26,347.43 in 



756 



EDUCATION REPOST, 1900-1901. 



direct tax and $89,003 in polls, making a total of $115,530.43 paid directly by the 
race for educational purposes. The nature of the indirect taxation of Georgia 
IS such that the negro is, without any shadow of question, entitled to his due 
proportion. 

Western and Atlantic Railroad $210, 000 

Liquor tax .. 142,000 

Convict lease .. 24,255 

Dividend from stocks .. 2, 046 

Show tax.... . 4,693 

Oil tax _..-. 12,503 

"The negro's pro rata share of the school fund raised by indirect taxation was 
$176,898.24, making a grand total of $292,248.67. The expenditure for negro 
schools, including proportional cost of superintendence, was $288,128. This would 
seem to show that the whites of Georgia, at least, do not contribute one cent to 
negro education. 

"On the same basis of calculation, though with confessed lack of definite data, 
the conference shows a like condition of things for the entire South. The negro is 
shown to have contributed in thirty years $104,539,591 toward public education. 
This sum, of course, includes his pro rata share of general funds, such as land 
funds and indirect taxation. The total cost of negro education for the period was 
$101,860,601. 

"Although these figures are given out as tentative, yet there can be no question 
as to the substantial correctness of the conclusion that the negro's education 
imposes no special burden upon the white taxpayers of the South. The wide 
currency and general acceptance of the assertion is but another illustration of the 
ease with which frequently reiterated though unsupxiorted statements concern- 
ing the negro gain currency and credence. " ^ 

General educational statistics. 





School popula- 
tion. 


Eni'ollment. 


Number of 
teachers. 


Average sal- 
ary. 


Length of 
school 
term. 


State. 


6 


13 
? 
O 
o 

O 




CD 

o 
"o 
O 


6 


U 
O 


6 

2 


'6 

o 
o 
U 


03 


'6 

'0 





351,328 

341, 492 

623,554 

93,351 


282, 733 
131,016 
113,555 

68,077 


196,299 
230, 345 
391, 080 
67,077 
162, 460 
263,217 
123,398 


133,915 
84,317 
64,246 
41,797 
196, 839 
127,399 
146,477 


4,773 
5,518 
8,564 
3,084 
4,419 


3,301 
1,441 
1.396 
645 
3,033 


$25.05 


$17.66 


168 


163 
















Florida 


36.81 
30.49 
26.33 


27.67 
19.59 
32.23 


195 


187 








403, 787 


196,600 


=14.06 
36.81 


212.83 




3,000 

7,347 

10,468 


2,003 
1,867 
3,855 


33.63 




566,434 


193,728 














48.45 


46.86 


35.29 


34.85 




397, 162 


268,703 


241, 696 


117,129 



















Days. 



2 Weeks. 



3 Months. 



This table, while not complete, and the figures not being for the same date for 
all of the States, nevertheless gives a fair general impression of the prevailing 
educational treatment which the two races receive. In general, the white schools 
run longer than the colored, there are more white teachers in proportion to the 
population, and they receive higher average of salary. These discrepant arrange- 
ments range from the most glaring disproportions in some States to an almost 
exact equivalence in others. In South Carolina there are 3,000 white teachers for 
123,398 pupils and 2,003 colored teachers for 146,477 negro pupils. The length of 
school term for the whites is 6.81 months and for the blacks only 3.65 months. 



1 Dr. W. E. B. DuBois, Independent, July 18, 1901. 



THE EDUCATIOK OF THE NEGEO. 757 

Although the blacks constitute three-fifths of the population, their educational 
allowance absorbs scarce more than one-fourth the total school fund. In Florida 
the whites have 2,084 teachers for G8,077 pupils, while the blacks are allowed only 
645 teachers for 41,797 pupils. The relative compensation for teachers is $36.81 
and $37.67 per month, and the relative lengths of school terms ninety-five and 
eighty-seven days. On the other hand, in North Carolina, if we make the neces- 
sary allowance for the inevitable differences in the scholastic requirements of the 
two races, the provisions both as to length of term and compensation of teachers 
seem to be equitable enough. In Texas, whose school laws require equal facilities 
for the two races, the provisions are entirely beyond complaint, whether we con- 
sider the relative number of teachers employed, their compensation, or the length 
of school term. While the whites are a fraction ahead, yet this difference can be 
accounted for on other grounds than race discrimination. The white teachers 
average $48.45 per month, while the colored teachers average $46.86, This differ- 
ence is doubtless due to the higher-grade certificates held by white teachers. The 
average term for white schools is 5.39 months; for colored, 4.85. This slight dis- 
crepancy may be effected by the relative distribution and density of the two 
elements of the population. 

On the whole, it appears that while the negro constitiites one-third of the popu- 
lation of the original slave States, the cost of his education is not more than one- 
fifth the total allowance— that is, the educational provision of a colored child costs 
just half as much as that for a white child. 

IV. Negro Owners and Tenants of Farms and Homes. 

The census of 1890 contains a vast deal of valuable information concerning the 
negro race, a careful study of which throws much light upon current educational 
discussion. The negro problem is ever discussed, but seldom sttidied. In no other 
field of serious inquiry do we find siich an extravagance of assertion coupled with 
such paucity of proof. We are expected to accept, without investigation, state- 
ments and solutions born of impatience and haste, although they clearly violate 
easily accessible and accurate data. 

The assertion that the whites gratuitously impose a tax upoji themselves to defray 
the cost of negro education has gained such wide currency and credence as to 
become almost a universally accepted belief. Indeed, it is postulated as an axiom 
in current discussions. But the potency of fact must in the end overcome the 
fascination of assertion. It is, however, a slow and painful process to uproot 
popular prejudice by scientific demonstration. A full and fair presentation of the 
negro as a contributing factor to the industrial and economic life of the South will 
be sufficient proof that his educational privileges are not bestowed as a charity,, 
but are a legitimate part of the friiits of his own endeavor. 

Interesting as such inquiry might be, it is not the purpose of this investigation 
to discuss the theory and function of public education, except in so far as its bear- 
ing upon the present task makes it imperative. 

The public-school system is the most democratic feature of our democratic insti- 
tutions. The obvious object is to produce a higher average of intelligence a.n6. 
good citizenship. It is undertaken and controlled by the State for the general 
welfare. The rich and the poor meet together on terms of perfect equality, and 
the State administers facilities impartially, alike to all. The taxpaying ability of 
the recipient is no more a legitimate factor in popular education than it is in tha 
enforcement of law or the administration of justice. The childless millionaire is 
taxed to educate the progeny of the prolific peasant with as much justice and 
equity as when a tax is imposed upon the exemplary citizen to restrain the vicious 
and the lawless. 

The injection of the negro usually forms a perturbing element in tne sociological 
equation. The social formulas which pass unchallenged among white men lose 



758 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1900-1901. 



much of their force and effect when made to include the negro. This race was 
iniected. without warning or preparation, into the general body politic, and has 
ever since formed a disturbing and irritating factor. At the close of the war the 
negro, as might well be imagined, figured scarcely at all in the roll of taxpayers. 
When, therefore, public schools were inaugurated in the South carrying like pro- 
visions for both races it might have appeared, on first view, that the whites were 
being tased for the education of the blacks. How prone men are to be satisfied 
with appearances without stopping to investigate the underlying principles. It is 
a dictum of political economy that labor pays every tax in the world. The negro 
d:d not, indeed, enjoy the privilege of passing the tribute to the tax taker, for the 
accumulated fruits of his labor were in the possession of another race. 

But does this justly preclude him from sharing in all the public privileges which 
the fruits of his labor make possible? Every laborer contributes his full share 
and more than his share toward bearing the piiblic burden; and even if he did 
not, motives of self-preservation would induce the State to abate no whit in 
its el3fort toward popular enlightenment. The argument that the rich are taxed 
for the education of the poor is seldom heard of outside of communities compli- 
cated with the race question. Who would have the temerity to suggest such an 
argument in New York or Minnesota? 

A Ivnowledge of the extent to which the negro has acquired property, upon which 
he pays taxes directly, or hires it, in which case he certainly meets the taxation 
item indirectly, will do much to correct an erroneous impression. 

White and colored population of the sixteen original slave States, 1890.^ 



State. 


White. 


Colored. 


Per cent. 


White. 


Colored. 




833,718 

818,753 

140,066 

154. 695 

224, 949 

978,357 

1,590,462 

568,395 

826, 493 

544,851 

2,538,458 

1,055,383 

462,008 

1,336,637 

1,745,935 

1,020,122 

730,077 


678,489 
303,117 
28,386 
75,573 
168, 180 
858, 815 
368, 071 
559,193 
316,657 
742, 659 
150, 184 
561,018 
688,934 
430,678 
488,171 
635,438 
33,690 


.55. 10 
73.57 
83.13 
67.14 
57.47 
53.35 
85.57 
49.93 
79.39 
43.35 
94.37 
65.35 
40.13 
75 63 
78.10 
61.60 
95. 71 


44.84 




27.40 




6.85 




33.80 




42.46 




46.74 




14.43 




49.99 




20.69 




57.58 




5.06 




34.67 




59.85 




24.37 




31.84 




38.37 




4.39 






Total — - 


15,549,357 


6,888,153 


69.31 


30.69 







This table shows the number of whites and blacks in the slave States in 1890 and 
their respective percentage as a factor of the total population. As this study is 
concerned primarily with the negro and with the whites mainly as a concomitant 
factor, only persons of African descent are tabulated wherever it is possible to sep- 
arate them from the Indian and Mongolian races. In the report of the Eleventh 
Census, Indians, Chinese, and Japanese are classed with negroes as constituting 
the colored element; but since the aborigines and the orientals constitute no part 
of the negio's educational problem, they are therefore justly excluded from the 
present consideration. The comparatively slight numbers of such non- Aryans do 
not, in general, produce any appreciable effect upon the racial equation between 
Africans and Europeans; but in Louisiana, where the two elements are almost 
equal, they constituted in 1890 the balance of population There were 558,395 
whites, 559,193 blacks, 833 Chinese, 39 Japanese, and 627 Indians. Thus the 999 

I Omitting Chinese, Japanese, and Indians. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



759 



Mongolians and Indians were sufficient to change a negro plurality into an absolute 
minority. 

The negroes were in the majority in two of these States, and if we consider the 
competing races only there would be three States in which this race predominated 
numerically. The per cent of the negro element ranged from 59 85 in South Caro- 
lina to 4.29 in West Virginia. In the entire region there were 15,549,357 whites 
and 6,888,153 colored, the negro element averaging 30.69 per cent. If we omit 
Missouri and West Virginia, where the African element did not exceed 5 per 
cent, the negroes constituted 35 per cent of the remaining fourteen States. This 
territory, with its mixed population, constitutes America's most serious educa- 
tional problem. It is interesting to study the extent to which the negro has gained 
material proprietorship since emancipation. Let us not forget that he began at 
the zero point of materiality. He was emancipated without so much as one day's 
i:)rovision. Being cast upon the cruel current of material rivalry, without expe- 
rience or intelligent self-direction, he has had to drift blindly in the dark, with- 
out compass or pilot. His material accumulations, therefore, should not be judged 
in the light of their absolute value, without regard to the disadvantageous circum- 
stances under which they were acquired. We may regard his preseut ownership 
as an earnest of future acquisitions. 

Number of persons oivning and hiring farms and Jiomes in the sixteen slave States 
and the District of Columbia, 1890. 



State. 


Owners. 


Tenants. 


Aggreg:ate. 


White. 


Colored. 


"White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 




83,774 

89,311 

11, 869 

9,093 

29,479 

90,629 

163,318 

48,660 

68, 619 

61,. 500 

2<34. 674 

118,211 

43,983 

135, 712 

168,983 

100,212 

77,898 


1,5,736 
11,844 

1.364 

3, 132 
10, 649 
20, 005 
13, 877 
14,603 

8, .596 
16, 956 

8,894 
30,010 
21,101 
14.663 
30,880 
29,888 

1,471 


71,119 
67, 796 
17, 491 
20, .533 
17, 179 
96,395 

141,804 
57, 803 
94, .541 
39,939 

233,815 
8.5,474 
44,314 

130,218 

156,084 
91,971 
56, 796 


116, .575 
44, 602 
3,929 
12,167 
22,676 

145.033 
36, 441 
93.768 
a), 291 

122,285 
20, 677 
82, 875 

114,4.50 
63, .532 
64, 961 
83, .516 
4,184 


154, 893 
157, 107 
39, 360 
29,615 
46, (i58 
186,934 
305, 122 
106.462 
ir>3, 160 
101,429 
498, 489 
203 685 
87,296 
255,930 
3;i5.()66 
193, 183 
134, 694 


133 311 




56,446 




5,193 


District of Columbia 


14,299 
33,325 




165, 137 




49,318 




107,370 




38,887 




139, 341 




29.571 




102. 885 




135. &11 




78, 195 


Texas 


85,841 




113,404 




5,655 






Total 


1,565,933 


231,568 


1,413,150 


1,059,991 


3,763,073 


1,291,919 







Percentage of population oicning and hiring farvis and homes, by race, 1890. 



State. 


Ownei-s. 


Tenants. 


Aggregate. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 




10. a5 
10.91 

8.47 
.5.88 

13.10 
9.36 

10.37 
8.71 
8.30 

11.29 

10. 47 

11.21 
9.30 

10.15 
9.68 
9.83 

10.67 


3.33 
3.83 
4.45 
2.83 
6.41 
2.33 
4.80 
2.61 
3.99 
2.28 
5.93 
3. .57 
8.06 
3.40 
4.38 
4.70 
4.50 


8.53 

8.28 

12. 49 

13.27 

7.64 

9.84 

8.92 

10.35 

11.44 

7.33 

9.25 

8.10 

9. .59 

8.99 

8.94 

9,03 

7.78 


17.18 
14.43 
13.84 
16.10 
13. 65 
16.89 
13.59 
16.59 
14. 05 
16.47 
13.77 
14.77 
16 61 
14. 75 
1-3.39 
13. 99 
13.80 


18.58 
19.19 
20.96 
19.15 
20.74 
19. 10 
19.19 
19.06 
19.74 
18.62 
19.72 
19.31 
18.89 
19. 14 
18. .52 
IS. 84 
18.45 


19.50 




18.26 




18.29 


District of Columbia 


18.92 


Florida 


20.06 




19.22 




18.39 




19.20 


Maryland 


18.04 




18.75 




19. 69 


North Carolina 


18.34 




19.67 




18.15 


Texas 


17.59 




17.69 


West Virginia ... .-- 


17.30 



760 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1900-1901. 

The foregoing tables contain the number of persons owning and hiring their farms 
and homes, by race, compiled from the Eleventh Census, for the sixteen original 
slave States and the District of Columbia. There were 231,568 negroes who owned 
their farms and homes, against 1,565,923 whites. The contributing power of the 
whites to the ownership of farms and homes was 10.07 per cent of the white popula- 
tion, against 3.23 per cent for the negroes. If we estimate 5 persons to the family, 
it will be seen that 50 per cent of the white families owned their farms and homes, 
and 16 per cent of the colored families. It would probably be a revelation to 
most persons who decry the lack of energy, thrift, and foresight on the part of 
the negro race to be told that one-sixth of them own their own farms and homes. 
There were 29,888 negro owners in Virginia alone. This State contained, in round 
numbers, 100,000 white and 30,000 negro owners of farms and homes, representing 
9.82 and 4.70 per cent of the respective populations; or, to put it in other terms, 23 
out of every 100 negro families were their own proprietors, against 49 out of every 
100 whites. The highest average contributing power to the ownership of farms 
and homes on the part of the negro is found in Florida, where 32 negro families 
out of every 100 are their own jDroprietors, and the lowest in Alabama, which con- 
tributes only 11 out of 100. 

It will be seen that one -sixth of the colored people of the South are taxpaj'ers 
upon their own property. We must not forget also that capitation tax prevails in 
most or all of the Southern States, so that every negro male over 21 years of age 
becomes a taxpayer. These two classes contribute directly to the public revenues. 

The table under consideration also contains the number of persons who hire 
their farms and homes. The number of blacks is in relative excess of the whites. 
There were 1,413,150 whites and 1,059,991 colored tenants. These might be called 
indirect taxpayers; for it is well known that the owner of a farm or home esti- 
mates the taxation as an essential element of cost in fixing the rental. So that 
whether the tenant pays in money, service, or part of crop he is the real taxpayer 
upon the house which he occupies or the farm which he tills. The percentage of 
the colored race who are owners and tenants, and therefore taxpayers, directly or 
indirectly, is not so far below that of the whites; or, to be exact, 19 per cent of the 
one against 24 per cent of the other. 

It is doubtless true that the absolute values of the colored holdings are rather 
small by comparison. This is inevitable. The negro out of his scanty earnings 
acquires a small piece of land or humble shanty which he can call his own. Bub 
this does not alter the fact that a large number of the race have become owners of 
the farms and homes which they occupy, and that their property is subject to all 
the requirements of public revenue. The essential fact to be borne in mind is that 
nearly a quarter-million negroes in thirty years have risen from the condition of 
chattels to that of proprietorship. The race which a generation ago was rated 
with fai^ms and homes as a part of the common asset now represents 13 per cent 
of the ownership of all the homes and farms in the South. 

Nor do the figures reveal the whole truth. It is quite easy to take for granted 
that all white and negro tenancy implies white proprietorship; but, as a matter of 
fact, many negroes, and white persons as well, are tenants of farms and homes 
that are owned by members of the colored race. The census of course does not 
take cognizance of such cases, which, if revealed, would doubtless bring the total 
negro holdings to a much higher figure. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGKO. 



761 



Owners of farms and homes, separately, in the former slave States and District of 

Columbia, 1S90. 





Owners of farms. 


State. 


Free. 


Incumbered. 


Total. 




White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 




60,746 
68,629 
3,151 
317 
63,408 
18,423 

114,209 
16,484 
45,941 

108, 130 
91,393 
29,531 
97,394 

107,569 
66, 527 
48,327 
27,757 


8,045 
7,319 
199 
15 
7,706 
4,746 
3,870 
1,691 

10,033 
1,812 
9,670 

12,048 
5,9.51 

11, 505 

13,097 

436 

6,257 


2,337 
2,639 
1,306 
9 
2,065 

503 
4,751 
7,335 
3,178 
63,077 
4,377 
2,590 
3,003 
6,213 
2,014 
7,319 

997 


803 
685 
89 
1 
426 
200 
210 
4.59 

1,494 
933 
824 

1,027 
427 

1,008 

581 

53 

428 


63,073 
71,358 
4,457 
226 
65, 473 
18,926 

118, 960 
23,819 
49,119 

170,207 
95, 770 
32,121 

100,396 

113, 782 
68, 541 
55,546 
28, 749 


8,847 




8,004 


Delaware 

District of Columbia _ 


288 

16 

18,131 




4,940 




4,310 




2, 150 




11,526 




2,745 




10,494 




13,075 




6,378 




12,5.3 




13,678 


West Virginia 


489 
6,685 






Total. 


967,836 


104,393 


112,587 


9,677 


1,080,423 


114,269 








Owners of homes. 






State. 


Free. 


Incumbered. 


Total. 




White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


Alabama 


20, 108 
17,031 
4,548 
6,595 
24,501 
10,031 
41,272 
32, 875 
11, 869 
67, 775 
21,338 
10, 084 
a3,538 
55, 836 
30, 411 
18, 169 
19, 131 


6,656 

3,583 

595 

1,751 

11,518 
5,489 
8,237 
5,239 
5,117 
4,747 
9,052 
7,589 
7,675 
8, 018 

15,534 

746 

7,625 


593 
1,032 
2,864 
2,372 

655 

532 
3,076 
11,935 

512 

26,693 

1,103 

777 
1,178 
2,361 
1,260 
4,183 

780 


233 
257 
881 
365 
376 
220 
530 

1,207 
253 

1,403 
464 
437 
610 
349 
686 
2:36 
292 


20, 701 
18,053 
7,412 
8,867 
25, 1.56 
10.553 
44,358 
44,800 
13 381 
91,467 
22,441 
10, 861 
35,316 
55.200 
31,671 
22,352 
19,911 


6,889 
3,840 


Delaware 


976 


District of Columbia 


2, 116 
11,874 


Florida 


5, 709 




8,867 


Maryland 

Mississippi 


6,446 
5, 430 




6,149 


North Carolina . . 


9,516 


South Carolina 


8,026 


Tennessee 


8,285 




8, .36 7 


Virginia . . 


6,210 




1,083 




7,907 






Total 


425,103 


109, 161 


73, 788 


8,297 


484,600 


117,689 







This table shows that the negro owned 104,393 unincumbered farms and 9,677 
incumbered ones. It is easy to assume that the property which is recorded iu the 
negro's name is only nominally his, whereas the real owner is the white man who 
holds the mortgage. Of the 330,000 negro owners of homes and farms, less than 
18,000 carry mortgages. It might appear that the comparatively small number of 
pieces of involved property held by the negro implies that he is not rapidly 
increasing his holdings. Those who are acquainted with his financial methods 
know that he is in the habit of secreting his savings until he has sufficient accu- 
mulations to make a purchase outright. An old, unobtrusive colored man often 
surprises his friends and neighbors by a sudden show of financial strength who 
had previously been regarded as impecuuious. 

NEGRO PROPERTY O^WNERS IX GEORGIA, VIRGINIA, AND NORTH CAROLINA. 

A most interesting bulletin has just been issued by the Bureau of Labor on 
Negro Landholders in Georgia.' Georgia contains a larger black contingent than 
any other State. The negro element amounts to more than 1,000,000, comprising 46 

1 Bulletin No. 35, July, 1901; Dr. W. E. B. DuBois, investigator. 



'62 



EDUCATION EEPOET, 1900-1901. 



per cent of tlie entire population. Record of the ownership of property by negroes 
in this State has been kept since 1874. 

Tlie assessed value of total jifoperty owned by negroes in Georgia, 1S74 to 1900, 



Year. 


Assessed 
value. 


Year. 


Assessed 
value. 


1874 - 


S6, 157, 798 
5,393,885 
5, 488, 867 
6,430,844 
5, 134, 875 
5,183,398 
5, 764, 293 
6,478,951 
6, .589, 876 
7,583,395 
8.031, 525 
8,153,390 
8,655,398 
8,936,479 


1888 


$9, 631, 271 


1875 -- - 


1889 _ 

1890 


10,415,330 


1876 - 


13, 323, 003 


1877 -- 


1891... 

1893 


14, im, 735 


1878 


14, 869, 575 


1879 


1893 .- 


14, 960, 675 


1880 


1894_ 

1895 . 


14, 387, 730 


1881 


13,941, 2^) 


1883 - , 


1896 _- 


13, 293, 816 


1883 


1897 


13, 619, ®0 


1884 


1898 .. 


13, 719, 200 


1885 . ..... 


1899 


13,447,423 


1886 


1900 


14, 118, 730 


1887 











This table shows a gradual, healthy, general increase, which is not free from the 
fluctuations caused by the ebb and flow of the tide of general business conditions 
throughout the country. 

Number of acres and assessed valuation of land oumed by negroes in Georgia, 

1874 to 1900. 



Year. 


Number 
of acres. 


Assessed 
valuation. 


Year. 


Number 
of acres. 


Assessed 
valuation. 


1874 


338,769 
396,658 
457,635 
458, 999 
501,890 
541, 199 
586, 664 , 
680,358 
693,335 
666,583 
756, 703 
788,376 
803, 939 
813, 735 




1888 


868,501 
877, 113 
967,234 
1,004,306 
1,063,649 
1,043,860 
1,084,431 
1,038,824 
1,043,847 
1,057,567 
1,097,087 
1,063,333 
1,075,073 


S3, 823, 943 


1875 


,S1,363,903 
1,334,104 
1,363,723 

1,294,383 
1,348,758 
1, 533, 173 
1, 754, 800 
1, 877, 861 
2, 065, 938 
2,263,185 
3, 363, 889 
2, 508, 198 
2,598,650 


1889 


3,047,685 


1876 


1890 - 


3,425,176 


1877 


1891 


3,914,143 


1878 


1893 


4,477,183 


1879- 

1880 


1893 

1894 


4,450,121 
4, 386, 3^ 


1881 


1895 

1896 


4,158,9©) 


1882 


4,234,848 


1883 


1897 

1898 


4,353,798 


1884 


4, 340, 1<M) 


1885 . -. 


1899 


4, 220, 130 


1886 


1900 . . .. 


4, 274, 549 


1887- 







The average size of negro farms in 56 typical counties was 79 acres. These coun- 
ties contained 8,0S5 negro farm owners, or a majority for the entire State. The 
average size of all farms in G-eorgia was 147 acres. The average value of negro 
farms for typical counties was $312. The value of town and city real estate owned 
by Georgia negroes was $3,643,586, or more than 29 per cent of all negro property 
in the State. Savannah showed $870,707, Atlanta, $793,910, and Augusta, §479,495 
as held by negroes in the respective municipalities. 

Landholders in Virginia. 





Year, 


Number of acres. 


Assessed valuation 
per acre. 




White. 


Negro. 


White. 

S4. 88 
4. .50 


Negro. 


1891 


25, 285, 981 


698,074 
833, 147 


$4.21 


1895 


35, 154, 781 


4.14 







THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



763 



Assessed value of property Jield by negroes in Virginia, ISDl to 1SD5. 



Year. 



Real es- Personal 
tate. property. 



Total. 



1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 



$8,995,514 
9,425,085 
9.829.583 
10,lti3,KH9 
10,759,548 



83, 094, 451 
3,343,950 
3, 465, 370 
3. ,341, 144 
3, 174, 450 



S13,089,9a5 
13, 70S, 035 
13,294,953 
13,414,033 
13,933,998 



In North Carolina the negroes in 1891 paid taxes on $8,018,446 worth of prop- 
erty. 

Valuation of taxable property owned by ichites and negroes in Georgia, North 

Carolina, and Virginia. 



State. 


Year. 


White. 


Colored. 




1890 
1891 
1890 


$;565,044,781 
234,109,568 
379,708,644 


$13,322,003 




8.018,446 




13,089,965 






Total - 




978,863,993 


33,430,41i 









Percentage of total prox)erty and per capita valuation for each race. 



State. 


Percentage. 


Per capita valiaa- 

tion. 




White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 




96.5 
96. 7 
96.9 


3.5 
3.3 
3.1 


$;^23. 3 
333. 1 
374.2 


$14.3 




14.1 




18.9 






Total - .. 


96.8 1 3.3 


333.3 


15.7 











These tables show the general economic condition of the two races in the three 
States mentioned. The relative values are so close together in these Stales that 
we may well take them as typical of the whole group. It would be misleading, 
however, to suppose that these figures reveal the whole truth. The negro's pos- 
sessions are limited to real estate and personal property. The vast corporate 
interests, public and private, are set down wholly to the credit of the white race. 
As is well known, these comprise a large part of the aggregate wealth of the sev- 
eral States. The real ownership is not always, perhaps not generally, in the hands 
of local whites, but is the result of outside capital invested in the State. For 
purposes of taxation, therefore, they can not justly be credited to the white race, 
for as is well known the burden of taxation falls upon the patrons rather than 
upon the ownership of such enterprises. 

V. OccuPATioxs OF Negroes. 

Mr. Henry Gannett, of the United States Geological Survey, has prepared an 
interesting pamphlet on occupations of negroes, under the auspices of the trustees 
of the John F. Slater fund.' From this pamphlet we learn that out of a total pop- 
ulation of 62,633,250 in the United States, 22,753,884 persons, or 34.6 per cent, were 
engaged in gainful occupations. Of negroes, numbering 7,470,040, there were 
3,073,123, or 41.1 per cent, engaged in gainful occupations. Thus for the country 
at large, the negroes were more generally employed than the whites. The South 



1 Trustees of John P. Slater fund, Occasional Papers, No. 6. 



764 



EDUCATION REFOKT, 1900-1901. 



boasts of her bygone daj^s of chivalric civilization instinct with dignity, comity, 
and grace; and she does welh The New South, springing Plioanixlike from the 
ashes of the old, is fast bidding for industrial prestige and power. But under- 
neath all her glory — past, present, or to come — lies the negro's brawny arm. It 
was he who cleared her forests, cultivated her fields, and covered her hills with 
the fleecy snow of cotton and her valleys with golden shocks of corn. The brunt 
of effort necessary to the new awakening will also devolve upon him the veri- 
table "man with the hoe." In order to show to what extent the negro is a con- 
tributing factor to the industrial life of the South, the following tables have been 
computed on the basis of the Eleventh Census. 

Pei^sons engaged in gainful occujpations, by race, 1390. 



States. 


White. 


Colored. 


Per 


ceut. 


White. 


Colored. 




247,993 
330,103 
51,897 
61,015 
71,269 
299,330 
482,603 
179,334 
297,227 
157,955 
823,385 
320,277 
151,197 
387,896 
525,393 
310, 487 
209,669 


293,406 

116,976 

13,350 

40,007 

65,371 

369,365 

107,666 

343, 157 

95, 811 

303, 837 

60, 655 

316,590 

389,550 

165, 734 

170,085 

241,095 

14,101 


29.63 

28.10 




43. 24 




37.84 








39.44 
31.68 
30.60 
30.34 
33. 11 
35.90 
38.99 
32.56 
30.35 
33. 73 
29.03 
30.09 
30.44 
38.99 


53.94 




39.34 




43.00 




40.16 




43.48 




44.43 




40.93 




40.39 




38.61 




42.03 




38.48 


Texas 


34.84 




37.94 




43.14 






Total .^.. : 


4,808,918 


2,805,6.56 


30.09 


40.70 



The first table shows the number of psrsons engaged in gainful occupations, by 
race, for the sixteen original slave States and the District of Columbia. According 
to the plan of the Eleventh Census, persons engaged in gainful occupations did not 
include housewives and school children, but only those i^ersons above 10 years of 
age who received a definite stipend for their labor. There were 4,838,918 whites 
and 2,815,656 negroes engaged in gainful pursuits. While the negroes constituted 
30 per cent of the population, they contributed 37 per cent of the workers. Every 
State shows a higher percentage of negroes than of whites engaged in gainful 
occupations. The per cent for negroes ranged from 52,94 in the District of Colum- 
bia to 84.84 in Texas, while that of the whites varied from 39.44 in the District of 
Columbia to 28.10 in Arkansas. If we omit the city-State of the District of 
Columbia, because of its peculiar industrial conditions, the highest per cent of 
employment of both races is found in the State of Maryland, viz, 85.96 for whites, 
and 44.42 for blacks. This is due to the city of Baltimore, which contains half the 
population of the State. The employment of the whites in the South was far 
below that of the whites in the country at large, while the Southern negro shows 
a percentage slightly below the average for his race. 

Proportions engaged in gainftd occupations.'^ 



Class. 


Per cent. 


Class. 


Per cent. 




34.6 
35.5 
31.6 
55.2 




41.10 


Whites 




30.93 




Southern negroes 


40.70 


Foreign-born whites 







1 This table, except for Southern whites and Southern negroes, is taken from Occupations of 
Negroes, p. 6. 



THE EDUCATION" OF THE NEGRO. 



765 



The high employment rate of the foreign whites is due, of course, to the large 
proportion of adults among them, vrho come to this country with an eye single to 
gainful work. Omitting this class, the negro has a higher rate than any other 
element, and the Southern whites have the lowest rate of all. In Alabama, 
Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina there was an army of 
1,500,000 black toilers, constituting, approximately, three-fifths of the labor 
force of these States, If we assiime equality among the laboring units, the negro 
is seen to contribute 60 per cent of the industrial strength of the cluster of States 
in which the race is most numerous. Throughout the slave territory there were 
414 negroes engaged out of every 1,000 of the negro population, against 309 whites 
to the 1,000, giving an excess of 105 in favor of the negroes. 

Selected occupations, by race, foi' the sixteen former slave States, 1S90. 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missoiari 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

Total 



Agriculture, fisher- 
ies, and mining. 



White. 



168,258 
169, 013 

14, .510 
1.317 

34,861 
191,. 53.5 
286,610 

79, 193 

75, 137 
113,358 
388, 573 
Zi-i, 6t8 
104, 483 
853, 023 
325, .563 
167, 751 
135,047 



2,730,868 



Colored. 



213,485 

87,390 

4,193 

568 

31, 318 
226,570 

39,464 
161,244 

30,257 
245,921 

16, 079 
140, 287 
22:3, 496 

84,824 

106, 587 

103,913 

4,840 



1,719,335 



Domestic and per- 
sonal service. 



White. Colored. 



14,583 
14, 588 

9,677 
10,213 

8,203 
16, 455 
46,658 
26,913 
50,6.54 

6,745 
112, 390 
19,225 
. 6, 956 
29,331 
51,953 
30, 767 
25,431 



480,733 



790,125 



Manuf actu ring 
and mechani- 
cal industries. 



White. 



28,153 
18,241 
17, 236 
18,983 
12,883 
40, 465 
75,321 
30,418 
96, 485 
13,110 
148,979 
36, 168 
18, 931 
46, 605 
51,806 
54,2.36 
29,875 



787,894 



Colored. 



10,856 
3,679 
868 
4,324 
5,251 

18. 523 
7,351 

11,333 
5, .537 
6,487 
3,920 

14, 465 

12,188 

11,546 
6,249 

23,326 
967 



146,740 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky , 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri.. 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

Total 



Trade and transportation. 



White. 



27,011 

19,045 

8,393 

23,921 

10,807 
37,997 
53,696 
34,385 
61,291 
16, 629 
135,119 
21,1.30 
14,684 
43,838 
70,548 
43,610 
20,884 



641,978 



Colored. 



9,285 
2,811 
653 
4,969 
4, 158 

16, 764 
7,448 
6,173 
7,683 
5,745 
4, 905 
7,668 
7,043 

11,076 
6,4.53 

15,907 
2,088 



128,838 



Professional service. 



White. 



9,990 

9,315 

2,081 

6, .581 

4, 4.50 

13,888 

20,313 

8,417 

13, 660 

8,113 

38,225 

10, 106 

6, 143 

17,119 

25, .523 

15, 133 

8, 433 



46, 3~9 



Colored. 



1,961 

1,463 

139 

725 

999 

3,078 

1,836 

1,60(5 

914 

2, 745 

1,3,34 

2,184 

2,048 

2,338 

2,595 

2, .566 

229 



28,630 



The second table shows selected occupations, by race, for the 16 original slave 
States and the District of Columbia. The Eleventh Census divided occupations 
into 5 classes: (1) Agriculture, including mining and fisheries; (3) personal and 
domestic service; (3) manufacturing and mechanical industries; (4) trade and 
transportation; (5) professional service. The census order has not been adhered 
to, but the several occupations have been arranged in the order of the number of 
colored persons employed. It may be taken for granted that the vast bulk of 



766 



EDUCATION EEPOET, 1900-1901. 



persona ennmerated under the first head are engaged in vegetal agriculture, as 
mining and fishing are comparatively unimportant industries in the South. 

The negroes were engaged mainly in agriculture and domestic service, the num- 
ber in manufacturing and trade being quite small in comparison, while the num- 
ber in the iDrofessions was quite insignificant. Of those listed in the professions, 
the majority are school-teachers and ministers, leaving comparatively few for law 
and medicine. 

The following table shows the proportion of negro wage earners engaged in the 
several groups of occupations, together with those for the native and foreign-born 
whites for the United States: 



Occupations. 



Native 
wbites. 



F'oreig'n- 
born 

whites. 



Negroes. 



Professions 

Agriculture 

Trade and ti*ansportatioa 

Manufactures -. 

Personal service 

Total 



Per cent. 
5.50 
41 
17 

33. 90 
13.60 



Per cent. 
3.3 
25.5 
14 

yi.3 

37 



100 



100 




It is disclosed that 57.3 per cent of negro wage earners, 41 per cent of native 
white, and 25.5 per cent of foreign-born white wage earners are engaged in agricul- 
ture. The negro is represented in the professions by 1.1 per cent of those engaged, 
or less than 1 professional representative for every 100 of the population, whereas 
the native whites have more than 1 in 50. In manufactures, trade, and transpor- 
tation the negro shows only 10 per cent, against 40 per cent for the native whites 
and 45 per cent for foreign whites. It is also known that the negroes who are 
engaged in such pursuits are in many cases performing the drudgery of unskilled 
labor. This is not on account of inability or lack of desire for the higher lines of 
mechanical skill, but because they are excluded by intolerant regulations. Herein 
lies the great field for remunerative labor, and the negro, through no fault of his 
own, is excluded therefrom and relegated to the less desirable spheres of farm life 
and domestic service. 

Principal occupations pursued by negroes, 1890. 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia .-.= 

West Virginia 

Total 



All occu- 
pations. 



293, 

116, 

13. 

40, 

65, 
369, 
107, 
243, 

95, 
303, 

()0, 

•im. 

289. 
165. 
170, 
241, 
14, 



3, 905, 640 



Agricul- 
ture, fish- 
eries, and 
mining. 



213, 485 
87,290 

568 

31,318 
236,570 

39,464 
161, 344 

30, .257 
245, 931 

16, 079 
140, 387 
223, 496 

84, 8;24 

106,587 

103,913 

4,840 



1,719,335 



Domestic 
service. 



68,819 
21,733 
6, .509 
29,421 
33,655 
104,330 
51,677 
«3,911 
51,431 
42, 939 
34,517 
51,986 
48,775 
55, 960 
48, 202 
05,383 



Other 
occupa- 
tions. 



790,135 



22,103 
7,9.53 
1,639 
10,018 
10,398 
38,365 
16.525 
19,003 
14,133 
14,977 
10,059 
24,317 
21,279 
34,950 
15,296 
41, 799 
3,284 



396, 181 



This table shows the principal occupations pursued by negroes in the South. It 
is seen, as before suggested, that they are chiefly employed in agriculture and in 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



767 



domestic service, those engaged in all other callings not e:sceeding 14 per cent of 
the wage earners: 

Persons engaged in agricvlture, ivchiding mining and fisJier'ies. 



State. 


Whites. 


Negroes. 




168,258 
191.525 

ra. 193 

113,358 
104,483 


212, 485 




2:ai..570 




]t;1.2W 




245, 921 




223. 496 








Total 


656, 816 


1, 069, 716 







In the five States where the negro population is most numerous there were 
1,009,716 negroes engaged in agriculture to 056,816 whites. The negro represented 
five-eighths of the agricultural workers in these States. In Louisiana, Missis- 
sippi, and South Carolina there were more than two negroes engaged in agricul- 
ture to one white person. 

The small proportion of negroes engaged in agricnllure in the border States 
forces itself upon attention. 

Occupation of negroes in the border States. 



State. 



Agriculture. 



Domestic 
service. 



Other 
pursuits. 



Delaware 

Kentucky 

Maryland 

Missouri 

"West Virginia . 



4,192 
39,464 
30,257 
16.079 

4,840 



6,509 
51,577 
61,431 
34,517 

5,977 



1,644 
16,525 
14,123 
10.059 

0,284 



Occupations of negroes in the far Southern States. 



State. 



Alabama 

creorgia 

Louisiana 

Mississippi 

South Carolina 



Agriculture. 



212.485 
226. 570 
161,244 
245,421 
223,496 



Domestic 
service. 



58,819 
104, 330 
62.911 
42, 939 
44, 775 



Othei- 
pursuits. 



22, 103 
38. 365 
19.002 
14,977 
21,279 



In the border States more than half of the negroes are engaged in domestic 
service and about one-third in agriculture. In the far Southern States, on the 
other hand, five-sevenths of the population is engaged in agriculture and one-fifth 
in personal service. 

This fact is not without sociological significance. It bears out the suggestion in 
section 1, that the border State negroes do not find a comfortable social status 
among their white neighbors, and they therefore leave the rm-al districts for the 
cities, where the social conditions are more to their liking. It is little less than 
striking that in an agricultural State like Missouri there should be onlj- 16,000 
negroes engaged in agriculture, against more than tvi'ice that number in personal 
service. The proximity of large cities has much to do with the distribution of the 
negroes among the several occupations, but they are not of themselves sufficient to 
account for the pronounced tendency of the border States. 

These figures give rise to two pregnant suggestions: 

(1) The education of the negro, in so far as its aims and intent are of a practical 
character, should take cognizance of the occupations which the bulk of the chil- 
dren must follow. If 85 per cent of this race are pursuing two main lines of 



768 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1900-1901. 



employment, it would be the utmost folly to ignore this fact in a scheme of educa- 
tion. Industrial education for the negroes should, in the main, be directed to those 
lines from which the recipient is most liliely to derive a livelihood. 

(2) The proportion of negroes in these callings is too large, and diversification of 
activities should be encouraged. It is doubtless true, however, that the segrega. 
tion of the blacks in agricultural and domestic pursuits is the result of natural 
industrial forces. It is here that competition is least severe, and he is shielded 
from the fierce strife of Aryan rivalry. These are, indeed, the only fields that are 
open to him on anything like an adequate scale. The destiny of the race must be 
worked out in the rural districts of the South, and the bulwark and buttress of its 
strength is in the soil. It is here that remedial and educational agencies can be 
most wisely applied. 

Occupations of icliites, by sex, 1S90. 



State. 



Agriculture, fish- 
eries, and mining. 



Males. Females. 



Domestic and per- 
sonal ser vice. 



Males. Females. 



Manufacturing 

and mechanical 

industries. 



Males. Females. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky -.. 

Louisiana 

Maryland -. 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

North Carolina 

South Car olina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

Total 



153,488 
160, 173 

14,2.38 
1,375 

33, 710 
175, 073 
375, 745 

73, 191 

73 151 
103, 097 
376, 474 
311,843 

89, 637 
240, 718 
313,157 
161,190 
131,841 



14,830 

8,841 

373 

42 

3,151 

16,453 

10, 8&5 

6,001 

1,986 

11,261 

13, 098 

31, 806 

14, 856 

11,305 

13,406 

6,561 

3,206 



9,355 

9,480 

6,646 

6,376 

6,110 

10, 037 

39,387 

19,868 

33,343 

4,335 

71, 736 

8,471 

3, 751 

17,807 

39,609 

19,044 

15,895 



5,227 

5, 108 

3,031 

3,837 

3,095 

6,418 

17,369 

7,544 

17,411 

2,530 

40,664 

10, 754 

3,205 

11,514 

12,344 

11,723 

9,538 



33,434 
16,397 
14,578 
15,590 
11,139 
30, 333 
60, 170 

53. 662 
73,556 
10, 638 

124,719 
25, 106 

13. 663 
39, 085 
45,352 
44.401 
26,480 



5,738 

1,994 

2,658 

3,393 

1,744 

10,343 

15, 151 

6,756 

23,939 

3,483 

24,260 

11,063 

6,368 

7,530 

6,454 

9,835 

3,415 



2,574,929 



155, 7c 



309,430 



170, 300 



671,354 



141,891 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Floi-ida 

Georgia 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi . 

Missouri. 

Noi'th Carolina 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

Total 



Trade and transportation. 



Males. 



36,334 
18, .584 
7,697 
19, 133 
10,516 
36, 648 
50,556 
83,418 
55,689 
16,103 
127,199 
80,608 
14,1.56 
41, 169 
68,790 
40,976 
20,157 



606, 633 



Females. 



777 

461 

690 

4,798 

354 

1,349 

3,140 

1,967 

5,603 

536 

7,930 

534 

528 

1,659 

1,758 

1,634 

737 



33,480 



Professional service. 



Males. 



7,538 

1,405 

5,397 

3,467 

9,783 

14.724 

5; 944 

9,503 

6,613 

37,061 

7,346 

4,436 

13,344 

30,191 

10,307 

6,230 



159,885 



Females. 



3,383 
1,677 

676 
1,384 

983 
3,106 
5, 595 
3,473 
4,158 
3,500 
11,164 
3,760 
1,717 
3,875 
5,333 
4,816 
2,S03 



56,600 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 
Occupations of negroes, by sex, 1S90. 



769 



state 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

North (Jaroiiua 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

Total , 



Agriculture, fish- 
eries, and mining. 



Males. Females. 



146,361 

68,219 

4,157 

553 

23,69;J 

173, 500 
38,4.')6 

111,830 
^9, 516 

167,997 
15, 757 

106, 493 

149,915 

72,316 

85, 824 

93,746 

4,790 



1,293,112 



66,124 

19,071 

33 

15 

7,626 

54,070 

1,008 

49, 424 

741 

77,924 

333 

33, 794 

73,581 

12,508 

20, 763 

10,167 

50 



4^7,220 



Domestic and per- 
sonal service. 



Males. Females. 



25,428 
11,227 

3,631 
12, 682 
13,231 
39, 297 
26,649 
31,613 
21,032 
17,210 
18, 899 
20, 584 
18, 555 
25,624 
23,361 
39,434 

3,516 



347,960 



3:^,391 
10,506 

2,878 
10, 739 
10,424 
65, 033 
28, 928 
31,298 
30,409 
25, 729 
15,618 
31, 402 
26, 220 
30,336 
24, 841 
55, 949 

2,461 



433, 063 



Manufacturing 

and mechanical 

industries. 



Males. 



9, 926 
3,406 
816 
2,838 
4,496 

16, 604 
6, 532 
8,4.56 
4, 4.56 
5,694 
3,531 

12,113 
9,850 

10,407 
5,799 

18,853 



Females. 



123,793 



27a 

52 
1,486 

745 
1,919 

829 
2,767 

i,ori 

793 

389- 

2.353- 

2,3:38 

1, 15» 

45a 

4,474 

40- 



2;3,04r 



State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware .-- 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri. .-. 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Tennessee - • 

Texas 

Virginia 

West Virginia , 

Total 



Trade and trausportation. 



Males. 



9,151 
2,787 
034 
4,776 
4,106 

16,397 
7,383 
6,046 
7,538 
5,671 
4,803 
7,564 
6,860 

10,955 
6,386 

15,604 
2,081 



118,861 



Females. 



134 

24 

18 
193 

52 
367 

65 
137 
144 

74 

43 
104 
1S3 
131 

66 

243 

7 



1,575 



Professional service. 



Males. 



1,471 

1,225 

97 

390 

776 
2,122 
1,406 
1,251 

640 
1,970 

897 
1,619 
1,543 
1, 736 
2,031 
1,654 

166 

30,934 



Females. 



490 

238 
32 

sas 

233 

956. 
420. 
355 
274 
775 
337- 
565 
505- 
592 
564 
913: 

ea 



7,636, 



The two preceding tables give the occupations of whites and blacks by sex. It 
is chiefly valuable in showing to what estent negro women are employed in agri- 
cultural pursuits and in domestic service. In 1890 there were 427,220 negro 
females engaged in agriculture and 432,062 in domestic service. Nearly 1,01)0,000 
of these women were in the list of wage-earners. It is this fact that gives the- 
negro such a relative preponderance in the industrial world. The proportion of 
negro women and white women engaged in agriculture was about 3 to 1, and in 
domestic service about 4 to 3, the larger number in both cases being in favor of 
the negro women. On the other hand, the colored women scarcely figured at all 
in manufactures and trade and transportation, while the white woman was quite 
numerously represented. 



ED 1901- 



-49 



770 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1900-1901. 

Agricultural lahoi^ers, farmers, planters, and overseers, hy race, 1S90. 





Agricultur 


al laborers. 


Farmer 


s, planters, and overseers. 


•Statfi. 


Bla 


.63. 


Females. 


Males. 


Females. 




White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 




.43,576 

38,566 

4,745 

374 
6, 743 
56, 141 
76, 935 
34,897 
23, 649 
35, 93-1 
83,144 
65,2.85 
31, 449 
67, 074 
75,916 
51,710 
33, 773 


75,333 

31,337 

3,306 

293 
10, 040 
98,400 
28,201 
73, 144 
30,921 
81,444 

8, 522 
64, 163 
85,503 
39,714 
35,553 
56,398- 

1,814 


8,650 

3,675 

37 


59,159 

15,. 300 
16 


103,544 

118,895 

8, 819 

238 

23, 398 

116,111 

191,302 

44,250 

36,516 

74,864 

273,313 

141,186 

56, 778 

165, 730 

214,965 

102,037 

79,543 


65,247 

36,577 

809 

32 

11,843 
63,012 
10,600 
37,680 

4,560 
85,947 

5,886 
38.290 
60,378 
30,500 
48,543 
39,403 
893 


6,139 
0,136 


6,945 




3,865 






District of Colum- 


324 
1, 407 
7,347 
9,405 
2,701 
1,334 
5,399 

11, 196 
9,998 
4,094 
8, 700 

10, 835 
5,174 
3,690 


9 




719 
9,138 
l,a58 
3,156 

493 
5,805 

683 
11,719 
10, 731 
3,515 
2,300 
1,311 

462 


6, 080 

50,351 

513 

45,899 

549 

67,347 

93 

30,629 

67,584 

10, 106 

15, 784 

8,373 

17 


1,548 




3,563 




475 


Louisiana --- 


3,407 
164 




10,67a 




221 


North Carolina 

Sou th Carolina 


3,077 
5,975 
3,349 




4,968 




1,694 


West Virginia 


38 


Total -. 


709,301 


710, 675 


67,514 


377,679 


1,750,478 


530, 199 


92,649 


49.033 







It is interesting to notice the extent to -which negro agricultnral workers are 
acquiring self-direction, and are becoming farmers, planters, and overseers, 
instead of mere farm laborers. The accompanying table brings out this feature of 
the inquiry. About 700,000 males of each race were rated as agricultural labor- 
ers. There were more than 500,000 negro farmers, planters, and overseers. 
These figures are quite suggestive of the progi-ess of the negro as an industrial 
factor in the South. We saw in the section on ownership, that about 230,0130 
negroes owned their farms and homes. There were 114,269 negroes who ov>iied 
their farms, so that more than 400,000 others must have risen above the grade 
of laborers who have not yet acquired their own lands. This is the iirst 
step toward acquisition. "When a man rises above the lov,-est grade of agri- 
cultural service and gets a foretaste of independent activity in the management 
and direction either of a hired farm or as overseer for the owner, the next step is 
personal proprietorship; so that we may say that there are 500,000 negroes 
who have started on the road to ownership of land. It will be a surprise to those 
who have never looked into the subject to be informed that the negroes consti- 
tute 24 per cent of the 'farmer, planter, and overseer class. The number of colored 
women who belong to this grade is nearly 50,000, against 92,0.00 white women. 
There were 377,679 colored female farm laborers and only 67,514 whites. The 
employment of so large a number of females in the hard, bone-breaking work of 
the farm is indicative of an unsatisfactory social and industrial state. It never- 
theless helps to show that all of the available energies of the colored race are 
expended in developing the industrial life of the South. 

Mr. Booker T. Washington is fond of telling a story of an old colored man who 
objected to the bringing of white immigrants to the South on the ground that 
there were as many white people there already as the colored people could sup- 
port. The serious side of this suggestion is more significant than its humorous 
aspect. The burden of industry in the South falls most heavily upon the negro 
race. Not even its women are spared the onerous task of tiresome toil. Tiiat 
this labor from beneath supports the general life of the community is as certain 
as that the mudsill supports the superstructure which rests upon it. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGSO. 
Negro agricultural laborers. 



71 



state. 



Alabama 

Georgia 

Louisiana 

Mississippi 

South Carolina 



Male. 



98, 400 
73, 144 
81,444 
85,503 



Female. 



59, 159 
50, 351 
45, 899 
07, 347 
67,584 



State. 



Maryland 

Missouri 

Kentucky 

West Virginia 



Male. Female. 



20,921 
8, 523 

26, 201 
1,814 



549 



513 
17 



While the number of negro male field hands is noticeably small in the border 
States as compared with the States farther South, the negro woman practically 
falls out of the equation as a field worker in the higher tier of States. 

The number of negroes who have risen from the level of field laborer to the dig- 
nity of farmers, planters, and overseers is quite considerable, and is not far behind 
the number employed as agricultural laborers, so far as the males are concerned. 
In Arkansas, Florida, Mississippi, and Texas the number of negro male farmers, 
planters, and overseers surpasses the number of field laborers. This is a fact of 
striking significance. It shows to what extent the negro is becoming an independ- 
ent worker in the agricultural industries and how indissolubly he is interwoven 
in the warp and woof of the agricultural life of the South. As agriculture con- 
stitutes its chief productive resource, and as the negro is at the base of this life, 
he is therefore the real productive factor of that section. 

Persons unemployed during a portion of the year only J 



Agriculture, fishei-ies. and mining . . 

Domestic and personal service 

Manufacturing and mechanical in- 
dustries 

Tradeand transportation 

Professional service 



Males. 



Females. 



White. Colored. White. Colored 



898.419 
583,323 

860, 973 

237,557 

51, 146 



All occupations 2,631,318 

Per cent of population 



214,193 
99,886 



15, 822 

78,435 



37,970 162,740 
19,173 14,919 
3, 447 84, 828 



374,668 



356,734 



93,060 
53,163 

5,055 

189 
3,079 



153,546 



Aggregate. 



White. Colored. 



914,341 
661,648 

1,033,713 
242,476 
135,974 



3,978,053 
5.42 



307,253 
153,019 

43,035 
19,361 
6,256 



545,678 
7.10 



1 These tables apply to the entire United States. 
Persons employed during the whole or a part of the year. 





Slales. 


Females. 


Aggregate. 




White. 


Colored. 


White. Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


Part of year 

The year round 


2,021,318 

13,981,829 


374,668 
1,736,711 


3.56,734 153,346 
2,582,307 821.651 


2,978,052 
16,564,130 


528,214 
2, 544, 950 










Total 


16, 603, 147 


2, 101, 379 


2,989,041 


971, 785 


19,542,188 


3, 073, 164 







Per cent of population employed driHng a part or all of the year. 





Males. 


Females. 


Aggregate. 




White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


Part of vear . . . 


9.33 

49.57 


10.15 
65.46 


1.39 
6.95 


4.05 
22.03 


5.42 
30. 15 


7.07 


The year round 


34.07 


Total 












41.14 

















We see that 2,631,318 male whites, or 9.33 per cent of the male white population, 
were unemployed during part of the year, and 374,668 male negroes, or 10.15 per 



772 EDUCATIOiSr report, 1900-1901. 

cent of tlie male negro population; 80.15 per cent of the whites of both sexes were 
employed the year round, against 34.07 per cent of the negroes. It will be remem- 
bered that only 30.93 per cent of the white people of the South are employed at ail; 
thus, if we take the negroes of the country at large, they were more generally 
employed the year round than the white people of the South, including both 
regular and irregular employment. 

The assertion that we see so often reiterated that the negro is an idle and worth- 
less incumbrance upon the life of the South is not borne out by the facts. 

Summarizing the results of this chapter, we find that the negro is engaged mainly 
in agriculture and domestic service; that he is to a much greater degree employed 
in gainful pursuits than his white neighbor; that he is rapidly becoming a land- 
owner, and much more rapidly an independent farmer and planter; that he is 
making little or no headway in the mechanical and industrial arts; and that the 
marked tendency in the far Southern States is toward agricultural labor, while in 
the border States the drift is toward domestic service. 

Taking all these things together it is fully apparent that the negro is the most 
valuable productive element in the industrial life of the South, and that most of its 
prosperity rests upon the basis of his toil; that he is therefore .iustly entitled to 
share in all the public benehts which his labor makes possible, and that it is the 
part of wisdom for the white South to encourage him in the development of intel- 
ligence, virtue, and industrial skill, so that he may become a more efficient factor 
in the development of the general welfare. 

VI. Special Studies of the Economic Conditions of the Negro. 

The most valuable special studies upon the economic conditions of the negro 
race are to be found in the bulletins of the Department of Labor. It is the purpose 
of this Department to make a series of investigations concerning the economic 
and social relations of this race. The method adopted is to present an exhaustive 
analytic study of well-defined typical groups of negroes in different sections of the 
country. Expert investigators are employed by the Department for this purpose. 
Several such investigations have already been made and still others are under con- 
templation. When the series shall have been completed the student will have 
accurate and reliable data from which to draw conclusions. The bulletins so far 
issued present special studies rather than broad generalizations and speculative 
dissertations. Of all problems pressing for solution, the American people seem to 
approach the negro qiiestion with the greatest degree of nervousness and impa- 
tience. The tlieorizer reaches his conclusion and leaves the investigator to furnish 
data for proof, and discards him if he does not. An accurate, analytic, scientific 
presentation of facts and rational deduction of conclusions therefrom is still an 
unfulfilled desideratum. The student of sociology, therefore, hails with delight 
the effort of the Department of Labor, which undertakes this work with adequate 
machinery and equipment for its successful prosecution. Such work can be done 
effectively only through some such central and commanding agency. The diffi- 
culty with individual and private attempts is that they lack unity of purpose and 
plan, and therefore the divergent methods and conclusions confuse as much as 
they elucidate. 

Several of these bulletins have been prepared by Dr, W. E. B. Dti Bois, that 
careful, accurate student of the race problem, who is doing more than any other 
worker in this field to supplant, by scientific method, guesswork and vagaries. 
Being himself of the race to the study of whose problems he has consecrated his 
splendid faculties, he not only approaches the subject with the best approved 
methods of sociological inquiry, but brings also the stimulus and zest of personal 
solicitude. 



THE EDUCATION OF TPIE FEGEO. 



773 



THE NEGROES OF SANDYSPEING, MONTGOMERY COUNTY, MD.' 

The Sandyspring community lies in Montgomery Coiinty, Md., due north of 
Washington City. The nearness to the national capital is of great economic 
importance to the inhabitants of the neighborhood, the southern corner of which 
is about 8} miles, in an air line, north of the northern angle of the District of 
Columbia. Here within a stone's throw, as it were, of the seat of Government, is 
a thriving agricultural communitj', among whom still live the descendants of 
negro families which liave been free for a century and a quarter. 

The community is of irregular shape, about 5 miles from east to west and about 
5 miles from north to south. Sandyspring is in Montgomery County, some knowl- 
edge of whose social and economic condition can be gathered from the following 
statistics: 

Population of Montgomery County, 1790 to 1S90. 



Year. 


Whites. 


Negroes. 


Total. 


1790 


11,679 
8,508 
9,731 
9,082 
12, 103 
8,766 
9,435 
11,319 
13, 128 
15,608 
17,500 


6,324 
6,550 
8,249 
7,318 
7,713 
6,690 
6,425 
6,973 
7,43t 
9,150 
9,685 


18,003 
15,058 
17,980 
16,400 
19,816 
15,456 
15,860 
18,322 
20,562 
a 24, 759 
27,185 


18(X) 


1810 


1820 ,c 


1830 


1840 . . 


1850 


1800 


1870 


1880 


1890 





« Including 1 Indian. 

It will be seen that the two races have made almost exactly proportional gains 
in 100 years. 

The county contains 367,933 acres, of which 193,937 acres are improved. There 
are 1,959 farms, of the average size of 137 acres; only 177 farms contain less than 
10 acres, and 4 over 1,000 acres; 1,641 farms, or 83.77 per cent, were cultivated by 
owners. The farm produce for 1890 was estimated at §1,531,760, and the live stock 
and poultry at $1,249,790. The basis for the tax levy of 1898-99 was $12,443,795. 
The amount levied for the support of the public schools, 1899-1900, was $30,200. 
There were 114 public schools, which were open for nine mouths. Of these, 81 
were white schools with 100 teachers, and 33 were colored schools with 40 teachers. 
For these schools the county received from the State school tax §16,181.03; from 
the free-school fund, $3,154.35; for free text-books. §6,784.55. The total, includ- 
ing county levy, was §59,546.60. For the colored schools the receipt for 1898-99 
was §7,477.44 from the State, §1,107.74 (the proportional amount of county tax 
paid by negroes) from the cbunty school board, and §3.33 from miscellaneous 
sources, making a total of $8,588.51. 

Much side light is thus thrown upon the educational provisions for the two 
races in this county, and incidentally in other counties of the State. 

For a white population of 17,500 persons, there were 81 schools and 100 teachers, 
at a total cost of $50,958.09. For a colored population of 9,685 persons, scattered 
over the same area, there were 33 schools and 40 teachers, at a total cost of $8,588.51. 
The per capita cost of the education of each negro child was $5.74, while that for 
the county at large was §16.10. There was 1 white teacher for every 175 of the 
white population, and 1 colored teacher for every 242 of the negro population. 
One white school was provided for every 5.2 square miles, and 1 colored school for 
every 14 square miles. The pay of the colored teachers ranged from $180 to $225 

1 Compiled from Department of Labor Bulletin, No. 32, pp. 43-102 (January, 1901), by William 
Taylor Tliom, Ph. D., investigator. 



774 



EDUCATION KEPOET, 1900-1901. 



per annum. The average pay of all teachers, including both races, was $328.90, 
so that that of the white teachers must have been in the neighborhood of S;400. 

It is rather curious to be informed by the investigator that " there is no provision 
made in the office of the county commissioners or of the county clerk by which 
property can be identified as held by white or negro owners," when both by law 
and practice the colored schools receive only that proportion of county taxes paid 
by negroes. 

The settlement of Sandyspring was founded by the Society of Friends. To 
this fact is attributable the large number of free colored people in the community, 
as well as its general prosperity and thrift. 

The white population of Sandyspring is estimated at about 700 and the negro 
population at 1,000. 

There were 3 schools and 5 teachers for the Sandyspring negroes, 1898-99. The 
school term was nine months. The salary of the teacher was $25 a month, and 
the salaries of the assistants $20. The total enrollment was 391, only 240, however, 
belonging to the Sandyspring district proper. Of these 1,000 persons 484 were 
able to read, 38 could read but not write, while 140 were returned as illiterate. 
Of the 683 people i-eported, 70.9 per cent could read and write, 5.5 per cent could 
read but not write, and 20.5 per cent could neither read nor write. 

The negro males were distributed as follows among the several occupations: 



Barber 1 

Mail carrier 1 

Mail contractor , — 1 

Merchant 1 

Miller 1 

Shingle maker ... 1 

Teacher -. 1 

Waiter 1 

Bricklayers and stone masons 2 

Carpen ters - - 3 

Clergymen 2 

Hucksters 2 

The females were employed as follows 

Day workers 27 

Day v/orkers and housewives 25 

Domestic servants 72 

Housewives — 49 

Monthly nurses _.- 5 

Seamstresses and housewives 7 

Teachers 4 



Coachmen 3 

Domestic servants 8 

Engine drivers. 3 

Shoemakers 3 

At home 7 

Not reported... , 19 

At school 64 

Laborers 65 

Farm laborers 105 

Total 313 



Washerwomen and housewives 51 

Not reported .. 30 

At home - 23 

At school . 80 

Total 370 



Grand total _ 



68? 



If we subtract from this number 144 school children and 49 hausewives, 49 not 
reported, and 30 reported as being at home, we have left 411 engaged in gainful 
occupations. This represents 41.1 per cent of the aggregate colored population. 
Cunously enough, we have here the identical per cent of negroes thus engaged 
throughout the United States.' There were 153 males and 91 females who had 
worked at the same place from two to five years. The great majority of females 
had resided in their present place of residence for more than three years. This 
indicates a fair degree of steadiness in residence and occupation. There were 205 
negro families, with an average of 4.29 to each family. Of the 165 economic fami- 
lies, 63 families own their own homes, 54 were renters, 44 farm hands, and 4 tenure 
not reported. The average annual rent was $26,50. One-third of the families had 
annual incomes ranging between $250 and $750. The estimated income and 



1 Occupations of the Negroes, by Henry Gannett, p. 5. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEC4R0. 



77 5 



expenditure of a farm hand's family of five persons will be seen from the accom- 
panying table: 



Income. 

Husband (farm hand), $12 per month 

Wife (washintr), SI per v%'eek 

Boy, 6 mouths' labor, $3 per mouth. .. 

Total - 





Expenditures. 




SU4 


; Food 


SS8. 40 




Fuel 


20.20 


18 


Clothing , - ., 


50.00 




i Rent 


18. 00 






10. (» 




Medical treatment- 


10.00 
11.40 




i Total 




214 


214.00 









It will be seen that a family may exert itself to the ntmost stretch of endeavor, 
and would have to spend all its earnings in order to maintain the scanty necessi- 
ties of living. Its earnings are spent with the merchant, the landlord, and the 
professional classes, each of whom abstracts a surplus percentage in order to meet 
the cost of public taxation. 

Sixty-three females owned their own homes, 54 rented their houses, 44 were 
farmhands occupying their houses free of money rent, and 4 were not reported as 
to tenure. There were 92 owners of real estate; the size of the average holding 
was less than five acres; the assessed value was §31,500. The county tax rate was 
SI. 02 per $100, so that the landed interests alone of the Sandy Spring negroes 
produced $258.90 for county revenue. 

In the opinion of the investigator, "from an economic point of view, the conclu- 
sions drawn from the investigation of this group would appear to be favorable. 
The Sandy Spring negroes seem to be acquiring and holding property, and the 
agricultural element of labor among them gives a good account of itself." 

THE NEGROES OF FARMVILLE, PRINCE EDWARD COUNTY, VA.' 

Farmville is the county seat of Prince Edward County, Va., and contains about 
2,500 inhabitants. 

The white and colored population from 1790 to 1890 will be seen from the follow- 
ing table: 

Pojpidation of Prince Edward County, 1700 to 1S90, 



Census year. 


Whites. 


Negroes. 


Total. 


1790 . , .. 


4,082 
4,978 
5,264 
4,627 
5,039 
4,923 
4,177 
4,037 
4, 106 
4, 7.54 
4,707 


4,018 
5.984 
7, 145 
7,950 
9,008 
9,140 
7,080 
7,807 
7,893 
9,914 
9,924 


8,100 


1800 - 


10, 962 


1810 


12. 409 


1820 . . 


12, 577 


18iO 


14, 107 


1840 


14, 069 


1850 


11,857 


IStiO 


11,844 


1870 


12,(«I4 


1880 


14,668 


1890 


14,094 







The white population has remained nearly stationary for a hundred years, 
whereas the negroes have more than doubled in number. In 1890, the negroes out- 
numbered the whites more than two to one. There were 487 farms, 318 of which 
contained between 400 and 500 acres, with only six containing less than 10 acres, 
and two more than 1,000 acres. Fifty-seven per cent of the farms were cultivated 
by their owners. 



i"W. E. B. DuBois, Ph. D., Investia 
pp. 1-38, 



itor, DsiJartmeut of Labor Bulletin, No. 14, January, 1898, 



776 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1900-1901. 



The assessed valuation of real estate and personal property v/as $2,397,007. On 
this was raised the sum of $24,281 for taxation, $4,714 of which went to the sup- 
port of public schools. The negroes of the county, in 1895, owned 17,555 acres of 
land, assessed at $132,189, against 202,962 acres, with an assessed value of $164,180, 
owned by the whites. The number of acres and the assessed valuation of lands 
held by negroes will be seen from the following table: 



Year. 


Number 
of acres. 


Assessed 
value. 


1891 - 


13,215 
13,207 
U, 754 
16, 467 
17,555 


$83,212.48 


1893 , 


89, 787. 75 


1893 - - 


97,341.53 


1894 . 


105, 024. 48 


1895 . 


132, 188. 66 







Farmville is the trading center of six surrounding counties, with a population 
of 961 whites and 1,305 negroes. The chief industry is the storage, manufacture, 
and shipping of tobacco, wood-working, coopering, milling, and wholesale and 
retail merchandising. The total valuation of the town in 1890 was $661,230, on 
which a tax of $9,855 was raised, $661 of which went to the State school fund and 
$1,322 to the town and comity school fund. In 1895 negroes owned $51,240 worth 
of real estate, or about 7 per cent of the aggregate. 

There were 262 families of negroes in the town, about half of whom had moved 
there since 1880. The town has no school for colored children, but sends them 
to the district school, just outside of the corporation limits. The school term is 
six months. The teachers' salaries do not average over $30 a month. There were 
867 children between 5 and 15 years of age, of whom 205, or 55.9 per cent, were in 
school. Forty-two per cent of the negroes could read and write, 17^ per cent 
could read but not write, while 40 per cent were wholly illiterate. Four hundred 
and fifty-nine males were distributed among 41 different occupations. There were 
128 teamsters, 58 laborers, 16 domestic servants among the men, and 144 day 
workers, 65 domestic servants, 23 teachers, and 23 employees in the canning fac- 
tory among the women. Six hundred and fifty-one persons, or 48 per cent, were 
engaged in gainful pursuits, against 41 per cent of the negro population of the 
United States. The average size of the real family was 5.03, and of the economic 
family, 4.61. Of the 262 families, 114, or 43.5 per cent, own the homes they 
occupy, and 148, or 56.5 per cent, rent. The estimated amount of rent paid is 
$4,872 annually. The income of families ranges from $50 to $750. There were 
five families whose income exceeded the latter limit. 

Estimated annual income and expenditure of family of five persons. 



Income. 



Head of family: 

24 weeks' labor, at 75 cents per day- 
IB weeks' labor on farm, at 40 

cents per day 

Housewife: Fifty weeks' washing, at 
$1.50 per week 

Total 




Expenditure. 



Food 

Fuel 

Clotliing 

Rent 

Miscellaneous 
Surplus 

Total.... 



32.40 
50.00 
36.00 
15.00 

3.73 



221.40 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEURO. 



777 



Estiviated income and expenditure of famihj of five persons oioiiiig Jiome and in 

moderate circumstances. 



Income. 



Head of family: 

;53 weeks' work as carpenter, 'at 

75 cents per day 

Odd jobs 

Housewife and boy: Twenty weeks' 
work at tobacco factory, at %'i per 
week ., 

Total 




Expenditure. 



Food 

Fuel 

Clothinfj 

Taxes 

Miscellaneous 
Surplus 

Total.... 



jiir.on 

30. m 

m m 

8. on 

30.00 
39. 00 



284.00 



Here we see. as in Sandy Spring, tliat the average negro family, making the best 
use of its opportunities, must spend practically all of its earnings in the commu- 
nity, part of which, tinder any just estimate, goes to the support of public taxa- 
tion. In 1895 there were 119 negro taxpayers in the corporation on lots and 
buildings, ranging in value from $25 to $2,800. There were 232 white holders of 
real estate, the highest of whom was assessed at $16,000. There wa^s a considerable 
number of negro farmers owning valuable farm lands in the district surrounding 
the corporation. 

The investigator says that "it seems fair to conclude, after an impartial study 
of Farmville conditions, that the indastrious and property-accumxilating class of 
the negro citizens best represents, on the whole, the general tendencies of the group." 

THE NEGRO IN THE BLAOK BELT.' 

Grot n 1. — Six small groups, containing 920 negroes, have been studied by the 
Atlanta University, under the direction of Professor DuBois. All but one of these 
groups are situated in Georgia. Eleven representative families in Doraville and 
vicinity were studied, with the result that the average family was found to consist 
of 11.9 persons. Four of the heads of families could read and write: 5 owned their 
homes. The farms varied from 1 to 11 acres in extent and were worth from $100 
to $100. Six families rented their farms on shares and cleared from $5 to $10 in 
cash at the end of each year. Women and girls were employed as farm hands. 

Group ;?.— Lithonia is a small village of about 800 persons in Dekalb County, 
Ga. , 25 miles east of Atlanta. Negro stonecutters are employed at from $5 to $5.50 
per week. They rent, for the most part, small two-i*oom frames at $4 per month. 
The whites have a private and public school, giving them a term of from eight to 
nine months. The nogro schools comj)rise a Methodist and a Baptist school, each 
of which has a term of three months. Sixteen negro families were specially 
studied. Six of these families owned their homes and had an average yearly 
income of $369. The other 10 families paid on an average between $4 and $5 a 
month. Five of these families had an income of less than $200. 

GroKj) 5.— Covington is a village 41 miles southeast of Atlanta, Ga., and con- 
tained, in 1898, 3,000 persons. There were between 259 and 300 negro families, 50 
of which were chosen for study. The average size of these families was 3.76. 
There is a public school for negroes open nine months in the year. The principal 
receives $50 a month; his two female assistants .$30 a month. The illiteracy among 
the 50 families does not exceed 10 per cent. There were 8 porters, 6 teachers, 4 
barbers, 5 carpenters, 4 laborers, 3 gardeners, 3 office boys, 2 mail agents, 2 drivers, 
2 draymen, 2 grocers, 2 ministers, 2 waiters, 1 bartender, 1 fireman, 1 quarryman, 
1 contractor, 1 brick mason; of the females there were 11 teachers, 10 seamstresses, 
6 cooks, 3 washerwomen, 1 boarding-housekeeper, 1 housekeeper, making a total of 



» Labor Bureau Bu.lletin, No. 33, May, 1899, pp. 401-417. W. E. B. DuBois, Ph. D. , investigator 



778 



EDUCATION EEFOET, 1900-1901. 



85 i3ersons. or 45 per cent, engaged in the gainful occupations. The average income 
is between $300 and $500. The majority of the better class of negroes are buying 
property. The yearly income of the mass of negroes is between $100 and $300; of 
the better class, between $300 and $500. Of the 50 families studied, 41 own their 
homes and 9 are renters. 

Group 4.— Marion is in the midst of the black belt of Alabama, where the negroes 
outnumber the whites 4 to 1. The town has 2,000 inhabitants, equally divided 
between the races. Thirty-three negro families were studied. Tlie average family 
contained 5.3 persons. Twenty-eight owned their homes; five were renters. 
Among the mass of the negro population there are a number who own their homes. 
Sixty-one persons, or 41 per cent, were engaged in gainful occupations. The public 
school is poor, but is supplemented by three missionary schools. 

Oroup 5.— Marietta is a town of 4,000 inhabitants, 23 miles northwest of Atlanta. 
It has a negro population of 1,500, of whom 40 families, comprising 162 persons, 
were studied. The public schools are fair. Twenty-four families own their homes. 
Negroes are employed in local industrial works, receiving from 50 to 75 cents per 
day. The average negro family lives on from $2 to $4 a week. 

Group 6.— Athens is a city of 10,000 inhabitants, of whom one-third are negroes. 
Forty-five families were studied. Ten or fifteen were illiterate. Their public 
schools are well conducted. Thirty-nine of these families own their homes and 
six are renters. Thirteen families have an income of $750 a 3'ear; sixteen, between 
$500 and $750. 

It is probable that the families of the several groups were of the better class, 
and therefore show a higher average of living and industrial activity than would 
be true for the groups at large. 

CONDITION OF THE CITY NEGRO.' 

The first of the special studies relating to the negro race issued by the Labor 
Bureau was upon the condition of negroes in cities. The work was accomplished 
under the general direction of the Atlanta University. Reports were made from 
50 negro investigators. These were for the most part college graduates, teachers, 
doctors, and lawyers, each of -whom was expected to study one or more small 
groups of negroes in his own vicinity. From 10 to 20 houses standing together in 
portions of the city thought to be representative were taken as constituting a group. 
The number and distribution of the groups thus studied may be seen from the 
accompanying table: 



City. 



Groups. 



Eami- 
lie6. 



iDdiyid- 
uals. 



Atlanta, Ga - 

Nashville, Tenu ... 

Savannah, Ga 

Cambridge, Mass ... 
Washington, D. C - - , 

Macon, Ga 

Jacksonville, Fla ... 

Columbia, S. C 

BiTmingham, Ala . . 

Tuskegee, Ala 

Orangeburg, S. C -- 

Sandtord,Fla 

Athens, Ga 

Cartersville, Ga ... 

Louisville, Ky 

Macon. Miss 

Chattanooga, Tenn 
Jack.son, Tenu 

Total 



59 



334 

24G 

96 



1,137 



1,292 

1,090 

380 

38'j 

293 

90 

827 

81 

63 

119 

109 

116 

73 

53 

70 

64 

89 

67 



4,743 



1 Labor Bureau Bulletin No. 10, May , 1897, pp. 2.57 and 373. 
investigators. 



Atlanta University graduates et al., 



THE EDUCATIOlSr OF THE NEGKO. 



779 



The observations were sufficiently widespread to be typical of general city con- 
ditions. The average family contained 4.17 persons. This was considerably below 
the average size of a family for the cities under discussion, as shown by the Eleventh 
Census. Of 324 families in Atlanta, Ga., 73, or 22,53 per cent, owned the houses 
in which they lived, while 249, or 76.80 per cent, paid an average rent of $4.25 per 
month. Of the 24G families in Nashville, Tenn., 116, or 47.15 per cent, owned their 
houses, while 123, or 50 per cent, paid an average rent of $1.68 per month. In the 
82 groups located in other cities, of 469 families embraced therein, 157, or 33.48 per 
cent, owned the houses in which they lived, and 384, or 60.55 per cent, paid an 
average rental of §5.51 per month. Some families were paying for their houses on 
the installment plan. 

The occupations and earnings, by families, may be seen from the accompanying 

typic-al tables; 

Group 10. — Atlanta, Ga. 





Head of family. 


Children. 


Family 
No. 


Occupation. 


"Weeks 

em- 
ployed. 


Average 

weekly 

earnings. 


Earnings 

for the 

year. 


1 




50 
49 
36 
53 
53 
53 
53 
.53 
53 
43 
53 
43 
53 
53 
53 
49 
45 
48 
53 
49 
53 


$7.00 
3. .50 
7.00 
5.10 
4.00 
4.01) 
7.50 
4.00 
5 fiO 
2. .50 

13.00 
3. 50 
4.00 
6.00 
3.00 

10. CK) 
6.00 
7.00 

12.0(1 

..50 

1.50 


$133 


2 




48 


3 




100 


4 






r, 


do ... ... 


690 


6 


Laborer - . . 


156 








8 




130 


9 


Well-digger ... 


90 


10 






11 




234 


12 






13 






14 






15 




933 


16 


Bandmaster 


511 


17 




235 


18 




91 


19 






a) 






21 













Group 5. — Other cities. 



Carpenter 

...do 

Barber, proprietor 

Letter carrier 

Carpenter, lodging-house keeper, and capitalist . 

Merchant, boots and shoes 

Merchant, lum.b3r 

Cigar maker 

Not reported 

'Barker 

Steward of a club 

Carpenter 

Physician --. 

Clergyman 

Carpenter ^... 

Barber 

Clergyman .^ 

Post-office clerk 

Compositor 

Store porter 

Barber 

Longshoreman 

Contractor, building.. 

Contractor, building 

Barber, proprietor 

Merchant, boots and shoes ^ 

Waiter , head, hotel 

Teacher 

Merchant, commission 

do 

Clergyman and capitalist 



(') 


$13. 00 


53 


13. (K) 


53 


35. 00 


53 


14. 00 


53 


75. (H) 


53 


15. 00 


53 


15.00 


53 


13.00 


53 


13. (K) 


53 


30. 00 


63 


12.00 


53 


20. 00 


53 


12.50 


52 


12.00 


53 


13.00 


53 


35.00 


53 


16. m 


53 


8.00 


53 


10.09 


53 


13. 00 


53 


10.00 


52 


15.00 


53 


.50. 00 


■53 


15.00 


53 


35. 00 


40 


35. 00 


32 


13.. 50 


53 


50. 00 


53 


30.00 


53 


40.00 



$330 
212 



260 



308 
550 
530 
326 
520 



218 
520 



218 



560 
,496 
240 
300 
936 
780 



1 Not reported. 



780 



EDUCATIOIT KEPORT, 1900-1901. 
Nashville, Tenn. 



Family 
No. 



Head of family. 



Occupation. 



Weeks 

em- 
ployed. 



Average 

weekly 

earnings. 



Children. 



Earnings 

for the 

year. 



Carpenter 

Laborer 

Carpenter 

Washerwoman 

No occupation, charity . 

Porter 

Cook, restaurant 

Clergyman 

Porter 

Furniture merchant... 

Teamster 

Saloon keeper 

Hack driver 

Shoemaker 

Cook, family 

Engineer 

Porter, railroad 

Teamster, with team . . 

No occupation 

Sorter, lumber 

Teamster , . , 

Gauger, lumber 

Carpenter 



36 



15.00 
5.00 
9.50 



9.00 
30.00 

7.00 
25.00 

6.00 
15.00 
10.00 

7.00 

2.50 

8.00 
15.00 

5.00 



6.00 
6.00 
9.50 

7.50 



$1,123 
463 
118 



13 



173 
39 

108 



163 



183 
260 
536 
416 
100 



428 



These figures give quite a clear idea as to the steadiness of employment among 
negroes, as well as to the character of their occupation; 41 out of 60 heads of 
families in the groups here presented were employed 52 weeks during the year. 

In the city of Atlanta, Ga., out of a total of 324 families, 73, or 22.55 per cent, 
were supported wholly by male head of family; 31, or 9.57 per cent, wholly by a 
female head, and 84, or 25.93 per cent, wholly by a male and a female head of 
family. It is suggestive that 63.27 per cent of the families were supported wholly 
or in part by the mother; all of which goes to show to what an extent negro females 
are wage-earners in our cities. 

The death rate of the negro race was given much attention in this investigation. 
The vitality of a people affects all the relations which it sustains to the com- 
munity, whether economic or social. The general conclusion on this point is that 
the negro's death rate is about as 8 to 5 when compared with the whites, and that 
this excess is due mainly to remedial sanitary causes. 

While these studies are not sufi&cient to enable us to draw infallible conclusions, 
yet we have here a body of data covering a wide area and a great diversity of con- 
ditions. We are at present concerned only with the economic side of these inves- 
tigations in so far as they throw light upon the negro as a contributing factor of 
the several communities, who thus helps to support the burden of public taxation; 
and more especially the extent to which he contributes directlj' and indirectly to 
the education of his children. To this end it is essential to know (1) to what 
extent he has become a property owner; (2) to what extent he is tenant, and the 
money value of his rental; (3) how generally he is engaged in gainful occupations, 
and the manner in which he disposes of his earnings. 

We saw that of 1,000 persons composing 165 families, at Sandy Spring, Md., 92 
persons were owners of real estate; 63 families, or 38.2 per cent, owned the houses 
in which they lived; 54, or 32.7 per cent, paid money rent for the houses they occu- 
pied, and 44, or 26.7 per cent, occupied houses on the farm as a part of the stipu- 
lated agreement; 4 were not accounted for as to conditions of tenure. Forty-one 
per cent of the entire population was engaged in gainful occupations, and on the 
average a family must spend in the community nearly or quite all of its earnings 
in order to meet the ordinary requirements of living. 

In Farmville, out of 262 families, 114, or 43.5 per cent, owned their own houses; 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 781 

148, or 56.57 per cent, rented the houses they occupy, at an average rental of 
$4,872 annually. Fortj'-eight per cent of the entire population was engaged in 
gainful pursuits, and, as at Sandj' Spring, the average family must s{)end nearly 
or quite all of ita earnings in order to live. The Black Belt reveals the same 
conditions. 

In group 1, 5 out of 11 families owned their own homes, the other 6 rented their 
farms, and both sexes worked as farm hands. 

In group 2, 6 out of 16 families owned their homes, and 10 families paid rent, 
from §4 to §5 monthlj'. The men were generally employed. 

Forty-five per cent of group 3 were em^iloyed and the majority were reported 
as buying property. Of 50 families, 41 owned their own homes and 9 were renters. 

In group 4, 28 out of 33 families owned their homes, and 5 were renters. Forty- 
one per cent were distributed among the various lines of industrial pursuits. 

Group 5 showed 26 out of 40 families owning their own homes. 

Group 6 yielded 39 home owners out of 45 families studied, and 6 renters. 

When we turn to the cities, in Atlanta, Ga., 73 out of 324 families, or 22.53 per 
cent, owned their own homes, while 249 families, or 76.85 per cent, paid an aver- 
age rental of $4.25 per month. In Nashville, Tenn., 47.15 per cent of the families 
studied owned their homes and the rest paid an average rental of §4.68 per mouth. 
For the other cities in which investigations were made, of 32 groups in all, 33.48 
per cent owned the houses in which they lived and the rest paid §5.50 average 
monthly rental. 

That these families were steadily employed at wages not much more than suffi- 
cient to meet the urgent necessities of life can be judged by glancing at the tables 
under the head of city groups. Thus we see that the negro spends, and is spent 
in the several communities in which he resides, the little mite which, by the most 
rigid economy, goes to permanent accumulation after meeting the physical neces- 
sities of life, representing only an insignificant fraction of his energies. The pro- 
ductibility of his labor enhances the industrial and economic power of the com- 
munity. His expenditures swell the bulk and profit of the merchants' business. 
From the rents collected from his black tenant the landlord pays the taxes on his 
tenements, and in every sense the negro is a vital contributing factor in the 
economic welfare and is justly entitled to his due share of public privileges. 

VII. The Education of the City Negro. 

The urban negro constitutes a distinct problem from his rural brother. In their 
industrial status, social environments, and educational facilities they are widely 
asunder. 

In discussing the education of the negro it is not usual to discriminate between 
the two classes, but to include the entire race under the same formula. The eco- 
nomic conditions of the Southern cities are so different from those of the country, 
and the educational provisions are so glaringly discrepant, that the two must be 
separated in any scheme of profitable discussion. The negro's educational for- 
tunes have, perhaps, the widest margin of variation. His school opportunities in 
the cities are more nearly equal to those of the whites than in the rural districts. 
Thus the gap between the educational status of the two classes is emphasized. In 
the rural districts, where the school term covers only four or five months, and 
where economic and industrial conditions are such that the scholars do not attend 
regularly for even so short a term, it may be easily seen that the curriculum can 
not profitably be patterned after the city courses, with their superior advantages 
and facilities. When we consider that an average country child attends school for 
only a few terms, it appears that liis entire schooling is scarcely equal to four 
grades of the city curriculum. On the other hand, the negro city school has all 
of the essential advantages of up to date scholastic requirements. 



782 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1900-1901. 

Cities of more than 5,000 colored inhabitants in 1890, 



State and city. 



Alabama: 

Birmingham -- 

Mobile 

Montgomery- - 

Arkansas, Little Roek. - 

Delaware, Wilmington-.. 

District of Columbia, Washington 
Florida: 

Jacksonville -- 

Key West - - 

Penaacola .- 

Georgia: 

Atlanta 

Augusta - - 

Columbus 

Macon .. 

Savannah - — . 

Kentucky: 

Lexington 

Louisville 

Louisiana: 

Baton Rouge -. 

New Orleans--- - 

Shreveport- 

Maryland , Baltimore 

Mississippi : 

Meridian _-. -- 

Natchez. 

Vicksljurg 

Missouri: 

Kansas City - 

St. Louis 

Ncirth Carolina: 

Charlotte 

Newbern 

Raleigh 

Wilmington. 

South Carolina: 

Charleston. 

Columbia 

Tennessee: 

Chattanooga - 

Knoxville 

Memphis 

Texas: 

Dallas 

Galveston 

Houston 

Virginia: 

Alexandria- 

Danville - 

Lvnchburg 

Norfolk 

Petersburg 

Richmond 



White 
popula- 
tion. 



14, 

n, 

8, 
16, 

63, 
15i, 



13 



37, 
17, 
9, 
11, 
20, 

13, 
133, 

4, 

177, 

4 

337! 

5, 

4, 
6, 

118, 
434, 



909 
429 
893 
114 

754 
695 

373 
390 
001 

416 
395 
276 
538 
311 

020 

457 

444 
376 
439 
143 

442 

858 
., 164 

,821 
,704 

,417 
.573 
,320 
,731 

,919 
,563 



Colored 
popu- 
lation. 



11,354 
i;3,630 
13, 987 
9.739 
7,6-14 
75,573 

9,601 
5, 6.54 

5,743 

38,098 
15, 875 
8,035 
11.203 
23, 963 

8,544 
38, 651 

6,027 
64, 491 

7,532 
67, 104 

5,178 
5, 211 
7,304 

13,700 
:26, 865 

5,134 

5,371 

6, 348 

11^324 

30, 970 
8,789 

13,563 
6,423 
28, 706 

7,993 

6. 733 
10, 370 

5,113 

5,538 

9, 803 

16, 344 

13,331 

32, 330 



Expendi- 
ture for 

school 
purposes, 

1808-99. 



S38, 764 
76, 644 



67,599 
229, 332 



57,618 
12, 209 

18,847 

143, 345 

94, S86 
45,862 
80, 983 
131, 288 

86,171 
685,063 



398.000 
16, 000 



25,076 



545,988 
,118,454 



112, 720 
31, 751 

.43,000 

55,633 

182, 607 



105, 464 
111, 001 



School 
expendi- 
ture 
for State, 
18S9-1900. 



SI, 300, 000 



1,369,709 

418,479 

1,323,0;0 

710,919 



1,807,815 



3,163,000 
1, 135, 116 



3, 159, 503 
1, 165, 840 



7,184,250 
963, 045 



769,815 
1,661,144 



5,485,391 
],971,3C4 



The foregoing table reveals 4G cities in tlie Southern States with a negro popula- 
tion of more than 5.000, ranging irom that limit np to 75,000, Twenty-two cities 
have a negro population above 10.000, 11 cities above 20,000. and three above 50,000. 
We have hei-e an aggregate population of well nigh three-quarters of a million 
negroes collected in large municipal centers. The number of urban negroes 
exceeds the population of the State of Maine. Constituting about 10 per cent of 
the entire race, this body is too large to be ignored in any comprehensive treat- 
ment of the race problem. 

The movement of population toward cities constitutes one of the most marked 
sociological phenomena of our times. The negro follows in the wake of this move- 
ment, and, although he does not seem to possess a profitable economic status in the 
centers of commerce and marts of trade, he is attracted by the allurements of city 
life as a moth by the glare of a candle. Perhaps the most pressing phase of the 



THE EDUCATION" OF THE NEGEO. 



78^ 



race problem it^ presented by city conditions. The country negro is embalmed, as 
it were, in a state of nature, where ho will be preserved, physically at least, nntil 
his opportunity comes. With the city negro, on the other hand, it is immediate 
rescue or destruction. The rural negro llets from the country, with its meager 
opportunities, to the city, with its congenial social circles and school privileges, 
unmindful of the fact that he is swapping industrial conditions Vvith which he is 
familiar for those of which he has no knowledge. This constant influx of raw 
rural recriiits imposes new problems upon city schools, for with a crude and unde- 
A'aloped people the schools must fulfill not only the ordinary function of education, 
but must supplement defective home training. The city negro therefore presents 
a distinct educational problem with many interesting and peculiar features. 

In the rural districts of the South the school fund is woefully inadequate to 
support a satisfactory sj'stem. The duplication of schools m the same territory 
for the two races serves to accentuate this inadequacy. In the cities the funds are 
much more ample, and though they fall far short of the educational provisions 
made in the other sections of the country, nevertheless they are sufficient to pro- 
vide the essential facilities of instruction and to keep the schools in operation for 
the fall length of term. The division of the school funds on racial lines does not 
work so great a hardship in cities as in rural places, where the population is sparse. 

Per capita school funds for States and cities of the South. ^ 



Percapitafor- 



State and city. 



Alabama: 

Birmingliam 

Mobile - 

IVIontgomei'y 

Arkansas, Little Eock. . . 
Florida: 

Jacksonville 

Key West.. 

Pensacola-- 

Georgia: 

Atlanta 

Augusta 

Macon 

Colnmbus 

Savannah 

Kentucky: 

Lexington 

Louisville 

Louisiana, New Orleans. 
Maryland, Baltimore 



State. Cities 



SO. 71 
l.Oi 

1.34 



.71 



1.48 

.83 
3.07 



$1.84 
3.G1 

1.90 



3.60 



4.23 
1.64 



State and citj'. 



Mis.=iiRsippi, Meridian 
Missouri: 

Kansas City 

St. Louis 

North Carolina: 

Charlotte 

Newbern 

Raleigh 

Wilmington 

South Carolina: 

Charleston 

Columbia 

Tennessee: 

Chattanooga 

Knoxville 

Memphis 

Texas: 

Galveston _. 

Houston 

Virginia 



Percapitai'or- 



State. Cities. 



3.31 

.59 

.57 

.83 

1.80 
1.19 



S3. 37 
5.50 



3.08 
2.74 
3.83 



This table shows the school funds for the several States and cities under dis- 
cussion, and the cost per capita for school expenditures. It is seen that the pro- 
visions for the cities enormously exceed those for the State at large. In Alabama 
the per capita cost of education is only $0.71, while in the three leading cities of 
that State it is §1.84. In South Carolina the State educational fund is only §0.57, 
wtiile for Charleston and Columbia it is $2.08. If we should separate the cities 
from the rural districts, it will be seen that the per capita cost of the rural 
schools would fall much below the figures in the table. Let us not forget, also, 
the relative densities of the popiilation as au essential factor of efficiency. 

The courses of instruction for tlie colored schools embrace the ordinary primary 
and grammar grades, and in some of the cities high schools are also provided. 
The Supreme Court of the United States has recently decided, however, that a city 
is not compelled to maintain a high school for the colored race because it main- 
tains one for whites.^ 



' Population for 1890 and expenditure for 1898-09. 

2 One hundred and seveuty-fifth United States Eeports, p. 538, decided December 18, 1899. 



784 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1900-1901. 

The teaching force in city colored schools is more or less proficient from a pro- 
fessional standpoint. The colored teachers compare quite favorably with their 
white colaborers. The schools furnish the only avenue of profitaMe employment 
above domestic service for colored women, and therefore the best equipped mem- 
bers of the race are thiis engaged. The colored school teachers, male and female, 
receive on an average better pay than any other class of colored men or women in 
the several coro.m"anities. They are looked up to as leaders in social life and public 
activities. This gives to the colored schools a relative advantage which the whites 
do not enjoy, for their best energies flow in other channels. 

On the whole, it might be said that the urban negro's educational opportunities, 
so far as elementary instruction is concerned, are fairly ample, though of course 
far from ideal. Intellectual opportunities are open to every colored boy or girl 
which, among white youth, are counted sufficient to prej)are for the ordinary 
duties of life. The educational facilities for colored children in the communities 
under discussion are, perhaps, superior to those offered the white race on a similar 
scale thirty years ago. 

The true aim of education is to make the recipient wiser and better and to render 
him a more efficient instrument for service. Its beneficial effect is measured in 
terms of knowing, being, and doing. That the education of the negro has vastly 
increased his knowledge and tightened his intellectual grasp upon the problems of 
life can not be denied or doubted. The practical fvinction, however, is far from 
fulfillment. The industrial life of the race has in no sense kept pace with its intel- 
lectual improvement. The negro labors to-day under the same industrial dis- 
abilities as he did thirty years ago. His education has neither enabled him to 
counteract the effect of hostile industrial influences nor to make himself independ- 
ent of them. Indeed, he is daily losing industrial ground which he occupied when 
the dissemination of knowledge was not so general. It is doubtless true that to a 
large degree the cause of industrial decline is due to the operation of social forces 
which he can in no way direct or control; but the plain fact remains, and the edu- 
cational effort of the future must occupy itself largely with means of meeting 
these industrial deficiencies. 

Just here arises the perplexing question as to what modifications must be made 
in the general pedagogical programme in order to answer the peculiar needs of the 
negro race. All V(?iil agree that in any rational plan of education the scheme of 
instruction should be adapted to the needs, capacities, and x^robable vocation of 
those for whom it is proposed. 

Existing programmes were adapted to the capacities and needs of the white 
race, and handed down to the negro on the somewhat generous principle that 
what is good for the white goose is good also for the black gander. It is true that 
in fundamental requirements and laws of growth the human mind is one and has 
the same formative needs. Knowledge and virtue have no ethnic quality. The 
multiplication table and the sermon on the mount do not accommodate them- 
selves to local environments. The mind of the negro has the same faculties, pow- 
ers, and susceptibilities as. that of his white confrere. No competent authority 
has ever pointed out just where the two differ in any evident feature, and yet the 
average status of the races are so far asunder that the educational needs must be 
divergent at many points. 

It would not be wise here to enter upon the intricate question as to the relative 
capacity of the two races. Any discussion of potential capacity would be wholly 
speculative and void of practical value. The practical educator must be governed 
by that component of capacity which is available for practical work. Suppose 
the pupil can attend school only a fraction of the time, or that by reason of neces- 
sary detention he is habitually absent or tardy, or that he is so poorly fed and 
illy clad that the strain and stress of physical necessity enfeebles his intellectual 
energy, or that the course and tone of his home life stifles rather than stimulates 



THE EDIJCATION OF THE NEGEO. 785 

his bndding faculties. Can tliese factors be ignored with impunity? Would it 
be wise to proceed as if such obstacles did not exist? The negro constitutes the 
submerged element, and of necessity furnishes an excess of the defective, delin- 
quent, and unfortunate classes. We should not forget that the object of public 
schools is to benefit the masses. Their plan and scope should be adapted to the 
capacity and condition of those for whose welfare they are intended. 

The main concern of the college and the university is with the highest common 
factor, but the public schools must deal with the lowest common multiple. There 
are in every community many colored children who, by reason of exceptional 
faculties or good early influences, would easih' take intellectual rank with superior 
persons of the dominant race. This fact is demonstrated wherever mixed schools 
exist. But the negro race is a race of extremes; there is little continuity of devel- 
opment; his growth is by leaps and bounds. The field hand or house servant of 
yesterday becomes class orator at a Northern college to-morrow; but the 10,000 
field hands and domestic servants whom he leaves behind continue to pursue the 
daily humdrum of their stupid toil. It is perhaps generally true that the effect of 
the diffusion of knowledge is to increase the general capacity rather than to 
improve the extreme cases of ability. While three centuries of intensive culture 
has lifted the average status of the English race by many degrees, it has not 
enabled England to produce individuals superior to Shakespeare or Bacon. If 
this contention be correct, it is but natural to expect that the exceptional colored 
pupil will deviate widely from the normal average. This fact makes a just and 
equitable scheme a matter of great perplexity. The main feature of the pro- 
gramme should be placed near the center of gravity, with as wide a latitude of 
privilege as is compatible with the main purpose. 

If, therefore, it should appear that prevailing schemes are not suited to the 
exigencies of circumstances, there should be no hesitancy in adopting such modi- 
fications as the necessities of the case require. No maudlin sentimentality should 
be allowed to prevent such sensible adaptation. 

It might be argued with a considerable show of reason that it would be an 
unwise and dangerous acquiescence to acknowledge that there might be any 
divergence in the plan, scope, or method of public instruction. It is here that the 
humble are exalted and the mighty brought low until they meet upon a common 
level. The rich and the poor meet together; the state is the teacher of them all. 
The state, it may be claimed, has no right to discriminate among its subjects. 
The primary fact of discrimination is seen in the scholastic separation of the 
races. We should make the best use of the agencies in hand. 

It might also be argued that it is inexpedient from the negro's standpoint to 
acknowledge that the negro child requires any treatment different from that of 
the white child. This feeling is already too prevalent, and if once the precedent 
be established there is no telling where the innovation will end. Many believe 
that the whites are only waiting for a reasonable excuse to readjust the negro's 
education to what they think il ought to be. This objection is not without much 
validity and goes to show that such modification should proceed along wise, cau- 
tious, and conservative lines, effecting only a sensible adaptation of effort to con- 
dition. Our duty is to our day and generation. Future generations will have 
their own problems and their own facilities for solving them. We can no more 
establish educational regimes for the future than we can prescribe the style of 
bonnet or cut of gown for our great-granddaughters. If at any time in the future 
the social and economic status of the races should come nearer together than they 
are to-day, can we not rely upon the wisdom and good sense of that time for a 
wise readjustment of regimes? All the hopes of the negro for a larger and better 
future rest upon the basis of this reliance. 

The wild clamor for identity of plan and method without examining into fitness 
and adaptability shows a lack of self-knowledge, self-confidence, and self-respect, 

ED 1901 50 



78'^ EDFOATIOK BEPOKT, 19G0-1901. 

Imitation witliout intelligence leads to grotesque and cTangerons results. It is 
related of a Chinaman tliat when taking his first lessons in cooking he observed 
that his preceptress rejected every other egg out of a dozen, and when it came his 
turn to repeat the experiment this disciple of the kitchen, exercising a character- 
istic facility for imitation, rejected the eggs in the same order in which he observed 
his mistress had done; but as the rotten eggs happened to be differently dis- 
tributed in the two cases, the pupil was subjected to the double chagrin of wasting 
his mistress's eggs and of spoiling her cake. By apish imitation, without intelli- 
gent discrimination, we may waste eggs and spoil the cake in a pedagogical as 
well as in a cuMnary sense. 

Every subject in a programme of study, as well as every j)lan and method of 
iaipartation, should be interpretable in terms of actual needs and conditions. In 
a community where there is a considerable fraction of foreign population, there 
might be suiScient reason for introducing the vernacular of that element in the 
school programmes. Such language might be serviceable in the conduct of business 
and social intercourse, or might lead to a cultivation and enjoyment of ancestral 
literature and life; but there could be no such motive for adding similar lines to 
the colored schools. This dees not apply to the educational value of language, but 
to its practical bearing and use. The attempt to master a foreign tongue before 
the pupil can secure harmony among the parts of speech in his own vernacular is 
grotesque and irrational.. 

A large proportion of white pupils on leaving school will enter upon business 
careers, either as occupants of prepared places or on their ovv-n responsibility. It 
is but reasonable, therefore, that professional business courses should form a part 
of their regular programme. But not one colored child in a hundred is likely to 
enter upon such a career. While the negro needs to be instructed in business 
forms and methods, the motive in the two cases is entirely different. The subject 
should be approached from the direction of the motive, reason, and end in view, 
and not in the spirit of observing a superficial sameness. Prof. Booker T. Wash- 
ington will go down to history as one of the greatest educators of his day, per- 
haps as the greatest. His success is due mainly to the fact that he does not copy 
methods that have been exploited under other and more favorable conditions, but 
has devised plans for his constituency adapted to their present environment. 

It must not be supposed, however, that the state owes less to the colored than 
to the white child. Although the needs of the negro child may often differ from 
those of the white child, yet they are rather greater than less. It certainly requires 
as great an outlay and as assiduous an effort to bring Jiim up to the required stand- 
ard of good citizenship. 

Let us now consider some of the especial and distinctive features which should 
be made prominent in colored schools. Although many of these features are com- 
mon to the needs of all schools, nevertheless in their application to the negro in 
the present state of his needs specialty of condition demands a more decided 
emphasis. 

There is much dispute among educators as to the exact function and value of 
kindergarten training, but all wilh agree that it is of the highest importance to 
children of the neglected classes. No clearer statement of the case can possibly be 
made than was done by the superintendent of schools for Baltimore in a recent 
annual report: 

Many children are compelled to leave school by the time they are old enough to 
earn wages to help support the family. Consequently many of them must receive 
all of their schooling befo: e they are 10 years of age. In order to afford this class of 
children, found generally in the slums and in the most forlorn parts of the city, 
better opportunities for improvement it is very desirable to organize schools in 
such sections for the instruction of children between 3 and 6 years of age. Kinder- 
gartens would lengthen the school life of such children about three years and 
rescue them, for a time at least, during the most impressionable period of their 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 787 

lives from the evil influence of homes in which idleness, vice, and crime are the 
daily examples set for their imitation. If the 5"0ung children of idle, thriftless 
parents could be taken from their homes and subjected daily to the hnmanixing 
and eniishteninsj inflnenees of good schools, in charge of proiserly qualified teach- 
ers especially adapted to the performance of such worli, many of them would be 
doubtless rescued from Jeading such lives as they see daily those amoi^g them liv- 
ing, and instead of growing up in igi^orance and vice, to increase the number of 
idle and lawless, they would become industrious and law-abiding citi: ens. Such 
schools must constitute an important feature of any successful scheme the city 
may be compelled to adopt in its own protection.' 

These words apply with especial emphasis to the colored race, which supplies a 
large part of the submerged element. The criminal and vicious tendency of a 
large fraction of the negro population is alarming in its proportions. The ordi- 
nary process of education seems to have but little beneficial influence. Some 
method must be devised to reach, to help, and to save them. The state will be 
forced to animadvert to this matter for its own protection and defense. The kin- 
dergarten is the only institution yet proposed which promises the desired relief. 
The expense of such schools Avould doubtless be enormous; but it is poor econ- 
omy that saves in the educational department only to add to the criminal budget. 

There are only two vvays by which children of degrading environments can be 
rescued. One is to take hold of them at a tender age, before the}' reach the ordi- 
narj' school period, and giA^e their thoughts, feelings, and aspirations the proper 
direction and trend. The other is to keep them in school for a sufficient length of 
time to appreciate the transforming power and refining influence of knowledge 
and culture. So far as the masses are concerned this last remedy is impossible. 
The first years of school life are spent in mastering the hard mechanics of learning. 
There is little or no reflex influence ui)on the life and character. This must come, 
if at all. at an earlier or a subsequent date. The school influence must reach lower 
do-WTi in the life of the negro child. The human twig is given its moral bent and 
inclination before reaching the ordinary school period, and the whilom effect of 
routine instruction can scarcely prevent it from growing into a twisted and. dis- 
torted trunk. 

The State establishes and maintains schools for the sake of producing a better 
grade of citizenship. In order to succeed with the submerged element it must 
step in loco parentis and take hold of the child while it is yet susceptible to moral 
impressions. This is not a charity or vicarious benevolence, but a plain duty 
demanded by every consideration of enlightened self-interest. It is as essential 
that the State protect itself from such internal evils as it is to maintain the Army 
and Navy to ward off foreign foes. The great difficulty with the ordinary colored 
child is that he enters the school too late and leaves too soon to derive from it the 
full benefit which it is calculated to impart. The term can be lengthened more 
easily and more profitably from below than from above. Let the education of the 
negro reach down before reaching up, and if there needs be a choice let it reach 
down rather than up, but let it always reach as far as possible in both directions. 

To the white child the essential aim of education is to enable him to fit into 
an established social and industrial order. The negro child must endeavor to 
improve the status of his race. There is no one who has gone before to prepare a 
place for him. The teacher of the negro child needs more of the spirit of the mis- 
sionary to arouse and quicken his lethargic energies into life and activity. Every 
successful teacher must be devoted to duty, but the colored teacher should be con- 
secrated to a cause. He needs not only professional zeal for the work, but also 
the ardent devotion of a moral enthusiast. Every such teacher should regard 
himself as a laborer in the vineyard of humanity and not merely as a jiedagogue 
peddling his services for pay. 

1 Seventeenth annual report of the Board of Commissioners of Public Schools of Baltimore, 
1898, p. 102 et seq. 



788 EDUCATIOlSr EEPOET, 1900-1901. 

The Northern missionaries wlio came South immediately after the war to labor 
among the recentlj^ emancipated slaves would hardly be accounted educators in 
the modern sense of that term. Many of them were not even educated, and yet 
by reason of their missionary zeal and moral enthusiasm they wrought marvelous 
transformations. The State, with its more competent secular agencies, has sup- 
planted them in the educational field, but it can neither hire nor demand the subtle 
spirit. It can only exact outward decency of behavior and a reasonable proficiency 
of service. The spirit of enthusiasm and consecrated zeal must spring from the 
consciousness on the part of the teacher that his own welfare is indissolubly linked 
with that of the masses whom he is commissioned to enlighten. 

The negro child needs especially to be rooted and grounded in the concrete prin- 
ciples of things. It is characteristic of tropical temperaments to revel in intellec- 
tual subtleties and fine flights of fancy while ignoring the material things by which 
they are surrounded. Races and nations remain in a backward or barbarous state 
because they fail to heed the divine injunction to subdue the earth. All attempt 
to escape the difficulties of earth by building a tower to reach to the skies must 
end in a confusion of tongues. The Anglo-Saxon has gained his present eminence 
among the nations because he is of the earth earthy. He delves while others soar; 
he applies while others speculate. The Anglo-Saxon is not siiperior to other men 
in intellectual gifts or moral endowments. For intellectual subtlety and spiritual 
perception the Hindoo is conceded to be his equal, if not his superior, and yet when 
it comes to bringing things to pass one Englishman is equal to a thousand Asiatics. 
A close study of the Yankee reveals the fact that he is equal to almost any practi- 
cal emergency, even when he has a rather slender basis of intellectual equipment. 
On the other hand, the negro is rather theoretical than practical. He knows 
immensely more than he can do. His practical prowess has by no means kept pace 
with his intellectual achievements. Slavery taught him to work by rule and rote, 
but not according to plan and method. The first effect of intelligence was, natu- 
rally enough, to disgust him with manual toil, which stood to him as a reminder 
of slavish drudgery. He has never learned the gospel of work or the joy of service, 
because he has never entered into it with intelligent plan and purpose. A thought 
is married to a thing and an enterprise is born, but when thought is divorced from 
things there is nothing but sterile speculation and barren criticism.. 

The greatest need of the negro is to bring the wild energy of his muscle under 
the guiding intelligence of his mind. In all his experience he has not been com- 
pelled to observe the fine adaptation of effort to task, but he has been confined to 
such crude lines of service that the vaguest approximation was deemed sufficient. 

There are only two ways by which a people may gain proficiency in practical 
things. One is by long familiarity and practice in controlling affairs until the 
habit becomes fixed and is handed down by heredity. The other is by means of 
education of the young. The latter process is by far the more rapid, and is indeed 
the only course open to the negro at the present time. The child learns in a few 
years what it took the race half a dozen generations to acquire. If education can 
not overcome heredity, it can at least discount it by an enormous per cent. 

The negro child needs to be trained in practical judgment, a faculty in which it 
must be conceded he is woefully deficient. He is too apt to commit to memory 
rather than to the understanding. If the average child were put to the test as to 
the weight and value of things which have become familiar by glib recital or 
required to interpret the verbal image of ideas in terms of their concrete equiva- 
lents, the results would be grotesque indeed. His information should be inter- 
preted in terms of his own thoughts, feelings, and volitions. He should be made 
to feel that all lines of knowledge radiate from him as a conscious center. The 
method of impartation should be actual, tactual, factual. The old adage tells us 
that knowledge is power, but this applies only to digested and assimilated knowl- 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGEO. 789 

edge. If one takes food into his stomacli and fails to digest it, it not only does not 
give him added strength, but saps from him the strength already acquired. Intel- 
lectual indigestion acts in about the same manner as the corresponding physical 
ailment, Negro youth are everywhere suffering from intellectual indigestion, 
and. there is danger of a race of mental dyspeptics. The only remedy is through 
a method of education which shall observe a just balance between the abstract 
and concrete. 

The complaint is universal that our school curricula are overcrowded and that 
the pupil can get only a smattering of the kaleidoscopic programme. If this be a 
detriment to the white youth, it must be doubly so to the negro child, who may 
be the first, or well nigh the first, in the history of his rp.ce who has learned the 
use of letters. A little learning is a dangerous thing, and especially so if dissi- 
pated over too wide an area. The white child is apt to be steadied and balanced 
by his setting in society; the negro can hope for no such corrective influence. He 
is likely to overestimate his capacity and attainments and to make a miserable 
fizzle in an ambitious career, where he might have made a useful and respectable 
citizen in a more modest sphere. Or he may become a vainglorious, self-conceited 
egotist, disgusting sensible men with a showy display of shallow learning. To 
correct this tendency the courses should be judiciously limited in range and scope 
and a thoroughness of mastery rigidlj'' insisted upon. 

All that has been said under the head of concrete methods emphasizes the 
importance of manual training. The negro was brought to this country to labor 
with his hands. For more than two centuries he has fulfilled this manual mis- 
sion; and for many years to come this must be his chief function in society. 

He should be taught to do with skill, accuracy, and method that which inevita- 
bly devolves upon him. Being shut out from the shops he must look to the school 
for the only means through which he may be prepared to gain and retain a satis- 
factory status in the industrial order. 

Manual training must be carefully discriminated from industrial education. 
The one looks forward to definitely established lines of work, the other to the 
acquisition of power. So far as we can judge the future by the present, it would 
be almost useless to equip any considerable number of our colored youth in our 
large cities with mechanical trades. They would have few facilities for plying 
them. The colored workman is rigorously excluded by organized effort. He 
labors under the double disadvantage of being weak and of being black. This 
makes the negro's industrial outlook a very unpromising one. The real hope is 
that he may be driven to take the industrial initiative, as the spirit of caste has 
already developed in him ecclesiastical independence and social self-sufficiency. 

The real demand is for manual training which will enable him to do with mind 
as well as with might what his hands may find to do. 

Nine-tenths of the negroes in cities must make their living by bodily labor and 
domestic service. More skill, intelligence, and character must be put into these 
lines of work. 

Whatever may be said of the universal requirement of a system of ediication 
in the abstract, all will agree that the ijractical programme must have reference 
to the probable vocation of its recipients. The negro race can not escape this law. 
The bulk of them for all time that we can foresee must earn their livelihood by 
some form of manual labor. The following table shows the occupations in which 
city negroes are generally engaged. There are no potent forces at work which will 
materially modify this programme within any calculable period of time. The 
table shows that in all of the largest cities of the South 98,470 males and 79,429 
females were employed in gainful occupations, making a total of 177,899. Of this 
number 60,172 men were employed as laborers, servants, draymen, teamsters, 
messengers, etc., and 67,680 women followed domestic and laundry service. It is 



790 



EDXJCATION EEPOET, 1900-1901. 



within these industrial lines that the negro must live and move and gain a liveli- 
hood. His education, therefore, should have direct bearing upon that sphere of 
industrial activity. 

Occupations of negroes in cities. 



MALES. 



City. 



Atlanta, Ga 

Baltimore, Md... 
Charleston, S. C . 
Kansas City, Mo. 
Louisville, Ky ... 
Memphis, Tenn., 
Nashville, Tenn . 
New Orleans, La 
Richmond , Va . . . 
St. Lor.is,Mo 

Total 



All occu- 
pations. 



470 



Labor- 
ers. 



2,3!)7 

5,498 
2, 610 
1,528 
3.123 
1, 143 
2, 503 
7,455 
2,248 
2,2'48 



31,584 



Serv- 
ants. 



1,134 

3,507 
852 
1,331 
1,356 
990 
1,017 
1,374 
1,100 
1,543 



14,203 



Dray- 
men, 
team- 
sters, etc. 



' 775 

2,586 

503 

383* 

1,232 

1,052 

803 

1,096 

805 

921 



10, 156 



Messen- 
gers, por- 
ters, etc. 



300 
1,139 
280 
188 
388 
565 
334 
331 
305 
519 



4,329 



FEMALES. 



City. 



All occu- 
pations. 



Serv- 
ants. 



Laun- 
dresses. 



All other 

occu- 
pations. 



Atlanta, Ga. 

Baltimore, Md... 
Charleston, S. C . 
Kansas City, Mo 
Louisville, Ky .-. 
Memphis, Tenn. . 
Nashville, Tenn . 
New Orleans, La 
Richmond, Va ... 
St. Louis, Mo 

Total 



79,439 I 38,932 



3,986 
6,191 
3,638 
973 
3,455 
2,283 
2,465 
4,635 
3, 086 
3,043 



28,754 



561 

1,733 

3,141 

220 

597 

7.54 

673 

3,930 

1,653 

483 



11,743 



The question of sex as a factor in education has recently received much atten- 
tion. One of the most strilfing phenomena of the city negro is the relative excess 
of women. Strangely enough, this phenomenon seems to have escaped attention. 
The economic conditions which prevail in the rural districts are sufficient to 
account for this condition of things. The women are not well suited to farm labor; 
they can not enter into competition with men in such arduous tasks. On the other 
hand, there is an unlimited demand in the cities for competent and efficient col- 
ored females in the domestic sphere. It is not surprising, therefore, to find an 
enormous preponderance of women in the large centers. This excess of the female 
element conditions all phases of urban negro life, whether in home or church or 
general society. The school also feels its controlling influence. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



791 



Total population, school population, and school attendance of negroes in cities 
having more than 5,000 negro inhabitants. 





Population. 


School population. 


Number of pupils 
in school. 




Males. 


Females. 


Males. 


Females. 


Males. 


Females. 


Alabama: 


.5, .511 
6.100 

5, 413 

4,738 

4,202 

33,831 

4,362 
2, 739 
2,810 

12, 400 
7,108 
3. 526 
4, 995 

10, 493 

13. 348 
3,915 

3,118 

28,936 
3,486 

29, 105' 

2,324 
2,210 
3,139 

7,0.53 
13,247 

2.280 
2:305 
3,398 
5,070 

14. 187 
4,366 

6. .599 
3.101 

13.:333 
13,334 

4, 114 
3,063 
4, 792 

2.393 

2.382 
4,048 
7.506 
5,409 
14,216 


5,738 
7,547 

7,578 

4,311 

5,134 

41,866 

.5,176 
2, 951 
2,939 

15, 717 
8,797 
4.501 
6,210 

12,485 

15.324 
4,632 

2.916 

a5,727 
4,034 

38,131 

2,8.58 
3,033 
4,070 

6,842 
13,819 

2,860 
2,9C6 
2,9.55 
6,225 

16,849 
4,424 

5,976 

3,328 
15,396 
16,061 

3,947 
3,702 

5,587 

2,720 
3,1,59 
5,758 
8,748 
6,813 
18,138 


1.716 
2,293 
1,994 


2,007 
2,603 
2,642 


664 

538 


798 




612 






Delaware: 






Arkansas: 

Little Rock 


1,429 
12,083 

1,624 

928 
993 

4. .5:19 
2,013 
1,316 
1.816 
3,328 

4,291 
1,437 

1.041 
9,946 
1,256 

8,595 

960 

887 

1,099 

1,897 
3,978 

888 

939 

1,130 

1,899 

4.877 
1,512 

2,019 
1,012 

4,281 
4,&52 

1,311 
1,013 
1,619 

975 
878 
1,593 
2,293 
2,052 
4, 8-52 


1,791 

14,536 

1,889 
1.061 
1,118 

5.673 
3,131 
1,(547 
2, 175 
4,177 

4,8.36 
1,517 

1.094 

11,852 

1,495 

11,999 

1,123 

1,060 
1,368 

2,208 
4,399 

1,084 
1,049 
1, 054 
2,152 

3, 729 
1,609 

2, 139 
1,191) 
5.091 
5,518 

1,436 
1,32;J 
2,125 

1.015 
1. 110 
2. 182 
2.811 
2.4^11 
6,o0<) 


653 


877 


District of Columbia: 




Florida: 


690 

277 
381 

1,094 
692 
484 
229 
620 

2,1.54 
395 

105 

2,595 
198 

3,073 

211 
329 
313 

948 
2,449 

257 

6:53' 

594 

1,094 
362 

897 
346 


790 


Key We.st . - 


321 




415 


Georgia: 

Atlanta 

Augusta 


1,240 
945 
726 




292 




822 


Kentucky: 


2,675 




502 


Loiiisiana : 


111 


New Orleans 


2,783 
214 


Maryland: 


3,676 


Mississippi: 


275 




421 




473 


Missoiiri: 


1,162 




2, 573 


North Carolina: 


835 


Ncwbern - 

Raleigh .. 


742 




093 


South Carolina: 


1,390 




505 




1,066 




434 








1,189 

400 
392 
64(5 

383 
401 
6R0 
513 
769 
2, 110 


1,577 


Texas: 


500 




4.59 




776 


Virginia: 


378 




409 




C93 




745 




1,055 




2,858 






Total - 


334,4:13 


397,990 


111,074 


134,689 


30,758 


37,623 







This table shows the excess of colored females in the Southern cities which con- 
tained in 1890 more than 5,000 colored inhabitants. There is an excess of 63,557 
colored females, who are in the majority in all the cities named except Baton 
Rouge. La., Chattanooga, Tenn., Raleigh, N. C, Kansas City. Mo., and Dallas, 
Tex. The preponderance of men in these cities can be explained on the ground of 
special industrial conditions. It is known that there is great demand for colored 
male labor in the works of Chattanooga; and the excess in Kansas City can be 
accounted for by the fact that tlie males oxitriumber the females gc-nerally through- 
out the Western country. The relative excess of females of school age can not be 



792 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1900-1901. 



wholly accounted for by industrial conditions, and is a phenomenon which still 
awaits an explanation. That there should be 63,000 more females than males in 
the population at large, or 119 females to every 100 males, is surely a less striking 
phenomenon than that for ages between 5 and 20 the ratio should be 121 to 100. 
When the school attendance is considered the disproportion is still more glaring, 
there being 122 females to every 100 males. These figures should be studied in the 
light of proportion rather than as absolute numbers. The figures relative to a few 
cities are not given. For example, the census does not give the x)upils for the city 
of Washington, whose numbers would have much weight on the general result; 
but it is also probable that the omitted figures bear about the same disproportion 
as those which are presented, so that the value of the table is not affected by their 
omission. 

The female excess for the 11 cities which contained in 1890 a colored population 
of more than 20,000 is here presented: 

Excess of colored females over males. 



City. 



Colored 
males. 



Colored 



Excess of 
females. 



Number 

of fe- 
males to 
100 
males. 



Baltimore... 
Richmond-... 

Atlanta 

Washington . 
New Orleans 

Nashville 

Charleston - . 
Savannah ... 

Memphis 

Louisville ... 
St. Louis 

Total.. 



39, 165 
14,316 
13,400 
83, 831 
28,936 
13,334 
14, 187 
10, 493 
13, 333 
1-3,348 
18.247 



38,131 

18,138 

15, 717 
41,866 
35,727 
16, 061 

16, 849 
13, 485 
15, 396 
15,324 
13,819 



131 

128 
127 
123 
133 
120 
119 
119 
115 
115 
104 



196, 490 



239, 513 



43,033 



131 



This table bears out the general tendency. There are 121 females to every 100 
males, the total excess of females being 43,023. This surplus would form a city as 
large as Jersey City, N. J. 

Such a disproportion in the population makes an unsatisfactory condition of 
society. But it presents a problem with which the schools must grapple. This is 
especially significant as applied to industrial education. These girls must become 
wage-earners. The investigations of the Atlanta conference showed that a large 
per cent of negro homes were supported wholly or in part by female wage-earn- 
ers.^ The preponderence of the female sex renders their participation in wage- 
earning pursuits inevitable. There is practically but one field open for them, and 
that lies in the sphere of the household industries. When we speak of industrial 
education, reference is usually had to work in wood or metal or training in some 
manly vocation; but the city negro presents a unique industrial problem. The 
negro male has no fixed industrial status. The trade organizations exclude him 
from participation in the higher mechanical pursuits. There is no assurance that 
any considerable number could find means of plying their trades, even if they 
were equipped with them. It is true that the spirit of trades unionism is fiercest 
in the North, but there seems to be no doubt that the same policy will be adopted 
in the South whenever the exigencies of industrial rivalry make it necessary. The 
whites belong to the preferred class, and the negro is forced out of any pursuit 
which they wish to occupy themselves. This unpleasant, though stubborn, fact 
renders a programme of profitable industrial training for the city negro very dif- 
ficult to formulate. 



> Bulletin Labor Bureau, No. 10, p. 267. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 793 

On the other hand, the colored woman holds undisputed sway in the field of 
domestic service, and nothing but her own incompetence can ever dislodge her. 
This affords one of the chief means of support of negro families, more than half 
of whom subsist in whole or in part by such service. The industrial education of 
the city negro must take cognizance of these facts and should be shaped largely to 
the requirements of domestic economy and household industries. 

The negro pupil should be taught a knowledge of the conditions and circum- 
stances of his race. As he must live the life conditioned by his race, his training 
should give him some adequate notions about that life. The German, the Irish- 
man, the Scandinavian, or any other element of our cosmopolitan population need 
not of necessity study the status of their racial stock. What to them may be a 
matter of sentiment or pride, to the negro is a stern necessitj'. They are not com- 
pelled to live the life of their race unless they elect to do so. They are eligible to 
become at once fuli-fledged American citizens, without any hyphenated prefix. 
But not so with the negro. He can not escape the onus of his race. Mr. Douglass 
used to say that wherever the negro goes he carries himself with him. Every per- 
son who is tainted with his blood is circumscribed and conditioned by that fact. 
If it is the function of education to teach the pupil to enter upon the life which 
lies before him, should not the negro pupil be taught something of that life of 
which he must ever form a part? The American pupil is instructed in the history, 
institutions, and traditions of his country, in whose economy he must soon take 
his place. The negro is an American, but he is none the less a negro. Unlike the 
Jew, who of his own choice jirefers to cling to the traditions of his fathers, the 
negro lias little opportunity of gaining accurate or beneficial knowledge of his 
race through personal and domestic channels. His main reliance here, as in all 
other relations, must rest in the schools. 

The ordinary text-books that treat of ethnological topics are often humiliating 
to his pride and revolting to his sense of self-respect, A hideous picture of an 
African savage and some reference to a domesticated race are about all he can 
hope to find about himself in the ordinary text which is placed in his hands. 
Whatever is creditable to the negro is merged in the credit of the general popula- 
tion, while the odious and repugnant stand out in bold relief. Some special cor- 
rective influence is necessary in order that the negro may not despise himself, for 
no class of people who despise themselves can hope to gain the respect of the rest 
of mankind. While he is feasting upon the fruits of the tree of knowledge, he 
should beware lest he should be eating and drinking unto his own damnation. It 
is folly to feed the intellect and starve the spirit. The negro child has a right to 
know of the contributions and achievements of his race, however insignificant these 
may appear in the eyes of his white neighbor. " These little things are great to 
little men."' Inspiration is a more valuable function of education than informa- 
tion. Youth are inspired to noble endeavor mainly by the deeds of those of their 
own kind and condition. 

It is indeed true that a people may become too painfully self-conscious. This 
will make them too proud and elated or too abject and mean. The negro whose 
time is spent in lachrymal lamentations over the woes and miseries of his race 
would not make an ideal citizen. The colored boy or girl, on the other hand, who 
grows up ignorant of the special condition of the class to which he is relegated 
would be as deficient in practical knowledge as the American youth who knows 
nothing of the history, institutions, and laws of his country. No negro can afford 
to be incurious as to the status of his race. It would be as great a manifestation 
of folly as it would be on the part of a convict to attempt to ignore the fact that 
he is in durance vile. 

Wherever separate schools exist— and the fact of their existence is the most per- 
suasive argument that the negro is shut in to a racial circle and range — there 
should be some definite instruction in subjects that pertain to the race. Of course, 



794 EDUCATIOIsr EEPOET, 1900-1901. 

there shoiald be the highest prudence and caution in the selection of subject-matter 
and in the manner of itnpartation. All f rictional and inflammatory methods should 
be discarded, and only subjects that are accurate, comprehensive, and sensible 
should find favor. There might be placed in parallel columns vprongs suffered and 
benefits received, rights withheld and duties neglected, present proscription of 
privilege and the larger promise of the future. 

We have in the city negro a special educational problem of peculiar importance. 
The entire negro population mnst look to the cities for diffusion of light. The 
perfection of their educational regimes, therefore, is not only of prime importance 
to the 700,000 therein collected, but also to the 8,000,000 who are scattered abroad. 



PART II.— THE HIGHER EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 
I. The Intellectual Capacity of the Negro. 

The negro is scarcely ever considered with reference to the primary problems of 
life. Those needs of the human race which do not depend upon temporary condi- 
tions and circumstances are not generallj^ deemed predicable of him. The African 
is not regarded in his own. right and for his own sake, but merely with reference 
to the effect which his presence and activity produce upon the dominant Aryan. 
He is merely a coefficient which is not detachable from the quantity whose value 
it may either increase or diminish. The black object is always projected against 
a white background, producing a grotesqne and gloomy silhouette. The whole 
history of the contact of the races deals with the negro as a satellite whose move- 
ments are secondary to those of the central orb about which it revolves. Civili- 
zation was not thonght possible for the sons of Ethiopia. The sable livery of the 
Tropics was deemed impervious to ennobling influences. The negro could only 
contribute to the wants and welfare of the higher race. With a self- debasement 
surpassing the vow of the anchorite, he was expected to bow down to this white 
god and serve him, ascribing unto him "the kingdom, the power, and the glory, 
forever." The whole scheme of the subjugation and oppression of the Africa,n is 
based upon the theory that the negro represents an inferior order of creation, and 
therefore his needs are secondary to and derivable from those of his white lord 
and master. The ordinary attributes and susceptibilities of the hnman race were 
denied him. When it Avas first proposed to furnish means for the development of 
the nobler side of the negro race, those v/ho possessed the wisdom of their day and 
generation entertained the proposition either with a sneer or with a smile. Ridi- 
cule and contempt have characterized the habitual attitude of the American mind 
toward the negro's higher strivings. The African was brought to this country 
for the purpose of performing manual labor. His bodily powers alone were 
required to accomplish this industrial mission. No more account was taken of 
his higher susceptibilities than of the mental and moral faculties of the lower 
animals. The white man, as has been wittily said, saw in the negro's mind only 
what was apparent in his face — '■ darkness there, and nothing more." His useful- 
ness in the world is still measured by physical faculties rather than by qualities of 
mind and soul. Even after the wonderful transformations of the past thirty 
years, many claim to discern no function which he can fill in society except to 
administer to the wants and wishes of others by means of bodily toil. The merci- 
less proposition of Carlyle, "The negro is useful to God's creation only as a ser- 
vant,"' still finds wide acceptance. It is so natural to base a theory upon a long- 
established practice that one no longer wonders at the prevalence of this belief. 
The negro has sustained servile relations to the Caucasian for so long a time that 

1 Occasional Discourses on the Nigger Question. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 795 

it is easy, as it is agreeable to the Aryan pride, to conclude that servitude is his 
ordained place in society. 

As the higher susceptibilities of the negro were not needed, their existence was, 
at one time, denied. The eternal inferiority of the race was assumed as a part of 
the cosmic order of things. History, literature, ocience, speculative conjectures, 
and even the holy Scriptures were ransacked for evidence and argument in sup- 
port of this theory. It was not deemed inconsistent with divine justice and mercy 
that the curse of servitude to everlasting generations should be pronoimced upon 
a race because their alleged progenitor utilized as an object lesson in temperance 
the indulgent proclivity of an ancient patriarch.' Science was placed under 
tribute for support of the ruling dogma. The negro's inferiority was clearly 
deducible from physical peculiarities. In basing the existence of mental, moral, 
and spiritual qualities upon the shape and size of skull, facial outline, and 
cephalic configuration, the antinegro scientists outdistanced the modern psychol- 
ogists in assuming a mechanical eqiiivalent of thought. 

But in spite of scientific demonstration, learned disquisitions, prohibitive legis- 
lation, and alleged divine intendment, the negro's nobler nature persisted in mani- 
festing itself. The love, sympathy, tender fidelity, and vicarious devotion of the 
African slave, the high spiritual and emotional fervor manifested in the weird 
wailings and lamentations of the plantation melodies, the literary taste of Phillis 
Wheatley, the scientific acumen of Benjamin Banneker, the persuasive eloquence 
of Frederick Douglass, were but faint indications of smothered mental, moral, and 
spiritual power. The world has now come to recognize that the negro possesses 
the same faculties, powers, and susceptibilities as the rest of mankind, albeit they 
have been stunted and dwarfed by centuries of oppression and ill usage. The 
negro, too, is gradually awakening to a consciousness of this great truth. The 
common convergence of religious and secular thought is toward the universal 
fatherhood of God and brotherhood of man. This universality of kinship implies 
commonality of powers, possibilities, and destiny. It is difficult to estimate the 
importance of this belief to the backward races of the earth. We have of late 
heard a strangely discordant jangle from the jungles of India, with contemptuous 
reference to "lesser breeds without the law." Rudyard Kipling regards all other 
races of the earth only as contributory factors to the glory of his own. This con- 
viction is betrayed even in what he intends for a kindly reference: 

But the things you will learn from the yellow an' brown, 
They'll 'elp you and 'eap you with the white. - 

The backward races, according to this new light of Asia, have no inherent 
capacities, rights, or prospects, but are merely a part of the "white man's bur- 
den," a load more grievously to be borne than the weiguc which mythology 
assigned to the back of the ill-fated Atlas. But this note is strangely discordant 
to the prevailing sentiment of the opening century. How much broader in com- 
prehension, truer in prophecy, and nobler in sympathy and spirit are the lines of 
Walt Whitman: 

A man's body at auction! 

(For before the war I often go to the slave mart and watch the sale.) 

I help the auctioneer, the sloven does not half know his business. 

Gentlemen, look on this wonder 1 

Whatever the bids of the bidders, they can not be high enough for it. 

For it the globe lay preparing quiutillions of years without one animal or plant. 

For it the revolving cycles truly and steadily rolled. 

In this head the all-baffling brain. 

* * * * * * * 

Examine these limbs, red, black, or white, they are cunning in tendon and nerve, 

* * * * * * * 

i Genesis, IX: 31-27. = Seven Seas, p. 171. 



796 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1900-1901. 

Exquisite censes, life-lit eyes, pluck, volition, 
***** * * 

And wonders within there yet. 
Within there runs blood, 

The same old blood! the same red running blood! 

There swells and jets a heart, there all passions, desires, reachings, aspirations, 
(Do you think they are not there because they are not expressed in parlors and lecture- 
rooms?) 
This is not only one man — this the father of those who shall be fathers in their turns, 
In him the start of populous states and rich republics. 
Of him countless immortal lives with countless embodiments and enjoyments, i 

It is a matter of prime importance for the negro to feel and to convince his 
fellow-men that he possesses the inherent qualities and therefore the inherent 
rights that belong to the human race. Carlyle, though blinded by narrow preju- 
dice when handling the negro in the concrete, is nevertheless a true philosopher 
when dealing with general principles. The same author who regards the negro 
as an "amiable blockhead," and amenable only to the white man's "beneficent 
whip," also exclaims, "that one man should die ignorant who had the capacity 
for knowledge, this I call a tragedy, were it to happen more than twenty times in 
a minute."^ When it is granted that the negro has capacity for knowledge and 
virtue, all of his other problems flow as corollaries from the leading proposition. 

The lack of capacity on the part of colored youth to secure the higher lines of 
education has, until recently, in this country at least, been generally assumed. 
The few negroes who showed any intellectual development during slavery days 
were exceptions, sufficient only to prove the rule. It used to be an accepted dic- 
tum that the negro's skull was too thick to learn. This dictum, however, seems 
to have been founded upon a desire rather than a belief; for in order to justify the 
assertion laws were made forbidding the attempt. It was made a crime for the 
negro to perform the impossible. Why reenact the laws of God? 

It will be noticed that those who deny the negro mental capacity may fairly 
be suspected or a motive. This was certainly true in the case of the slaveholders 
before the war. It is equally true in certain quarters to-day. Men will resort to 
all kinds of arguments in order to shape their consciences to their dealings. All 
the resources of knowledge were exhausted to show that the negro was not like 
other men, and that God had designed him for an inferior station in life. All 
this was undertaken to justify the system of slavery, or, slavery being dead, to 
shut out the negro from the full privileges of manhood and citizenship. It is easy 
as it is safe to shift responsibility from men's guilty consciences and place it upon 
divine intendment. The process was a logical and a cunning one. Admit the 
negro's mental and moral endowments and all justification for inhuman, unfair, or 
proscriptive treatment falls to the ground. 

If I'm designed yon lording's slave, 

By nature's law designed; 
Why was an independent wish 

E'er planted in my mind? ^ 

John C. Calhoun was by all odds the most sagacious defender of slavery. He 
placed its justification squarely upon the ground of the negro's intellectual and 
moral inferiority. He is reported to have said that if he could find a single negro 
who understood the Greek syntax he would regard the race as human and worthy 
to be treated as men. * This statement sounds very remarkable in the light of 

1 Leaves of Grass, p. 85. ^ Sartor Resartus (Helotage) . " Robert Burns's Man was Made to Mourn. 

■* On account of the importance and' widespread currency of this statement, I deem it advisable 
to give hero an account of its origin. 

The late Rev. Alexander Crummell, founder and first president of the American Negro 
Academy, gives the following account: 

In the j^ear 1833 or 1834, the speaker (Rev. Alexander Crummell) was an errand boy in the 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGEO. 797 

subsequent developments. If Mr. Calhoun cotild be reincarnated and could visit 
his old alma mater at New Haven, he wonld undoubtedly change his opinion. 
This remarkable statement should serve to make us heedless of all sweeping 
denunciations and hostile generalities against the race, however arrogantly they 
may be put forth or with however high authoritj^ they may be supported. 

The mental capacity of the negro with reference to this higher education gives 
rise to two distinct questions: (1) Can he master and assimilate the branches 
usually placed in the college curriculum? and (2) is he equal in capacity to the 
white man? 

The first proposition needs no argument. Nobody whose opinion is worth quot- 
ing doubts at this late date that the negro can master the higher branches of 
European learning and interpret them in thought and action. Whoever affects 
to doubt it himself needs to be pitied for his incapacity to grasp the truth. The 
only excuse for introducing this proposition is thn,t it was at one time denied. 

Duty depends upon and is proportionate to ability. Even though it be shown 
that the white man has larger gifts of mind than the negro, that does not relieve 
the latter from the duty of cultivating his mind by means of higher education. 
If the Russians should find that they are intellectually interior to the Germans, 
would that make it any the less incumbent upon Russian youth to cultivate their 
minds to the highest possible degree? The possessor of one talent is called upon to 
make returns as well as the holder of ten. It is only the sloth who hides his talent 
in the earth because he imagines that somebody else has a larger allowance. The 
claim for the higUer education of colored youth is not based upon relative capacity, 
but upon their ability to profit by it. There is a principle in mechanics that no 
more work can be gotten out of a machine than power is put into it. The problem 
of machinery is to so adjust force and friction as to bring out the largest possible 
fraction of useful work. The analogy applies with much strength to the case in 
hand. It is not attempted to create capacity. God alone can do that. But the 
problem is how can we best prepare the negro to do the work before him and that, 
too. with the capacity with which God has endowed him. The wisdom of man- 
kind has decided that the best preparation for any serious duty is a careful train- 
ing and discipline of the mind. 

Although the relative capacities of the races can not be decided by arrogant 
assertions on the one hand and indignant denials on the other, nevertheless it is .i 
matter of much speculative interest. Affirmation is worth no more than denial, 
and continued asseveration on either side is worth little more than a spirited con- 
tent of "did ■' and " didn't " between two pugnacious boys. 

It will take ten generations to decide this question. The intellectual ascendancy 
of the various races and tribes is subject to strange variability. The Egyptian, 
the Jew, the Indian, the Greek, the Roman, the Arab, and the modern European 
has each had his turn at intellectual domination. When the early nations were 
at the zenith of art and thought and song, Franks, Britons, and Germans were 
roaming through dense forests, groveling in subterranean caves, practicing bar- 
barous rites, and chanting their horrid incantations to savage gods. In the days 
of Aristotle the ancestors of Sir Isaac Newton and Kent and Gladstone could 
not count beyond the ten fingers. Tacitus tells us that the British youth were 
incapable of learning music and i^hilosophy. 

antislavery office in New York City. On a certain occasion he heard a conversation between 
the secretary and two eminent lawyers of Boston— Samuel E. Sewell and David Loo Child. 
They had been to Washington on some legal business. While at the capital they happened to 
dine in the company of the great John C. Calhoun, the Senator from South Carolina. It was a 
period of great ferment upon the question of slavery. State's rights, and nullification; and con- 
sequently the negro was the topic of conversation at the table. One of the utterances of Mr. 
Calhoun was to the effect that if he could find a negro who knew the Greek syntax he would 
then believe that the negro was a human being and should be treated as a man. (American 
Negro Academy, Occasional Papers, No. 3, pp. 10-11.3 



798 EDTJCATIO]^ REPORT, 1900-1901. 

To affirm that all races are equal in intellectual capacity is a rather liazardoiis 
proposition. There is not wanting, however, eminent authority to support it. 
Leaving this broad proposition untouched, let us now deduce some of' the argu- 
ments which support the negro's claim to intellectual capacity. 

1. Within the limits of the white race there is the voidest possible divergence of 
mental capability. A philosopher and an idiot may not only be members of the 
same race, but of the same family. Such divergence is eqiially true of the negro 
race. No intellectual classification is possible which will put all whites in one 
class and all blacks in another. Some negroes are iiuquestionably superior in 
intellectual endowment to most white men. 

2. Where mixed schools exist there is no discoverable difference of capacity or 
aptitude on the part of the pupils of the two races. This phenomenon has mani- 
fested itself not only in the case of the negro in the United States, but it is equally 
true of the children of all the so-called inferior races who have been brought in 
intellectual competition with Caucasian children. It has been observed, however 
and remarked upon by Herbert Spencer, that the children of weaker races do not 
continue their mental activity after reaching maturity with the same vigor as 
their Vvhite competitors. This inactivity is clearly due to a lack of stimulus and 
incentive and not to incapacity. 

3. Colored students pass through Northern colleges with success and sometimes 
v/ith distinction. Their average rank is exceptionally high when Vve consider 
their early environments and opportunities. From time immemorial negro stu- 
dents from Africa, Haiti, South America, and the islands of the sea have passed 
through the universities of Europe. This occurrence is so common that it no 
longer excites remark. 

4. The race has produced from time to time individuals who show unmistakable 
evidences of the highest susceptibility of mind. Such instances are so numerous 
that it would be invidious to mention a few of them, not being able to mention all. 

5. Of the numerous authorities that might be quoted in this connection I will 
cite only a few. William Matthews, LL. D., one of the most successful American 
authors, in discussing negro intellect, says: 

We affirm that the inferiority of the negro has never been proved, nor is there 
any good reason to suppose that he is doomed forever to maintain his present rela- 
tive position, or that he is inferior to the white man in any other sense than some 
white races are inferior to others.^ 

Benjamin Kidd, author of Social Evolution, says: 

The children of the large negro population in that country [United States] are 
on .lUst the same footing as children of the white population in the public elemen- 
tary schools. Yet the negro children exhibit no intellectual inferiority; they 
make just the same progress in the subject taught as do the children of the white 
parents, and the deficiency they exhibit in later life is of ciuite a different kind.^ 

Prof. N. F. Shaler, of Harvard University, dean of the Lawrence Scientific 
School, writes in the Arena: 

There are hundreds and thousands of black men in this country who in capacity 
are to be ranked with the superior persons of the dominant race, and it is hard to 
say that in any evident feature of mind they characteristically differ from their 
white fellow-citizens.^ 

The following citations from the highest academic authority furnish valuable 
testimony as to the negro's intellectual capacity:'* 

' North American Review, July, 1889. ^ Social Evolution, p. 295. ^ Arena, December, 1890. 

^ These citations are taken from The College-Bred Negro, p. 31 et seq. The College-Bred 
Negro appeared as Atlanta University Publications, No. 5, and contains the fullest extant his- 
torical and statistical account of the negro's higher educational efforts. Dr. W. E.B. Du Bois 
is secretary of the Atlanta conference, and the success of this work is due largely to his efforts. 



THE EDUCATIOlSr OF THE NEGEO. 799 

From the University of Kansas we learn (January, 1900) : 

I am pleased to state that this year we have twice as many colored students in 
attendance at the university as ever before; in all. 2y, The rule is that no student 
shall be allowed to take more than three studies. It he fails in one of the three, it 
is a "single failure:" in two of the three, a "double failure."' The latter severs 
the students connection with the university. There are 1.000 students in attend- 
an 'e at the present time. The semiannual examination was held last wet.k. and as 
a result there are 200 '• single failures " and 8u " doub e iailures." The gratifying 
part of it is that not one of the colored students is in either number. 

The secretary of Oherlin writes (February, 1900) in sending his list: "It is a 
list containing men and women of whom we are proud.'' 

Colgate University, New York, writes of a graduate of 1874 as " a very brilliant 
student," who " was graduated second best in his class. It was believed by many 
that he was actuallj' the leader." 

A graduate of Colb}' College, Maine, is said by the librarian to have been " uni- 
versallj' respected as a student, being chosen class orator." 

Wittenberg College, Ohio, has two colored graduates. "They were both bright 
gir!!s and stood well up in their resi)ective clas;ses." 

A negro graduate of Washburn College, Kansas, is said by the chairman of the 
faculty to be " one of the graduates of the college in whom we take pride." 

The deau of the faculty of Knorc College, Illinois, writes of two negro students — 
Senator Bruce, of Mississippi, and another— who graduated and wore remembered 
because of " their distinguished scholarship." 

A black student of Adrian College, Michigan, " was one of the best mathemati- 
cians I ever had in a class," writes a professor. 

Adelbert College, of the Western Reserve University, Ohio, has a negro graduate 
as acting librarian who is characterized as "one of the most able men we know;" 
while of another it is said, " We expect the best." 

Lombard University, Illinois, has "heard favorable reports" of its single negro 
graduate. 

The dean of the State University of Iowa writes (December, 1899) of a graduate 
of 1898: 

He distinguished himself for good scholarship, and on that ground was admitted 
to membership in the Phi Beta Kappa Society. He is a man of most e.Kcellent char- 
acter and good sense, and 1 expect fur him a very honorable future. He won the 
respect of all his classmates and of the faculty. As president of the Phi Beta Kappa 
Society, I received him into membership with very great pleasure as in every way 
worthy of this honor. 

Boston University writes of one graduate as "a fine fellow." He is now doing 
postgraduate work at Yale, and the agent of the Capon Springs negro conference 
writes (November, 1900) "I continually hear him mentioned in a complimentary 
way. On the other hand, two negro boys were in the freshman class not long 
ago, and both were conspicuously poor scholars." 

Otterbein University, Ohio, has a graduate who " was a most faithful and capa- 
ble student." 

The dean of Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, writes (December, 1899) of 
its graduates: 

The last two or three are hardly established in business yet. but the others are 
doing remarkably well. These men have been in each case fully equal to if not 
above the average of their class. We have been very much pleased with the work 
of the colored men who have come to us. They have been a credit to theniseives 
and their race while here and to the college since graduation. I wish we had 
niore such. 

The president of Tabor College, Ohio, says of two colored graduates: "They are 
brainy fellows who have done very much good in the world." 

One of the most prominent colored Methodist ministers in Philadelphia said to 
the president of Allegheny College, Pennsylvania, speaking of a colored graduate; 
"Any college may be proud to have gr-aduated a man like him." 



800 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1900-1901. 

The University of Idaho graduated in 1898 a yoting colored woman of "excep- 
tional ability." 

Westminster College, Pennsylvania, has graduated two negroes. "Both were 
excellent students and ranted high in the estimation of all who knew them." 

Of a graduate of Hamilton College, New York, the secretary says: 

He was one of the finest young men we have ever had in our institution. He 
was an earnest and consistent Christian, and had great influence for good with his 
fellow-students. No one ever showed him the slightest discourtesy. On leaving 
college lie spent three years in Auburn Tlieological Seminary; was licensed to 
preach by one of our Northern presbyteries, and then went to Virginia, near Nor- 
folk, where he built a church and gave promise of great usefulness, when, about 
two years ago, he suddenly sickened and died. He had many friends in Clinton 
outside of the college. He prepared for college in the Clinton Grammar School. 
On leaving the school for college the wife of the principal of the school made to 
me the remark that it seemed as if the spirit of tiie Lord had departed from the 
school. I received him into the church and was his pastor for a number of years. 
Everybody was his friend. Members of the Presbyterian Church of Clinton con- 
tributed to the erection of his church in Virginia, and the Sunday school has edu- 
cated his sister. His untimely death caused deep sorrow in this community, where 
he was greatly beloved. We felt that he was destined to become a power for 
good among his people in the South. 

At the larger colleges the record of the negro students has, on the whole, been 
good. At Harvard several have held scholarships, and 1 a fellowship; there has 
been 1 Phi Beta Kappa man, 1 class orator, 3 commencement speakers, 3 mas- 
ters of art, and 1 doctor of philosophy. In schoiarshii^ the 11 graduates have 
stood: 4 good, 3 fair, 2 ordinary, and 2 poor. 

At Brown one of the most brilliant students of recent years was a negro; he was 
among the junior 8 elected to the Phi Beta Kappa. 

At Amherst the record of colored men has been very good, both in scholarship 
and athletics. A colored man captained the Amherst foot-ball team one year and 
is now one of the chief Harvard foot-ball coachers. 

At Yale and Cornell colored men have held scholarships and some have made 
good records. 

But, say the objectors, if the negro possesses this great capacity of mind, why 
has he not given the world the benefit of it during the course of history? By their 
fruits ye shall know them. Mr. Thomas Nelson Page, in his otherwise delightful 
book on the Old South, asks with supercilious disdain: "What of value to the 
human race has the negro race produced? In art, in mechanical development, in 
literature, in mental and moral science, in all the range of mental action, no nota- 
able work has up to this time come from a negro. "^ Henry Ward Beecher's sneer 
against the negro race is a hackneyed recital, viz, that " If all the negroes in the 
world were sunk to the bottom of the ocean, the bubbles that would come to the 
top would be of as much benefit to civilization as the bodies that went down." 

Mr. Thomas Nelson Page and Mr. Beecher make the mistake of confounding 
intellectual capacity with intellectual activity. Capacity is potential and not 
kinetic energy. Whatever native energy the mind may possess, it must receive 
reenforcement from the prevailing tone of society before it can show any large 
results. In arithmetic a figure has an inherent and a local value, the latter being 
by far its more powerful function in numerical calculations. So it is with intel- 
lectual achievements. The individual mind may count for much, but the tone of 
society counts for more. It is absolutely impossible for a Bacon to thrive among 
barbarians or a Herbert Spencer among Hottentots. 

In confirmation of this view let us for a moment follow the career of the Greeks, 
who were undoubtedly the most intellectual people that ever lived. 

Mr. Lecky tells us in his History of European Morals: 

I regard it as one of the anomalies of history that within the narrow limits 
and scanty population of the Greek states should have arisen men who in almost 

1 The Old South, p. 314. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGEO. 801 

every conceivable form of genius, in philosophy, in ethics, in dramatic and lyric 
poetry, in written and spoken eloquence, in statesmanship, in sculpture, in paint- 
ing, and probably also in music, should have attained almost or altogether the 
highest limits of human perfection. ^ 

Mr. Galton, in his Hereditary Genius, tells us: 

We have no man to put beside Socrates and Phidias. The millions of all 
Europe breeding, as they have done, for the subsequent two thousand years have 
never produced their equals. It follows from all this that the average ability of 
the Athenian race is, on the lowest estimate, very nearly two grades higher than 
our own; that is, about as much as our race is above that of the African 
negro. ^ 

These remarkable statements are supported by the highest possible authority, 
and yet this intellectual race, this race of Phidias and Plato, of Homer and Soc- 
rates, has continued for two thousand years in a state of complete intellectual 
stagnation. In the words of Macaulay, "Their people have degenerated into 
timid slaves and their language into a barbarous jargon.''^ 

Can there be any stronger proof of the fact that intellectual activity depends 
upon the environing stimulus, political and social stability, and not upon capacity? 

It is often said that no negro has written a book fit for a white man to read. In 
so far as this is true, it grows out of the fact that the negro has not had favorable 
intellectual environment. The Dumas, pere and fils, have laid the world under a 
debt of literary gratitude, but they did not write as colored men. They were not 
hindered by the environments of that race. 

Our own country has not escaped the odium of intellectual inferiority. The 
generation has scarcely passed away in whose ears used to ring the standing sneer: 
"Who reads an American book?" It was in the proud days of Thomas Jefferson 
that a learned European declared: "America has not yet produced one good poet, 
one able mathematician, one man of genius in a single art or science. " In response 
to this charge, Jefferson offers an eloquent, special plea. He says: 

When we shall have existed as a people as long as the Greeks did before they 
produced a Homer, the Romans a Virgil, the French a Racine, the English a 
Shakespeare and Milton, should this reproach be still true, we will inquire from 
what unfriendly cause it has proceeded.* 

How analogous to this is the reproach which Mr. Page hurls against the negro 
race! Let the negro shield himself from the reproach of Page under the plea of 
Jefferson. 

Quoting again from Dr. Matthews's contribution to the North American 

Review: 

Hardly two centuries have passed since Russia was covered with a horde of 
barbarians, among whom it would have been as difficult to find any example of 
intellectual cultivation and refinement as at this day to find the same phenomenon 
at Timbuctoo or among the negroes of Georgia or Alabama. 

But subsequent events have shown that the Russians are in no wise inferior to 
any other European race. 

It is an evident fact that the thought, the culture, and progressive spirit of our 
country is confined chiefly to certain sections and localities. According to Henry 
Cabot Lodge's Distribution of Ability in the United States,^ Massachusetts has 
contributed more stars to the galaxy of America's intellectual greatness than all 
the South and West combined, leaving out the single State of Virginia. Would 
it be fair, therefore, to assert that an inhabitant of Georgia or Illinois is God- 
ordained to be Intellectually inferior to a native of Massachusetts? The difference 
in age, wealth, culture, and refinement of the communities accounts for the dis- 
parity in the results. The negro claims the benefit of the same argument. He 

1 History of European Morals, vol. 1, p. 418. ^ Hereditary Genius, p. 331. 

sMacaulay's Essays (Mitford's History of Greece'*. < Jefferson's Notes on Virginia. 
6 The Century, September, 1891. 

ED 1901 51 



802 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1900-1901. 

has never, during the whole course of history, been surrounded by those influences 
which tend to strengthen and develop the mind. It takes long generations of cul- 
ture and leisure to produce the best results in scholarship and learning. The 
negro may not be expected to equal James Russell Lowell in letters, or Bancroft 
in history, or. John Fiske in philosophy until the community in which he lives, as 
well as the special society to which caste assigns him, has developed a correspond- 
ing intellectual tone. 

The intellectual equality of the sexes has recently gained many advocates, and 
yet, in all the list of civilized years, the feminine sex has contributed to history 
scarcely a single name of the first degree of luster . The explanation is offered 
that their energies have been directed along other lines of endeavor, and that they 
have not been competing for intellectual distinction. It would be as unfair to 
upbraid them for not reaching intellectual heights after which they have not been 
striving as it would be to chide them for not shining on the field of military renown. 
The cause of woman and the contention of the negro have many interesting jpar- 
allels, but none more striking than the common argument which they advance to 
account for the lack of superior intellectual manifestations. 

Leaving the speculative question in abeyance, it can certainly be said that his- 
tory fails to reveal any people who, under such adverse circumstances of heredity 
and environment, have ever equaled the uegxo in the exuberance of intellectual 

qualities. 

II. The Need of the Higher Education. 

Culture, like virtue, is its own reward. It needs no vicarious excuse. The pos- 
session of a faculty justifies the development of it. The negro needs the higher 
education because, as was shown in the first section, he is susceptible of the cul- 
ture which it affords. Civilization is due to the evolutionary process and grows 
by slow and imperceptible stages. Each generation does not begin its acquisitions 
de novo, but starts with the inheritance of all that has gone before. It must, how- 
ever, take some time to digest and assimilate its inheritance. Suppose each gen- 
eration had to rediscover for itself the propositions of Euclid, the state of math- 
ematical learning would always remain in its infancy. This principle is equally 
true of a race which has recently entered the arena. The eleventh-hour adven- 
ttirer enters into equal enjoyment with those who have borne the heat and burden 
of the day. No greater mistake can be made than to suppose that the colored 
race must pass through every variety of physical and mental vicissitiide which 
the Caucasian race has undergone before it can attain like renown. This erroneous 
supposition lies at the basis of much of the opposition to the higher education of 
colored youth. Civilization was not an original process with any race known to 
history. The torch is handed down from age to age and gains in brilliancy as it 
goes. A race can not lift itself independently into civilization any more than a 
man can sustain himself by pulling against the straps of his own boots. The negro, 
as much as any, can boast, in the lines of Tennyson, " I, the heir of all the ages, in 
the foremost ranks of time."^ Other men have labored, and he has entered into 
their labors. In order for the negro to assimilate the civilization into which ho 
has been suddenly thrust, he must contemplate its highest models and latest 
forms. 

It is said that the negro is a great imitator. This is a compliment rather than a 
reproach, provided only that he imitates the purest, the loftiest, and the best. The 
wearisome repetition of the slow steps and stages by which i^resent heights have 
been attained is impossible and absurd. It will be readily agreed that language is 
the surest measure and gauge of a civilization. Wherever the language of a people 
prevails, their customs, laws, and institutions are sure to follow. Would anyone 
argue, therefore, that because the negro is a new creattire in modern civilization 

1 Locksley Hall. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGEO. 803 

he must follow the course of historical development in the employment and use of 
English speech? That he must dwell for generations upon Anglo-Saxon forms and 
Chaucerian diction before he is prepared for the language of Gladstone and Lowell? 
Such questions need no answer. Whites and blacks have the same linguistic needs. 
They study the same forms of language and strive alike for excellence in syntax 
and diction, in spolien and written style. What has been said of language applies 
with equal force to all the complex elements of modern life. The higher educa- 
tion is the gateway to the best that civilization has to offer. 

Civilization may be defined as the sum total of those influences and agencies that 
make for knowledge and virtue. This is the goal, the ultima thule, of all human 
strivings. The essential factors of civilization are knowledge, industry, culture, 
and virtue. Knowledge comprehends the facts and truths of the universe; indus- 
try embodies them in concrete form; culture leads to rational enjoyment; virtue 
preserves and makes eternal. The African was snatched from the wilds of sav- 
agery and thrust into the midst of a mighty civilization. He thus escaped the 
gradual i^rocess of evolution, and education must span the gap. Education must 
accomplish more for a backward people than it does for those who are in the fore- 
front of progress. It must not only lead to the unfoldment of faculties, but must 
fit for a life from which the recipient is separated by many centuries of develop- 
ment. The fact that a backward people are surrounded by a civilization which is 
so far in advance of their own is by no means an unmixed advantage. In the 
temijestuous current of modern life the contestant must either swim on the sur- 
face or sink out of sight. He must either conform or succumb to the inexorable 
law of progress. The African chieftain who would make a inlgrimage from his 
native principality to the city of Washington might accomplish the first part of 
his journey by the original mode of transportation — in the piimitive dugout and 
upon the backs of his slaves — but he would complete it upon the steamship, the 
railway, the electric car, and the automobile. How swift the transformation, 
and yet how suggestive of centuries of toil, struggle, and mental endeavor. It 
required the human race thousands of years to bridge the chasm between savagery 
and civilization; but now it must be crossed by a school curriculum of a few j'ears' 
duration. The analytic process is always more rapid than the synthetic. The 
embrj'ologists tell us that the individual, in developing from conception to maturity, 
must pass in rapid succession through all the stages traversed by the race in its 
struggle upward. We are also informed that social evolution must take a some- 
what similar course. The European child is supposed to absorb the civilization 
of his race in about twenty-five years of formative training. The negro is required 
to master, de novo, the principles of civilization in a similar and, indeed, in a 
shorter time. 

In a settled state of society education is conservative rather than progressive 
in its main feature. Its chief function is to enable the individual to live the life 
already attained by the race. The initiative of progress is reserved for the few 
choice spirits of the human race. The bulk of any people can only live up to ths 
level of their social medium, and can be uplifted only by social impulses imparted 
by some i^owerful personality. It is a wise provision of nature that large bodies 
move slowly, otherwise they would acquire dangerous momentum. The progress 
of the race must be provokingly slow as compared with that of the individual. 
Education prepares for a statical rather than a dynamical condition of society. 
And yet, notwithstanding these stern truths, every educated negro must be a 
reformer, a positive, aggressive influence, in uplifting the masses, and that, too, in 
spite of the fact that he belongs to a backward breed that has never taken the 
initiative in the progressive movements of the world. He ' must therefore be 
aroused to a consciousness of personal power, the energy of the will, the individ- 
ual initiative, that subtle, indefinable quality which has always exerted a control- 



804 EDUCATIOK REPOET, 1900-1901. 

ling influence upon human affairs, in spite of the theories of doctrinaires and the 
formulas of philosophy. 

The first great need of the negro is that the choice youth of the race should 
assimilate the principles of culture and hand them down to the masses below. 
This is the only gateway through which a new people may enter into modern 
civilization. Herein lies the history of culture. The select minds of the back- 
ward race or nation must first receive the new cult and adapt it to the peculiar 
needs of their own people. Did not the wise men of Greece receive the light from 
Egypt? The Roman youth of ambition completed their education at Athens; the 
noblemen of northern Europe sent their sons to the southern peninsulas in quest 
of larger learning; and up to the present day American youth repair to the 
European, universities for a fuller knowledge of the culture of the Old World. 
Japan looms up as the most progressive of the non- Aryan races. This wonderful 
progress is due in a large measure to their wise plan of procedure. They send 
their picked j^outh to the great centers of Western knowledge; but before this 
culture is applied to their own needs it is first sifted through the sieve of their 
native comprehension. The graduates of the higher schools of learning and other 
institutions are forming centers of civilizing influence in all parts of the land, and 
we confidently believe that these grains of leaven will iiltimately leaven the whole 
lump. 

That mere contact with a race of superior development can not of itself unfold 
the best possibilities of a backward people is a proposition which, I think, no stu- 
dent of social phenomena will be inclined to dispute. For four hundred years the 
European has been brought in contact with feebler races in all parts of the world 
and, in most cases, this contact has been as the blighting finger of death. 
Nowhere do we fand a single instance in which a people has been lifted into civili- 
zation thereby. Outward conformity may be enforced by a rigid discipline; but 
outward forms and fair practices are of little or no avail if the inward apprecia- 
tion be wanting. Civilization is a centrifugal and not a centripetal process. It 
can not be injected hypodermically. Healthy growth can not be secured by feed- 
ing a child when he is not hungry or by forcing upon him a diet which he can 
neither digest nor assimilate. 

Aside from political ambition and commercial exploitation, the chief motive of 
the European in treating with feebler races has been to civilize and enlighten 
them. The conversion of the Indian to the Christian faith v/as the chief motive 
assigned for the early colonization of America, and yet the influence of such 
schools as Hampton and Carlisle has, perhaps, done more to uplift the red man 
than all of the contact with the white race since Columbus first planted his 
Catholic cross in the virgin soil of a new world. Indeed, the superficial, the friv- 
olous, and the vicious qualities are most easily communicable. The substantial 
qualities of mind and soul can only be developed by independent activity. 

For four centuries the Portuguese have been touching the life of the east coast 
of Africa with their missionary propagandism, commercial enterprise, and gov- 
ernmental policy, but, according to the highest testimony, they have made no 
more abiding impression on the life of that continent than one might make upon 
the surface of the ocean with the dent of his finger. 

The negro has now reached a critical stage in his career. The point of attach- 
ment between the races which slavery made possible has been destroyed. The 
relation is daily becoming less intimate and friendly aiid more business like and 
formal. It thus becomes all the more imperative that the race should gain for 
itself the primary principles of knowledge and culture. Civilization can not be 
imparted by attrition, but is the unfolding of the seed whose potency is m itself. 

It becomes all the more needful for the negro to pursue the higher lines of edu- 
cation, because this is the principal avenue of refining influence now open to him. 
There is no long line of ancestors to inspire to noble thoughts or deeds. The 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGEO. 805 

present basis of society does not admit the negro to close social and personal touch 
with the best forms of culture and refinement. Just as it is more needful for the 
crude rustic lad to study English syntax than it is for the son of a refined family 
who gains facility of speech by familiarity and use, so it becomes all the more 
necessary for the colored youth of crude antecedents and environments to gain 
culture and refinement through the medium of the school. 

That servile and domestic contact has greatly benefited the race, at least so far 
as outward conformity and the graces of life are concerned, can not be doubted. 
This kind of contact served its purpose in its day, but its spirit is repugnant to 
the instincts of manhood. Slavish conformity growing out of favor or fear is not 
the kind of development that makes men. The helping hand that is most helpful 
must not be inclined downward, but stretched out on the horizontal. The alarm 
is sounded that as the negro is being freed from the restraining influence of the 
master class he is, in some localities at least, relapsing into barbarism. The fact 
is, .slavery has never lifted them nauch above that deplorable state. The boasted 
benefits of slavery are superficial, not real. It reminds one of induced electricity, 
that lasts only so long as the inducing influence is present. Slavery can not ele- 
vate a people. The real uplifting influence has been the schoolhouse and the col- 
lege. These are to become more and more effective as the other influences are 
removed. 

Another great need of the race, which the schools must in a large measure 
supply, is self-reliant manhood. Slavery made the negro as dependent upon the 
intelligence and foresight of his master as a soldier upon the will of his com- 
mander. He had no need to take thought as to what he should eat or drink or 
wherewithal he should be clothed. 

Knowledge necessarily awakens self-consciousness of power. When a child 
learns the multiplication table he gets a clear notion of intellectual dignity. Here 
he gains an acquisition which is his permanent, personal possession and which 
can never be taken from him. It does not depend upon external authorit}-; he 
could reproduce it if all the visible forms of the universe were effaced. They say 
that the possession of personal property is the greatest stimulus to self-respect. 
When a man can read his title clear to earthly possessions, it awakens a consciousness 
of the dignity of his own manhood. And so when one has digested and assimilated 
the principles of knowledge he can file his declaration of intellectual independence; 
he can adopt the language of Montaigne: " Truth and reason are common to every- 
one and are no more his who spake them first than his who speaks them after; 'tis 
no more according to Plato than according to me, since he and I equally see and 
understand them.'" 

Primary principles have no ethnic quality. We hear much in this day and time 
of the white man's civilization. We had just as well speak of the white man's 
multiplication table. Civilization is the common possession of all who will assimi- 
late and apply its principles. England can utilize no secret process of art or inven- 
tion that is not equally available to Japan. We reward ingenuity with a patent 
right for a period of years upon the process that has been invented; but when an 
idea has been published to the world it is no more the exclusive property of the 
author than gold, after it has been put into circulation, can be claimed by the 
miner who first dug it from its hiding place in the earth. No race or nation can 
preempt civilization any more than it can monopolize the atmosphere which 
surrounds the earth or the waters which hold it in their liquid embrace. 

In passing through the streets you may notice a young man accommodate his com- 
panion with a light from his cigar. After the spark has once been communicated 
the beneficiary stands upon an equal footing with the oenefactor. In both cases 
the fire must be continued by drawing fresh supplies of oxygen from the atmosphere. 

1 Essay on the Education of Children. 



806 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1900-1901. 

From whatever source a nation may derive the light of civilization, it must be 
perpetuated by the exercise of its own faculties. All of the visible forms of civili- 
zation have been dug out of the ground. We boast of our towns and cities, of 
our steamships and railways, and of the mighty VN^orks of art and invention, but 
the voice of time is ever whispering, "Dust thou art, to dust returnest." But 
after all these shall have crumbled into dus. the ingenuity of man will be able to 
produce mightier works than those that perished. Mind and matter are the 
irreducible elements. Mind is the common heritage of man, and matter is 
indestructible. 

The negro race has not yet directed its energy to the solution of primary prob- 
lems. It has been content to receive the crumbs that fall from the white man's 
table. 

Several years ago I received from my florist a fine rosebush that had been grafted 
upon a Manetti stem, with instructions that the Manetti must be buried out of 
sight and that its shoots must be pinched back as fast as they appeared above the 
ground. The strength v/hich its hardy roots derived from the soil was to be 
diverted from the natural course of developing the plant itself and infused into 
the more lordly rose, thus insuring greater vigor of growth and brilliancy of 
bloom. I was forcibly reminded of the analogous situation of the negro in the 
industrial world. While the race has, in a sense, been dealing with industrial first 
principles, it has, nevertheless, served only a vicarious purpose. The negro has 
been suppressed below the social surface, and wherever an individual emergence 
appeared it was forthwith pressed back to the common level. The substance 
which his sinews derived from the soil went to enrich, adorn, and glorify another 
race. But now, under the guidance of intelligence, the substance of his toil must 
be utilized to promote his own growth and expansion. ' ' Each plant must grow 
from its own roots" is the botanical equivalent of the o-d mechanical adage, 
"Every tub must rest on its own bottom." 

The negro race hitherto has been as the vine, which must cling to the tree or 
trail in the dust; but now it must imitate the oak, which gains independence of 
foothold and dignity among its rivals of the forest by sending its roots into the 
soil and expanding its foliage upon the happy air. It is knowledge that must 
rouse the negro to self-conscious activity. 

Whatever system of education is good for Anglo-American youth is good also 
for Afro-American youth, who have to confront the same issues, and that, too; 
under much severer conditions. White youth, fortified and reenf orced as they are 
by every advantage of opportunity and environment, find it necessary to pursue 
the higher education in order to equip themselves for the duties of life which lie 
before them. Should colored youth be less well prepared? Are their tasks any 
less difficult? Do the problems that await them call for an inferior order of ability 
or tact? The arbiter of success is a cruel master, reaping where he has not sown, 
gathering where he has not strewn, demanding friiit in abundance where he has 
not planted the seed of advantage. The stream of modern competition is a tem- 
pestuous current. The contestant must either swim on the surface or sink out of 
sight. The world in its cruel demands will accept no excuse. It makes little or 
no allowance for a man because his ancestors lived under a vertical sun. If you 
can not do the world's work, it will say to you, if it is in the humor to stop long 
enough: '"Tis true 'tis pity; and pity "tis 'tis true," and pass on to some one who 
can. Men demand the best services available for their needs. No one is willing 
to trust his life in sickness, his cause in litigation, nor yet his moral and spiritual 
needs to half-trained or incompetent hands. That the higher education increases 
the efficiency of service goes without saying. If it is believed that the negro race 
is doomed to everlasting servility, and that its ordained mission is to hew wood 
and carry water, then discouragement of higher education is consistent. If all 
the ennobling vocations are to be filled by white men only and menial stations 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGKO. 807 

assigned to the negro, then his higher culture is a delusion and a snare. But if 
the negro has wrapped up in liim all the possibilities of humanity, he should pre- 
pai-e himself for the larger responsihilities. 

Again, the class of men who justify human degradation has not yet passed away. 
Great learning and scholarsliip have always been employed against the negro. 
Men of great ingenuity and mental cleverness have always been arrayed against 
human rights. History, anthropology, ethnology, and the whole range of the 
inexact sciences, from which men derive the doctrines they are looking for, have 
been ransacked for testimony against the African. Our magazines frequently 
startle us with some amazing article, from authority of high repute, tending to 
degrade and belittle the race. Scholarship must be combated with scholarshiiJ. 
The situation calls for negroes who shall be able to accept the challenge on any 
plane and to meet and match the adversary in deep research, in logical acumen, 
in persuasive rhetoric, or disquisitional skill. 

The work of educated colored men is largely that of leadership. They require, 
therefore, all the discipline, judgment, and mental balance that long preparation 
can afford. The more ignorant and backward the masses, the more skilled and 
efficient should the leaders be. It is easier to lead a trained army than a mob of 
raw recruits, ignorant of the di'-cipline and tactics of wai'. It requires less wis- 
dom to direct those who need no guidance than to control tho.-;e who do not know 
their intellectual right hand from the left. It must be rem.embered, too, that the 
matters in which the negroes are to be directed are of the highest importance. It 
requires high qualification to deal wit^ely with finance, economics, and the general 
matters of government and state. But does it not require superior wisdom to deal 
wisely with human hopes and destiny? No man or set of men can be too learned 
or too profound into whose hands are committed the temporal and eternal welfare 
of a people. 

Leaders will arise whether qualified or not. If the blind lead the blind all will 
land in the ditch. Who does not know of the harm which such leaders have 
inflicted by their rash judgment and ill-advised counsel? It is not contended that 
a college education makes a man a leader or that a lack of liberal culture disquali- 
fies him for useful service. America has produced scores of men of the highest 
renown who were not the product of the schools. There are negroes, not a few, 
who are doing valiant service for the race by means of their virile common sense 
and untutored energy. Far be it from me to detract one iota from their useful- 
ness or dim the luster of their renown. But when all that has been claimed is 
conceded the balance of advantages will be foimd on the side of culture. The 
whole trend of liberal learning is toward noble manhood and exalted service. 
The situation is too serious, the crisis too critical, to neglect any means whereby 
help might come. 

In selecting the choice youth of a backward race and giving them a liberal edu- 
cation as the best means ol preparing them to uplift their own people, we are only 
following ancient precedent. The Hebrews labored under disadvantages remark- 
ably similar to those of the American negro. Gods idea of a leader was a man 
identified in blood and sympathy with the downtrodden races, who should be 
learned in all the wisdom of his day and generation. He must be able to cope 
with the wisdom of Pharaoh's court. It seems that in ancient as in modern 
times learning frequently arrayed itself on the side of arrogance aud oppression. 
Moses, in order to succeed in his mission, must match the wisdom of Egypt in 
logical argument, in ijersuasive speech, and in the manifestation of magical 
power. If the wise men of the Nile could perform wonders, he must do mightier 
works than these. His serpent must swallow up the rest. The culture of Moses, 
however, was of the greatest service to him in leading the undisciplined hosts 
through the wilderness and in laying the foundation of their national and perma- 
nent greatness. Can we not learn lessons from history? Although under the 



808 EDUCATION SEPORT, 1900-1901. 

present circumstances a single commanding leader is almost or altogether impos- 
sible, nevertheless the same principle holds now as then. There is no doubt that 
there were to be found both Egyptians and Hebrews who decried giving a Hebrew 
youth an Egyptian education, on the ground that it unfitted him for his place and 
made him think that he was as good as Egyptians. 

It was the common practice of Rome to select the most promising youth of the 
provinces and give them a complete education in order that they might dissemi- 
nate an uplifting influence among their own people. To-day the Japanese send 
their choicest youth to the universities of Europe and America as the best means 
of transplanting Western civilization to oriental soil. It is the highest ambition 
of missionaries in all parts of the world to send the best specimens of the native 
youth to the home country to take on the higher education and bring back the 
good influence to their ov/n race. It will be noticed that in all these cases it is the 
higher education that is sought for— the highest that the recipient will take. The 
select negro youth of this country have as much need to absorb the higher culture 
and disseminate the beneficial influence throughout the race. This race needs 
teachers, preachers, physicians, and lawyers, aggregating more than 50,000, all of 
whom will be the better prepared for their functions by the higher education, or 
at least by a flavor of its influence. The higher education tends to develop supe- 
rior individuals who may be expected to exercise a controlling influence over the 
multitude. The individual is the proof, the promise, and the salvation of the 
race. The undeveloped races, which in modern times have faded before the breath 
of civilization, have perished probably because of their failure to produce com- 
manding leaders to guide them v/isely under the stress and strain which an 
encroaching civilization imposed. A single Indian with the capacity and spirit of 
Booker T. Washington might have solved the red man's problem and averted his 
impending doom. 

The contention among scholars as to what place the classical or dead languages 
should occupy in a system of education is of much general interest. The friends 
of liberal learning need to stand firm against all short cuts to culture and the mad 
rushes after practical results. It is the part of wisdom for the educators of col- 
ored youth to adhere to the orthodox standards of culture approved by long cen- 
turies of trial and usage. The safest road to culture runs through Greece and 
Rome. "From thence," says Macaulay, "have sprung directly or indirectly all 
the noblest creations of the human intellect." It is especially necessary for col- 
ored youth to acquire acquaintance with classical institutions and life. The 
negro borrows his civilization from thosb who borrowed in their turn. A recent 
v/riter argues:' 

It is quite important that the higher education of the negro should include 
Latin and Greek. The Anglo-Saxon civilization in which he lives is a derivative 
one, receiving one of its factors from Rome and the other from Athens. The 
white youth is obliged to study the classic languages in order to become conscious 
of these two derivative elements in his life, and it is equally important for the 
colored youth. A liberal education by classic study gives the youth some 
acquaintance with his spiritual embryology. 

The belief that a sound scholastic education will enable the negro to discrimi- 
nate between the real things of life and the superficial appearances is clearly set 
forth in the following citation: 

They say that egotism and self-conceit are characteristic of the African race, 
and especially the Afro-American of academic training. You will have to deal 
with a population that places a premium upon bombastic display and a discount 
tipon unpretentious merit. You should devote your powers to the masses to 
uplift them and not to exploit them for your vamglory and unrighteous self- 
aggrandizement. It is said that a native African struts proudly when decorated 
with flaming European neckwear ot the latest Parisian pattern, though he wear 

' W. T. Harris in Atlantic Montlily, June, 1893. 



THE EDUCATIO.Y OF THE NEGKO. 809 

not a single other article of dress. Men cross the seas, and even go to college, with- 
out changing their natures. Witness tliose Afro-Americans who decorate tliem- 
selves witli the highest-sounding literary and scholarly degrees, making heavy 
demands upon the alphabet to exyiress them, without a single other item of intel- 
lectual adornment to support this gaudy display. Reprobate all such childish 
infirmity. It will only make you ridiculous in the eyes of sensible men. Be nat- 
ural. Be simple. "Be whatever you may, but yourself first." Do not impose 
cheap and shoddy standards upon the masses, but teach them to appreciate the 
noblest and the best. Grasp the real things of life rather than the superficial and 
showy. It is perfectly natural for a people who are rapidly acquiring civilization, 
and in whom the faculty of imitation is strong, to be captivated by the superficial 
aspect of things, to grasp after the frith and froth rather than the life-giving 
li(iuid upon Nvhich it floats. If a wild man from Borneo should plunge into the 
gayeties of the Eurojjean capitals, should become initiated into the latest style of 
dress and forms of fashionable display, he might vainly flatter himself that he had 
leveled the immense lift between savagery and civilization, totally oblivious of 
the fact that he is separated from that life whose forms he slavishly imitates by 
ten centuries of solid development. It is true that other men have labored and 
you have entered into their labors, but you must prove your right to this inherit- 
ance by striving to comprehend its inner spirit and meaning, and to unravel its 
secret and method. I have said that your education has brought you in touch 
with the fundamental things of life. Return ever and anon to these first princi- 
ples as your standards and data of reference. In Greek mythology we learn that 
Antaeus, the giant, in wrestling with Hercules, received new vigor whenever he 
touched his mother earth; but Hercules, discovering the secret of his strength, 
lifted him into the air and squeezed him to death in his herculean grasp. I advise 
you to make sure of the firmness and fixture of your foothold in the basis of solid 
things for fear that you be lifted into the delusive realm of unreal allurements 
and be intoxicated by the frivolous demigod of this unsubstantial region.' 

In the same discourse it is also shown that a knowledge of tke laws of growth 
of human institutions will give the negro a larger patience with the temporary 
ills of his lot. 

Do not waste time complaining against the existing order of society. Enter a 
manly protest against all forms of wrongs and injustice, but do not pass your 
days in wailful lachrymations against the regulations of a civilization whose 
grandeur you have done nothing to make and whose severities you are doing 
nothing to mollify. Leave that to the ignorant demagogue. Bring your knowl- 
edge of history and of human nature to bear upon the situation. I have already 
pointed out to you that the adjustment of man's relation to man constitutes one 
of the primary problems of life. Where this adjustment is complicated by diverse 
physical peculiai'ities and by different inherited or acquired characteristics the 
problem becomes one of the greatest intricacy that has ever taxed human wisdom 
and patience for solution. Race prejudice is as much a fact as the law of gravi- 
tation, and it would be as suicidal to ignore the operation of the one as that of the 
other. Mournful complaint is as impotent as an infant crying against the fury of 
the wild wind. History has taught you that the path of moral progress has never 
taken a straight line, but has ever been a zigzag course amid the conflicting forces 
of right and wrong, truth and error, justice and injustice, cruelty and mercy. 
Do not be discouraged, then, that all the wrongs of the universe are not righted 
at your bidding. The great humanitarian movement which has been sweeping 
over the civilized world from the middle ot the eighteenth century to the present 
time, manifesting itself in political revolutions, in social and moral reforms, and 
in works of love and mercy, affords the amplest assurance that all worthy elements 
of the population will ultimately be admitted to share in the privileges and bless- 
ings of civilization according to the measure of their merit. ^ 

One of the chief functions of higher education for the negro is to stimulate his 
industrial energies. 

Many able and earnest advocates of the negro's cause seem to have lost the 
power of binocular vision and have become one-eyed enthusiasts over a narrow 
feature. The two forms of education are not antagonistic, but supplemental; the 
one applies to the few, the other to the many; the one supplies the motive, the 
other the method. The negro needs, first of all, lofty ideals. The surest way to 

» Address to graduating class, Howard University, Jano^ 1898, by Kelly Miller, p. 10. 
2 Ibid , p 11. 



810 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1900-1901. 

induce a people fco provide for the material needs of life is to teach them that "life 
is more than meat." In order that the negro may feel a zest for work and enter 
into the joy of service he must have prospect and vista. 

The day laborer pursues the mechanical rounds of his stupid toil, conscious only 
of the fact that "time and hour run through the whole day." Under a more 
enlightened view he would be inspired and sustained by the anticipated enjoy- 
ment of the fruits of toil. The negro lacks enlightened imagination. "While 
slavery inculcated the regular habit of labor, it held out no incentive beyond the 
master's crib. The negro does not make provision because he lacks prevision. 
The prayer "Give us this day our daily bread" to him has a material and literal 
significance. The industrial incapacity of the negro is due largely to the fact 
that he has been confined to the low grounds of drudgery and toil without 
being permitted to so much as cast his eyes unto the hill of aspiration and promise. 
" The man with the hoe " is of all men most miserable, unless, forsooth, he has also 
a hope; but if he be imbued with the spirit of hope and xjromise he can wield the 
hoe with as much zest and satisfaction as any other instrument of service. 

It is true that a people must be rooted and grounded in the concrete principles 
of things. When a seed is sown in the ground it first sends its roots into the soil, 
but only that it may rise out of it, so as to bring forth foliage and flower and 
fruit in the air above. The incentive to noble endeavor comes from a rational 
conception of the true end of existence. We can not reach the sky on a pedestal 
of brick and mortar, and all attempt to do so must end in bewilderment and con- 
fusion, as it did on the plains of Shinar in days of old. Even the builders of the 
tower of Babel derived their inspiration from above. They were inspired by the 
conceit that they were descended from the skies, and sought by mechanical con- 
trivance only to regain the blissful seat. The negro needs a wider and a larger 
range of vision. He can not see beyond the momentary gratification of his 
desires. He does not look before and after. The most effective prayer that can be 
uttered for him is. Lord, open Thou his eyes. Such influences can be brought 
to him by means of the higher culture only. 

Prof. Booker T. Washington is the greatest man which the race, under freedom, 
has produced. But his success is due wholly to his intellectual and moral facul- 
ties — his enlightened mind, consecrated zeal, and persuasive ability. The mastery 
of a hundred handicrafts would add nothing to his usefulness or power. Those 
leaders who have been most effective in guiding, directing, and controlling the 
life, in stimulating the lethargic energies, and in quickening the zeal of the masses, 
have derived their inspiration, either directly or indirectly, from contact with 
higher culture. This is true of Douglass, the orator; of Washington, the educa- 
tor, and of Dunbar, the poet. The architect must plan before the artisan can exe- 
cute. The idea comes from above and descends until it strikes the basis of popular 
needs, and then rebounds, bringing the concrete fulfillment up toward the level of 
the ideal from which it sprang. 

III. Objections to the Higher Education of the Negro Answered. 

Of late it has been all but the universal fashion to discourage and discredit the 
higher education of the negro. So widespread has this spirit become that it is 
doubtful whether the proposition to afford facilities for the higher education of 
this class would receive substantial support were it now made for the first time. 
Indeed, many who were most enthusiastic in making the experiment have become 
hostile or indifferent in the light of experience. 

In the first place, we are told that the cost is out of proportion to the result; 
that the higher education has been fostered at the expense of primary and indus- 
trial instruction, which are more essential in the present state of need. The late 
Charles D. Warner, who had been a lifelong friend and advocate of the negro's 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 811' 

cause, espoused this view in his last striking public utterance. In his notable 
address delivered before the American Social Science Association, in 1900, he said: 

But the effort at education went fiirther than the common school and the pri- 
mary essential instruction. It introduced the higher education. Colleges — usu- 
ally called universities — for negroes were established in many Southern States, 
created and stimulated by the generosity of Northern men and societies and often 
aided by the liberality of the States where they existed. The curriculum in these 
was that in colleges generally — the classics, the higher mathematics, science, 
philosophy, the modern languages, and in some instances a certain technical 
instruction, which wa^ being tried in some Northern colleges. The emphasis, 
however, was laid on liberal culture. This higher education was oifered to the 
mass that still lacked the rudiments of intellectual training, in the belief that 
education — the education of the moment, the education of superimposed informa- 
tion—can realize the theory of universal equality. 

This experiment has now been in operation long enough to enable us to judge 
something of its results and its jDromises for the future. These results are of a 
nature to lead iis seriously to inquire whether our efifort was founded upon au 
adequate knowledge of the negro, of his present development, of the requirements 
for his personal welfare and evolution in the scale of civilization, and for his train- 
ing in useful and honorable citizenship. I am speaking of the majority, the mass 
to be considered in any general scheme, and not of the exceptional individuals — 
exceptions that will rapidly increase as the mass is lifted— who are capable of tak- 
ing advantage to the utmost of all means of cultivation, and who must always be 
provided with all the opportunities needed. 

Millions of dollars have been invested in the higher education of the negro, 
while this primary education has been, taking the whole mass, wholly inadequate 
to his needs. This has been upon the supposition that the higher would compel 
the rise of the lower with the undeveloped negro race as it does with the more 
highly developed white race. An examination of the soundness of this expecta- 
tion will not lead us far astray from our subject.' 

This is not saying that the higher education is responsible for the present con- 
dition of the negro. Other influences have retarded his elevation and the devel- 
opment of proper character, and most important means have been neglected. I 
only say that we have been disappointed in our extravagant expectations of what 
this education could do for a race undeveloped and so wanting in certain elements 
of character, and that the millions of money devoted to it might have been much 
better applied. - 

Dr. G. A. Alderman, president of Tulane University, New Orleans, has quite 
recently claimed that the» money contributed to negro education by Northern 
philanthropy has been, for the most part, literally wasted.^ 

These views have been assigned to the^e distinguished persons rather for the 
sake of definite location than for the weight of personal authority, for they repre- 
sent stock assertions which have gained much headway by persistent asseveration. 
And yet, when we look the facts squarely in the face, the charge that the money 
spent on the higher education of the colored race has been wasted or even misap- 
plied is indeed a remarkable one. 

Does this charge come from the South? When we consider that it was through 
Northern philanthropy that a third of its population received its first impulse to 
better things; that these higher institutions prepared the 30,000 negro teachers 
whose services are utilized in the public schools; that the men and women who 
were the beneficiaries of this philanthropy are doing all in their power to control, 
guide, and restrain the South's ignorant and vicious masses, thus lifting the gen- 
eral life to a higher level and lightening the public burden; that these persons are 
almost without exception earnest advocates of harmony, peace, and good will 
between the races, to say nothing of the fact that these vast philanthropic contri- 
butions have passed through the trade channels of Southern merchants, it would 
seem that the charge is strangely incompatible with that high-minded disposition 
and chivalrous spirit which the South is so zealous to maintain. 

1 Education of the Negro, by Charles Dudley Warner, pp. 4-5. 

2 Ibid., p. 13. 3 Independent, September 5, 1901. 



812 EDUCATIOTT EEPOET, 1900-1901. 

Does this charge come from the North? It might not be impertinent to pro- 
pound a few propositions for consideration. 

Is it possible to specify a like sum of money spent upon any other backward 
race which has produced greater results than the amoxint spent upon the Southern 
negro? Is it the American Indian, upon whom four centuries of missionary effort 
has produced no more progress than is made by a painted ship on a painted sea? 
Is it the Hawaiian, who Avill soon be civilized off the face of the earth? Is it the 
Chinese, upon whom the chief effect of Christian philanthropy is to excite them to 
breathe out slaughter against the strangers within their gates? It is incumbent 
upon him who claims that this money has been wasted to point out where, in all 
the range of Christian activity, the contributions of philanthropy have been more 
profitably spent. 

Those who disparage the higher education because it has not banished ignorance 
and poverty and obliterated vicious tendencies are too impatient. If it takes 
twenty-five years to educate a white boy, it must require an incalculably longer 
period to educate a black race. It is true that $10,009,000 or $50,000,000 have been 
already contributed by philanthropy for the education of the negro. This is about 
equal to the biennial expenditure of the city of New York for^ educational pur- 
poses. And yet, if we are to believe the reports of the low state of municipal 
morality and the rumors of corruption and wrongdoing, we see that education 
has by no means done its perfect work in our national metropolis. Then why 
should we rave at the heart and froth at the mouth because a sum of money scarcely 
equal to the biennial educational cost of a single American city, when scattered over 
a territory of a million square miles and distributed through a period of thirty 
years has not completely civilized an undeveloped race of some ten million souls? 
.. The American people must yet learn to apply the simple principles of political 
economy to the race problem. A dollar contributed by philanthropy is not neces- 
sarily any more efficacious than one appropriated out of the public treasury. 
Money devoted to the education o" the black race need not be expected to yield 
any greater return, either of knowledge, virtue, or practical capacity, than a like 
sum devoted to the white race. Although the Southern States have contributed 
to the full amount of their ability, it is still true that the combined contributions 
of Northern philanthropy and Southern statesmanship have been woefully inad- 
equate to the task imposed. Fifty millions of dollars is indeed a princely sum, 
but on examination we find that it would not average one dollar a year for each 
negro child to be educated. Why should we marvel, then, that the entire mass 
of ignorance and corruption has not put on enlightenment and purity? We should 
be patient with the slow evolution of social forces. The human race makes very 
slow progress toward the goal of righteousness. After the lapse of nineteen cen- 
turies of Christian endeavor the curse of sin is still in the world. It is no mar- 
vel, then, that the negro has not put on the perfect dress of civilization and right- 
eousness because exhorted to do so in proverb and psalm. 

Wisdom is justified by her children. As an illustration of the value of the 
higher education to the negro race, I point to Howard University, which is the 
largest and best equipped institution of its class. The establishment and main- 
tenance of this institution during the past thirty-four years has cost between 
$3,000,000 and $3,000,000. As the returns on this investment, it has sent into the 
world, in round numbers, 200 ministers of the gospel, 700 physicians, pharmacists 
and dentists, 300 lawyers, and 600 persons with general collegiate and academic 
training, together with thousands of sometime pupils who have shared the partial 
benefits of its courses. These graduates and sometime pupils are to be found 
in every district and county where the negro population resides, and are filling 
places of usefulness, honor, and distinction, as well as performing works of mercy 
and sacrificial service for social betterment. Not a half dozen of the entire 
number have a criminal record. They serve as an inspiration and a stimulus, 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGEO. 813 

qnickening the dormant energies of the people and urging them to loftier ideals 
and nobler modes of life. It devolves upon the complainant to present some plan 
by which a like sum of money, in a like space of time, can be expended so as to 
produce a more wholesome or more widespread effect upon the general social 
uplift. 

Another potent objection against the higher education is that it has not checked 
the evil disposition and vicious tendencies of the race. Prof. John Roach Straton, 
in the North American Review, sets forth this view with much erudition and argu- 
mentative skill.' As this phase of the question has never had a more learned or 
effective advocate, it seems well to consider at length the arguments which Pro- 
fessor Straton advances. 

In the first place, he contrasts the present criminal status of the race with its 
moral behavior under the regime of slavery. 

Several weighty considerations must have escaped the author while he had this 
topic under discussion. 

Slavery did not improve the moral nature of the negro, but merely compelled out- 
ward conformity by i^hysical force. If convicts in prison are wull behaved, it is 
from physical necessity and not from moral choice. Herein lay the chief evil of 
slavery. It suppressed overt manifestations of wrongdoing, but did not imijlant the 
corrective principle. When the physical restrai nt was removed there was no corre- 
sponding moral restraint to take its place. It was inevitable that when let loose 
this pent-up momentum would expend itself in wild license and excessive indul- 
gence. It is manifestly unfair to compare the behavior of the race under freedom 
of action and liberty of choice to its conduct when under the control of an alien 
will. 

The parallel increase of crime and intelligence is not peculiar to the negro, but 
is a common phenomenon of the country at large. "After the war the education 
of the negro began and rapidly advanced, but side by side with it has gone his 
increase in crime and immorality in even greater ratio. "^ If the author had left 
out the word "began *' and substituted " the American people " for " the negro" 
in this recital, he would have told the whole truth and not merely a disjointed 
fragment, to the disadvantage of a discredited class. 

The negro constitutes the lower stratum of society, where the bulk of crime is 
always committed. His social degradation is the greatest factor contributive to 
his high criminal record. If corresponding social classes among the whites could 
be segregated for the sake of comparison, equally damaging conclusions would 
doiibtless be revealed. The foreign element of our cosmopolitan population shows 
a much higher criminal average than the native whites, because they represent a 
lower social stratum, and they have not yet become adjusted to their new environ- 
ment. Both of these arguments, with intensified force, apply to the case of the 
negro. The polished granite may look with contempt upon the rough and uncut 
stone buried beneath the mud and mire, but its lordly eminence is due to the 
unseemly foundation which it affects to disdain. The amplest proof that the 
criminal record of the negro race, alarming though it be, is not due to inherent 
trait is furnished by the fact that the presence of a large number of negroes in 
any community does not increase its total criminal average. While it is true that 
12 per cent of the population commit 30 per cent of the crime, does anyone believe 
that if this 13 per cent were supplanted bj' a corresponding class of the white race 
the criminal quality of the whole population would be improved? According to 
the Eleventh Census the North Atlantic Division of States, in which the negro ele- 
ment constitutes only a slight sprinkling, had 833 prisoners to every million 
inhabitants; the South Atlantic Division, where the race is densest, had only 831, 

1 North American Review, .June, 1900. See also Booker T. Washington's reply to Professor 
Straton, North American Review, August, 19(X). 
* Professor Stratwi in North American Review, June, 1900, 



814 EDUCATIOlSr EEPOET, 1900-1901. 

while the Western section, where the negro is a negligible quantity, had 1,300. 
The same condition of things is revealed if we limit our study to States and 
municipalities. In 1890 New York had 1,369 prisoners to the million, California 
1,703, Alabama 720. According to the police reports of 1896 the percentage of 
arrests in Boston was 9.37, whereas in Washington, D. C, one- third of whose 
population is colored, it was only a slight fraction above 8.' If it were asked why, 
according to the revelation of statistics, the white people of the North Atlantic 
States were not so well behaved as the mixed population of the South Atlantic 
Division, or why New York and California have a higher criminal record than 
Alabama and South Carolina, or why Boston has a greater percentage of arrests 
than Washington, it would be manifestly unkind to attribute the lower ethical 
average of the higher tier of States to race degeneracj^ or to superior education. 

Professor Straton urges as unassailable proof of his position the fact that the 
Northern negro is two or three times as criminal as his more unfortunate bi'other 
in the South. He fails, however, to make suitable allowance for the restlessness 
and recklessness due to unsettled conditions. The Northern negro population is 
recruited very largely by emigration from the South, many of whom leave their 
homes for reasons best laiown to the police. He is apt to mistake liberty for 
license, and to make the largest possible use of his new-found privilege of apparent 
social equality, which culminates in the dens of vice and crime. The employment 
of the Northern negro is unsteady and intermittent, affording a wide latitude of 
idleness, thus giving the evil one his coveted opportunity for raischief. Again, 
the Northern negro meets with a wider hostile area than his Southern brother, 
and is more apt to resent insult from the white race. The prejudice in the North 
is as narrowing and as harrowing as it is in the South, albeit it may reveal itself 
under a different mode of manifestation. The disx^arity between profession and 
performance in the North is as great a provocative as the repressive treatment of 
the South. 

It is useless to attempt to gainsay the alarming criminality of the negro, so far 
as this can be tested by statistics. The facts presented by Professor Straton are 
not disputed, only he fails to credit them to the proper account. It is environ- 
ment, not race; condition, not color; and education, instead of being a contribu- 
ting factor, as the author avers, is a partial though not a complete deterrent. 

Our philanthropists have expected too much from education, especially when 
it is applied to the negro. It is folly to suppose that the moral nature of the child 
is improved because it has been taught to read and write and cast up accounts. 
Tracing the letters of the alphabet with a pen has no bearing upon the golden rule. 
The spelling of words by sound and syllable does not lead to the observance of the 
Ten Commandments. Brill in the multiplication table does not fascinate the 
learner with the Sermon on the Mount. Rules in grammar, dates in history, sums 
in arithmetic, and points in geography do not necessarily strengthen the grasp 
upon moral truth. These things constitute the mere mechanics of knowledge. 
It is only when the pupil begins to feel its vitalizing power that it begins to 
react upon the life and to fructify in character. While the criminal tendency of 
the race, so far as it can be tested by the statistician, shows an alarming tendency 
to increase, it is notable that the products of those schools with prolonged courses 
of study and continuous discipline have met every expectation from the stand- 
point of conduct and demeanor. We do not hear one word of criticism as to the 
behavior of the graduates of Howard, Fisk, Atlanta, Hampton, Shaw, Wayland, 
and other institutions of rank. 

It is sometimes said that the higher education of the negro will carry him beyond 
his race and make him dissatisfied with his lot. Discontent is a necessary condi- 
tion of progress. What American is there who is not trying to improve his lot? 

' See police repoz-ts for Boston and Washington, 1898. 



THE EDUCATIOIT OF THE NEGRO. 



815 



Then, why should the negro be satisfied with his, which Is the most miserable 
of all? 

If nature intends one for a fool no amount of education can alter the design. 
Intellectual sham, vainglorious display, and pompous pretense are, unfortunately, 
unavoidable. This is the fault of too little rather than too much education. The 
familiar lines of Pope are pertinent: 

A little learning is a dangerous thing; 
Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring; 
There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain. 
And drinking largely sobers us again. 

There is no danger that education will lift the recipient above the needs of 
humanity. The missionary work among crude and primitive peoples calls for 
men of the best minds as well as the highest consecration. Jonathan Edwards, 
who, perhaps, possessed the most philosophical mind that America has yet pro- 
duced, spent the last years of his life as preacher among the savage Indians. The 
schooling which leads away from sympathy with the race is a perversion which 
experience shows to be quite unusual. Prejudice, relentless and cruel as it is at 
points, is nevertheless not, perhaps, an unmixed evil. It keeps within the race 
serviceable elements which otherwise would be lost to it. All such volatile ele- 
m.ents ai-e thrown back upon the race by the repellent power of prejudice. The 
attempt to escape is as suicidal as the conduct of the caged eagle which beats its 
wings to insensibility against the iron bars of its prison house. Give the negro 
the higher education and his sense of duty and love of humanity will make it 
effective for the good of his race; or, this failing, a meaner motive necessitated by 
prejudice will make it available also. 

It is assumed that the negroes are leaving the farm and the shop and are rush- 
ing in disproportionate numbers to the college and the university. This race is 
affected with great material and intellectual poverty. After abstracting all v/ho 
are able to think there will be left sufficient to toil. 

The following table taken from the Reports of the Bureau of Education ought 
to forever silence this assertion: 

Number of pupils in secondary and higher institutions in the United States. 



1. 


3. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


6. 


Year. 


Population. 


Number of 

secondary 

and higher 

students. 


Same per 
million of 
popula- 
tion. 


Number of 
pupils in sec- 
ondary and 
elementary 
public 
schools. 


Percent- 
age of col- 
umn 3 on 
column 5. 


1879-80 


50, 155, 783 

63,633,250 

173,800,000 


218,809 
437,308 
753, 776 


4,363 
6,983 
10,313 


9, 867, .505 
13,731,581 
15,038,636 


2.22 


188;»-90 

1897-98 


3.44 
5.01 







THE COLORED RACE. 



1879-80. 
1889-90. 
1897-98. 



6, 106, 695 
6, 954, 840 
^ 7, 933, 000 



7,874 

14, :m 

17,440 



1,289 
2,061 

13,303 



2 784, 709 
1,396,959 
1,506,713 



1.00 
1.11 
1.10 



1 Estimated. « Former slave States. ^ 3^517 jq 1899-1900. 

Mr. A. F. Hilyer, in commenting upon these figures, says: 

This table shows that the proportionate number of secondary and higher stu- 
dents to the whole number of children attending school in the United States as a 
whole had increased from 2.22 per cent in 1879 to 5.01 per cent in 1897, nearly two 
and one-half times, while the proportion of colored in secondary schools and colleges 



816 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1900-1901. 

had increased very little, indeed, from 1 per cent to only 1.16 per cent, and that now, 
at the height of all this outcry against any further aid, public or private, for the 
higher education of colored youth, there is only one- fifth as many colored students 
in secondary and higher institutions as the average for the United States as a 
whole. But the story is not yet half told. According to the Report of the Com- 
missioner of Education, 1897-98, volume 2, page 2097, the total number of stu- 
dents taking the higher education in the United States as a whole was 144,477, 
being 1,980 to each million of the total population, The same Report, page 2480, 
gives the total number of students pursuing collegiate courses in these much- 
discussed colleges as 2,492. This is only 310 to the million of colored popula- 
tion; whereas the whole of the United States, as shown above, had 1,980 to the 
million, nearly six and one-half times as many in proportion to population. 

This does not look as though the whole of the colored race is rapidly stampeding 
to the higher education, or that the labor supply in the Southern States is falling 
off from this cause. This is an age of higher education for the masses. The 
increase in the number of students taking the secondary and higher education in 
the United States during the last ten years has been phenomenal — unprecedented. 
Is the person of color so much superior to the white that he does not need so much 
educational training? I think not. In view of the history and present condition 
of this race the obvious necessity for a large number of educated and trained 
teachers, ministers, physicians, lawyers, and pharmacists; and in view of the sta- 
tistical fact that this race has only one-fifth of its quota pursuing studies above 
the elementary grades, vv^hat fair mind will not say there is great need of more of 
the secondary and higher education for the colored youth instead of less of it? 

According to the Report above cited, there are 161 academies and colleges for 
colored yonth in the United States. The total number enrolled was 42,328, of 
whom 2,492' were reported in collegiate grades, 13,669 in secondary grades, and 
28,167 in elementary grades. Even in these colored colleges less than per cent 
of their students are pursuing collegiate courses, and perhaps not more than 2 
per cent are pursuing a college course equal to that offered at Howard. Nearly 
two-thirds of the total enrollment in these colored colleges are receiving elemen- 
tary instruction in "readin', 'ritin', and "rifmetic." Classified by courses of 
study, 1,711—217 in a million— were taking the classical course; 1,200—150 in a 
million — the scientific; 4,440—555 to the million— the normal course, preparing for 
teaching; 1,285 — 160 in a million — professional courses; 9,724 English, and 244 the 
business course. In each of these courses the colored race has only about one-fifth 
or one-sixth of its quota. Is there anything in these figures to alarm the nation? 

About one- third of the total number of students in these 161 colored schools and 
colleges are taking industrial training.- There is surely no need of further proof 
or assertion on this score. 

Again, we hear that higher education for the negro does not solve the race 
problem. It was a shallow philosophy that predicted this result in the first place. 
The race problem divides itself into two leading divisions: First, the development 
of a backward race, and, second, the adjustment of two races with widely diver- 
gent ethnic characteristics. 

These two factors are in many respects antagonistic to each other. The more 
backward and undeveloped the negro, the easier is the process of adjustment to 
the white lord and master, but when you give him Greek and Latin and meta- 
physics he begins to feel his manhood stirring within him and frictional problems 
inevitably arise. The good old negro servant, ever loyal and true, is esteemed 
and honored, but his more ambitious son with a Harvard diploma in his knapsack 
is persona non grata. Under slavery the adjustment between the races was com- 
plete, but the bond was quickly burst asunder when the negro was made a free 
man and clothed with full civil and political privilege. It would be rather a haz- 
ardous statement to aiSrm that education will solve social and ethnic problems. 
The development of humanity would be a simple task indeed if a few years school- 
ing could facilitate the adjustment between the European and Asiatic, African 
and Aryan. The adjustment of peoples, races, and social systems lies in the 
sphere of statesmanship, philanthropy, and religion. 

1 The investigations of Professor Du Bois show that there can not be more than 1,000 negro 
students of collegiate grade, according to the average American standard. 

2 Popular Science Monthly, August, 1900. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 81? 

The function of education is to develop the faculties of the individual in order 
to fit him for the life of that society of which he forms a part. The function of 
the education of the negro is to develop in the individual and in the race the 
requisite degree of personal and social efficiency. And if it does not eradicate 
deep-seated prejudices and batter down race and ethnic barriers, it is because the 
wrong remedy has been applied to the disease. Wise men do not expect to gather 
grapes of thorns or figs of thistles. 

IV.— The Relative Claims of Industrial and Higher Education. 

Whenever the higher education of colored j-outh is advocated somebody is sure 
to suggest industrial training as a counterirritant. The higher and industrial 
phases of education are not mutually exclusive, and neither can properly be played 
off against the other. They are both essential to the symmetrical development of 
any people. Both factors are equally essential to the common product. The 
one-sided advocates of a particular kind of education for all colored youth 
remind us of the disputants in rural debating societies who decide, once for all, 
the momentous question: " Which is the more indispensable element of civiliza- 
tion, fire or water?" The fact is, civilization could not exist without either of 
these elements, neither can the negro race reach the full measure of develop- 
ment without receiving both kinds of education. It is deemed timely, ho-w- 
ever, to point out and compare the relative advantages to the negro derivable 
from industrial training and the higher education, and especially so since the 
trades school is being prescribed as a panacea for all the ills of the situation, 
while literary culture is being decried and disparaged. As there are several 
parties to this contention, it may be well to analyze the motives that give rise to 
the prevailing preference for industrialism. 

1. The vast majority of white people in this country believe that the ordained 
mission of the negro is to do manual labor — to perform personal and domestic 
service. This belief is vaguely founded upon a scriptural reference: " Cursed be 
Canaan; a servant of servants shall he be unto his brethren.' The old method of 
textual interpretation has been superseded by Biblical research and rational criti- 
cism. The traditional classification of the human family has been abandoned by 
most authors of scholarly repute. The Hametic origin of the negro race is 
accepted by few modern archaeologists, yet the agreeable belief in the ordained 
servility of the negro still lingers. It was on the basis of this belief that the 
African was first enslaved. Las Casas, the philanthropic priest, first suggested 
the enslavement of the African as a means of merciful relief to the poor Indian, 
who sickened and died in the house of bondage. The negro was brought across 
the sea to be made a hewer of wood and a carrier of water. Human slavery had 
a benevolent origin. It was regarded more philanthropic to enslave captives in 
war than to slay them. But there was not a bit of pbilanthrophyin the establish- 
ment of African slavery. It was a business measure pure and simple. The only 
part of the negro deemed to be valuable was his hands. No account was taken of 
his mind, his soul, or his all-baffling brain. For well-nigh three hundred years 
he fulfilled the purpose of his enslavers. Although the civil war overthrew the 
system of slavery it did not materially alter the minds of the white people as to 
the negro's place in the social scale. He is still looked upon as a servant whose 
mission is to minister to the wants of others. Among men of this way of think- 
ing it is easy to gain popularity by advocating industrial training for negroes — 
any iiolicy that has work for its main object is heartily approved, but the higher 
education is held up to ridicule and scorn. 

2. The second class to this controversy may be called the philanthropists, or 
those who have a special friendly interest in the colored race. It is this class that 
has already done so much to rescue the perishing and to lift up the fallen. They 

ED 1901 52 



818 EDUCATION EEPOET, ] 900-1901. 

have sent millions of dollars into the South to educate and enlighten the blacks, 
and have hitherto constituted the leading factor in the upbuilding of the race. It 
is 'easy to discern that their sentiment also, during the last few years, is shading 
toward industrial training, to the disparagement of higher culture. This is easily 
intelligible. Charity should be applied where it is most needed and where it will 
reach the largest possible number of the helpless. Its aim is to help those who 
are lowest in. the scale of want and distress. Benevolent people are easily and 
willingly persuaded that assistance rendered an industrial institution will be 
more widespread in its application than if given to a college. Colored universi- 
ties have almost without exception added on industrial courses, largely for the 
sake of gaining the favor of Northern philanthropists. The literary education of 
colored youth is so far discredited in the public mind that institutions of higher 
learning have to attach industrial courses in order to gain financial favor and 
support. This is practical wisdom, if not pedagogical prudence. Experience 
bears out the opinion that trades schools and colleges should be maintained as 
separate and distinct institutions, unless reasons of financial policy suggest other- 
wise. Blending of the two reminds us of Horace's ridiculous picture with the 
head of a beautiful woman and the tail of a horrid fish. But, as suggested above, 
the drift of benevolent sentiment is easy explainable. Charity aims to help the 
beneficiary to go so far and no farther. We do not aim by charity to lift others 
into complete equality with ourselves. It is not human nature to assist those 
whom we deem our inferiors to reach our own plane. The unwritten law of 
human charity demands that we relieve acute distress when it is easily within our 
power to do so, but our civilization is not yet sufiiciently altruistic to require us 
to take the unfortunate creatures thus relieved on terms of equality with our- 
selves. We give a crust to the starving poor. Even Lazarus in the parable fed 
of the crumbs that fell from the rich man's table. But we do not invite them 
to attend the banquet which we spread for our friends. Let us marvel not, 
then, that benevolent friends are ready to assist the negro to a knowledge of letters 
. and the use of tools, but are totally indifferent as -to whether or not he studies 
Greek philology, or the diiferential calculus. They do not feel any obligation to 
sustain the beneficiary in those pursuits of truth and beauty which themselves and 
their children enjoy. A donation to Harvard or Yale can hardly be called charity; 
it is simply giving on one's own level, to perpetuate's one's own name or to 
advance some favorite idea. But colored schools need not expect gifts of this 
character from white men; in all such benefactions eleemosynary intent is plainly 
apparent. Industrial education of the colored race will doubtless continue to be 
considered of more importance than literary culture by Northern philanthropists, 
and will continue to receive the bulk of their benefactions. 

3. The negro himself is the most interested party to this contention. He bears 
the same relation to the race problem that a beast does to the burden which has 
been placed upon its back. How does he think that the youth of the race should 
be educated? The time has come when the race should do its own original think- 
ing on such vital questions, and not regulate its conduct according to the opinion 
of white men. However kindly the intentions of the Anglo-Saxon may be, still it 
seems impossible for him to view the situation under the negro's angle of vision. 
The sentiment of the white race is well-nigh unanimous that the colored race 
should confine its energies chiefly to manual and industrial pursuits, and they 
will make it so in so far as they can control the situation. But the negro can 
not accept the estimate which the white race places upon him, and consequently 
must in a large measure reject the treatment prescribed. The sentiment of every 
self-respeciing negro, when clothed in his right mind, must be: "I am a man, and 
all things which are human appertain to me, although circumstances and environ- 
ments may hamper me for a season, I will suffer it to be so now, but will relin- 
quish none of the ultimate claims of my species."' 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 819 

There are two leading aims of education : ( 1 ) To develop the faculties and powers 
of the mind, the accomplishment of which is a uniform and invariable process, 
the same for all minds under all conditions of outward life; and (2) to jirepare 
the individual for the special work which he has to perform: this preparation 
varies according to environment, opportunity, or the ambition and aptitude of the 
learner. In any well-regulated community the inhabitants will I e distributed 
among the various industriea. trades, and professions according to the needs and 
opportunities of the commianity and the capacity, aptitude, and natural bent of 
individuals. The negro race in this land occupies a peculiar ami unique position. 
The vast majority of them follow agricultural pursuits, domestic service, and 
other forms of crude, unskilled labor. The number ou;side of these lines is so 
small that it would hardly form a homeopathic fraction of the population. They 
are also the creatures, or rather the victims, of circumstances over which they 
have no control. In this discussion, then, we are shut up to special circum- 
stances rather than general principles. The unwisdom of an exclusive industrial 
and mechanical education of the colored race will appear from the following 
considerations: 

1. It would be almost useless to equip a considerable number of colored men 
with the mechanical trades, for they could find no opportunity to ply tliem. This 
is an age of great combinations; both capital and labor are organized and solidi- 
fied. What the trusts are to capital the trades unions are to labor. Neither the 
small dealer nor the individual workman can compete with these gigantic monopo- 
lies. This is an age in which " the individual withers and the trust is more and 
more." These trades unions will not admit the negro, in large numbers, on equal 
terms, and he is absolutely powerless to combat them. They will not combine 
with him, and he can not compete with them. If any one industrial fact in our 
history is clearly demonstrated it is that white labor will not compete with black 
labor. The poor whites of the South, rather than compete with negro labor, 
betook themselves to the woods, and lived in the mountains and i^ine thickets in 
idleness and poverty, constituting that thriftless element known far and wide as 
"poor white trash." The complaint goes up from all sections of the country that 
white men are driving negroes out of employments which were hitherto consid- 
ered peculiarly theirs. It is not because the negro is not a competent and etfic:eni 
workman in these lines that he is thus supplanted, but it is simpl}^ a case of the 
stronger element driving the weaker to the wall. The Asiatics were excluded 
from the western coast because they manifested too much skill, thrift, and econ 
omJ^ They were shut out on the plea that competition with them would lovrer 
the American white laborer to the level of Mongolian life. The same argunent 
could and would be advanced against the negro. As a further evidence that it ia n. .t 
a lack of skill which renders the negro unable to hold his own in the labor world, 
he is being crowded out of occupations where no complaint has ever been uttered 
against his efficiency, and where his supplanters are not more apt or compete nt 
than the black competitors. It is a notorious fact that in all the large centers of 
population positions of waiters, coachmen, and barbers are being filled by white 
men to the exclusion of his brother in black, or rather, his brother in colors. The 
competency of the colored waiter has never been questioned. White men do not 
make more courteous, safe, and reliable coachmen. The whole world a knowl- 
edges that the negro is an expert with the razor. The labor wars between the 
races precipitated in the mines of Tennessee and Alabama and along the levees of 
New Orleans were not inaugurated because of the inefficiency of colored labor, 
but because white men wanted the places. It is the i^olicy of mosr Southern rail- 
roads to employ negro firemen, but with the express understanding that they shall 
never be promoted to positions of engineers. No incapacity is alleged; but white 
labor zealously guards all such employments against black encroachment. 



820 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1900-1901. 

There was a time when the mechanical work of the South was performed by 
colored men; but the Northern laborer has gone there and carried his trades unions 
and his exclusive policy, and the result is the negro is being relegated to the rear. 
The industrial war has been carried into Africa. It requires no gift of prophecy 
to predict that in the near future negro mechanics will be as rare in Richmond 
and Atlanta as they are in Boston and Philadelphia. All will agree that under 
the present circumstances the negro can not compete with the Anglo-Saxon for 
political domination; he is equally incapable of sustaining the contest for indus- 
trial supremacy. The stronghold of the race hitherto has been its ability to do 
crude, unskilled work, along lines Avhere white men did not care to compete; to 
work with the body under a tropical sun where the white man pants for rest and 
shade. But it has not been able to stand the onward march of skilled labor and 
machinery. It was announced some time ago that a machine had been invented 
for iDickiwg cotton. An influential Southern journal announced with triumph 
that the introduction of this invention would settle the race problem for all time. 
The picture is indeed a dark one. The situation calls for the highest wisdom on 
the part of negro leaders and the friends of the race. But it is more than foolish 
to shut our eyes to the facts before us. It is absolute folly to advise remedies 
which reason tells us in advance can not be effective. 

The chief value of the mechanical and industrial schools in the South is that they 
inculcate in the minds of the crude agricultural population notions of thrift, econ- 
omy, and decency, and not because they teach the mechanical and scientific trades. 
Hampton, Tuskegee, and Claflin are among the most useful institutions in Amer- 
ica, because their graduates go to and fro throughout the South and carry with 
them their newly acquired notions of character and life, and disseminate them 
among the people. They are for the most part engaged in teaching school. I ven- 
ture the assertion that not one such graduate in ten finds an opportunity to ply 
the trade which he learned in school. The literary and moral features of their 
courses are after all of the greatest value. Prof. Booker T. Washington is the most 
remarkable product of this class of schools. No colored man of his generation has 
rendered a moiety of the service which he has done in a visible, tangible shape. 
He is justly accounted one of the great men of America. But the chief element 
of his success has been his mind, heart, and character, and his unselfish devotion 
to the welfare of his race. No mere artisan or mechanic could do the work which 
Professor Washington has done; no, nor 10,000 of them rolled into one. Professor 
Washington is endowed by nature with splendid mental and moral gifts which he 
has developed by wide observation and study. He possesses the sagacity to see 
the needs suggested by special circumstances, and the constructive ingenuity to 
devise ways of meeting those needs. 

2. A supply of labor, skilled or unskilled, can never create a demand for it; but 
where there is a demand the supply is always forthcoming. Where is the demand 
for colored mechanics? It certainly is not in the North; it isnotin thelarge cities 
North or South. There is no considerable demand for colored mechanics in Bos- 
ton, Philadelphia, Baltimore, or Washington, and I fear not in Richmond, Atlanta, 
or New Orleans. When there was a demand for such workmen they were always 
to be found. If there were 5,000 such artisans in Washington City, as skilled as 
the master workman whom King Hiram sent to Solomon to build the Temple at 
Jerusalem, they would starve to death under the shadow of the national Capitol 
for the want of employment. The trades schools may turn out these workmen, but 
they can not create a demand for them. It is not wise to have in a community a 
number of men with trades but with no opportunity of plying them; they usually 
have not the aptitude or willingness to turn to any work except their particular 
trade, and the last state of the community will be worse than the first. It is often 
urged as an argument against the negro's higher education that after he has filled 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 821 

his mind with knowledge he can not find a field in which to use it; but can not 
this objection be urged, and that, too, with a greater show of probability, 
against too much industrial training? A trained mind is likely to be more fertile 
in expedients than a mere "hand;" if it does not find a way it will make one. 
The one will do with his might what his hands find to do; the other will find 
with his mind what his hands might do. 

3. The educational impulse proceeds from above downward. " Mens agitat 
molem." I am not arguing, be it borne in mind, against industrial education in 
its proper place, and under those favorable circumstances where it can be wisely 
applied; but against the general policy of shutting up the negro to a particular 
kind of training. It is sometimes objected that the negro race began on top. The 
top is the natural birthplace of progress. Does Jewish history boast of greater 
names than Abraham and Moses, the one the founder of the race and the other 
of the nation? Does not every good and perfect gift come from above? The phi- 
losophy of evolution has clearly established a close analogy between the 
development of organic life and the growth of human society. Even biolog- 
ical progress, it is claimed, is from above downward. Some individual by acci- 
dent acquires some valuable acqiiisition to the life of the race, and by a slow 
process it infiltrates into the life of the species and finally lifts it up to the 
level of the lucky individual. History reveals the fact that the same law 
governs the growth of races, states, empire, and republics. It seems as if Provi- 
dence raises up in the outset some commanding genius so that the common peo- 
ple may have some model to work to. Then why should the negro race not strive 
to imitate worthy models and lofty ideals? Stimulus can not come from the 
workbench, the furrow, and the dull routine of daily toil, but must be handed 
down from "the radiant summit." True, great lights have arisen from lowly 
occupations, but it was because their avocations could not contain them; they 
burst their bands asunder and swiftly leaped beyond them. In a certain industrial 
school which is deservedly famous throughout the country a majority of the 
instructors in influential positions are college-bred men and women. This is only 
natural; the educated mind will direct its energies where the need is greatest. 
All true progress grows out of applying the thought within to the thing with- 
out; but the thought is the primary agency, and the outward thing only the 
object operated upon. 

4. The negro is a man and is entitled to all of the privileges of manhood. Why 
should his education be circumscribed and limited? Why should the larger ele- 
ments of his nature be left unnurtured, while the mechanical side only is developed? 
Life is more than meat. As important as the material element is in our civiliza- 
tion, there is danger of pushing it too far. The highest possessions of man do not 
consist in material wealth. A slaveholder was once asked what was his object 
in farming. He replied, " I raise corn to raise hogs; I raise hogs to raise niggers; 
I raise niggers to raise corn." Thus the gross material circle begins and ends in 
itself. The great evils which confront the negro race are rather of a moral than 
of a material nature. Truth and justice do not hinge upon industrialism and 
trade, but are abstract, eternal verities. The negro cries for justice and is offered 
a trade; he pleads for righteous laws, and is given an industrial school. The case 
is wrongly diagnosed; the remedy does not apply to the disease. It is sometimes 
urged upon the negro to get money as the surest means of solving the race problem. 
Those who argue tlius show themselves ignorant of the law of moral reforms. In 
all the history of the human race, the possession of money has never corrected an 
evil or righted a wrong. But, on the other hand, it lies at the bottom of most of 
the ills which our nature is heir to. The greed for gold is the fundamental cause 
of the negro's misfortune in this land. Will this same love for gold when trans- 
ferred from the white man to his victim remedy the evil? The accumulation of 



822 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1900-1901. 

evils do not usnally counteract, but aggravate each other. The love of money is 
the root, not the remedy, of all evil. Grod's truth will not be altered in order to 
suit the convenience of the negro. 

That the negro can have no great industrial future in the large cities, especially 
where the climatic conditions are such that white men are willing and able to 
work, has been clearly seen by students of social problems for many years. There 
are sufficient white men in such communities to perform the skilled mechanical 
work, and as they belong to the preferred class they will always receive first con- 
sideration. They will not combine with the negro, nor are they Vvdlling to com- 
pete with him on terms of equality. This intolerant policy relegates the negro to 
those classes of work which white men do not particularly care for. 

The negro is excluded not so much because he is black but because he is weak. 
The same exclusive policy is exercised toward all feeble classes, because there is 
not enough of the higher lines of work for all of the contestants. The negro is 
being driven out of his erstwhile indtistrial strongholds. The colored coachman, 
barb, r, waiter, and private domestic is a vanishing quantity in all of the large 
cities. The white workmen have filled up the ranks of their accustomed voca- 
tions and are pushing over the boundaries into the territory occupied by their 
weaker neighbors. This industrial contest, or rather conquest, is exactly analo- 
gous to what is taking place in the political world. As fast as the stronger and 
more powerful nations have populated their own countries up to the limit of com- 
fortable subsistence, they push over the boundaries into the possessions of the 
weak, helpless, and feeble races. In sociology, as in physics, when a stronger 
body comes in contact with a weaker one, the motion of the weaker is reversed 
and that of the stronger proceeds in the same direction as before, though with a 
lesser velocity. 

It is true that industrial discrimination lies at the base of much of the negro's 
social degradation. We may say that it is unjust, un-Christian, and unreasonable, 
but sti.l the fact persists; nor is its force or sanction one whit diminished by the 
bitter denunciation. The industrial rivalry is fierce and brutal. Kindness is not 
characteristic of sharp competition. It is an old maxim that business and philan- 
thropy are dissociable. Each competitor is bound to use every advantage at his 
disposal. To suppose that the white man is going to voluntarily surrender the 
advantage which his co'or confers, in order to admit the negrO into industrial 
rivalry on equal footing with himself, is to expect too much of weak human 
nature. Mankind is not yet sufficiently sanctified for such sublime acts of self- 
surrender. 

Of late we can hear nothing but the hue and cry about the industrial education 
of the colored race, and, indeed, great good may reasonably be expected to come 
'from this worthy movement. A training in system, order, and method, and a 
knowledge of how to do things with skill, accuracy, and science will be of incal- 
cuiable advantage to the possessor in whatever station of life he may be. But who 
believes that the industrial disadvantages of the negro, in the large cities at least, 
can be overcome or even materially altered by industrial education? To equip a 
considerable number of colored boys in Philadelphia, Baltimore, or Washington 
with the mechanical trades would be simply to furniah them with edged tools 
without anything to cut. 

That form of industrial training which alone offers any considerable relief lies 
in the field of agriculture and the domestic industries. It is encouraging to note 
that thoughtful colored people are giving this matter serious attention. The 
resolution touching this topic, adopted by the Second Hampton Negro Conference,^ 
is significant: 

1 Report of Second Hampton Negro Conference. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 823 

We call Tipon our teachers and preachers in the country districts to advise the 
people to develop the agricultural and industrial resources of Their respective 
communities, and not to be deceived by the glare and glitter of city Jite. The 
flocldng of the agricultural masses to the cities constitutes one of the ;. reat social 
evils of the period. This evil is especially emphasized in the case of the ne.i^io 
immigrants. They do not form a part of the industrial current and are ai)t to 
drift into the alleys and dens of s/ualor and vice, and their last state becomes 
worse than their first. On the contrary, every effort should be put forth to nduce 
those who are now in the alleys and bywaj's of the city to seek the country. No 
one should be encouraged to migrate from the country to the city unless he or she 
hasjsome definite employment or plan of work previously determined upon. 

The negro mtist dig his civilization out of the grotmd, as all other races have 
done. In the country the competition is not so sharp and color forms no barrier. 
The rain falls and the sun shines on white and black alike. The earth will yield 
for him just as much as his skill and industry can persitade her to bring forth. 
Corn and cotton are supremely indifferent to the color of the planter. The mar 
kets ask only the quality of the produce and not the color of the producer, TJe 
who succeeds in inducing the negroes to work out their industrial salvation in the 
fertile soil of the South and under conditions with which they are familiar, rather 
than to rush to the large centers of population, where thej' have no industrial 
status, and whose evils they know not of, may truly be denominated their guide, 
philosopher, and friend. But in every instance it will be found that the wisdom 
which comes from the higher culture is alone profitable to direct. 

V. — The Higher Edlx'ation of Colored Women. 

If the higher education of the colored man seems or seemed ridiculous in the 
eyes of the wise and prudent, that of the colored woman must appear too absurd 
for a moment's consideration. The function of the higher culture for the female 
element of a backward race still waits to be clearly set forth. 

The cause of woman in general bears many analogies to that of the negro. 
They are both characterized by weakness and have had to fight everj^ inch of 
their way to their present degree of opportunity. All of the arguments which are 
now being urged against the education of the negro were at one time put forth 
against the enlightenment of woman. The general attitude on this question at 
the beginning of the nineteenth century is well expressed in the following citation; 

In the very first year of our century, the year 1801. there appeared in Pans a 
book by Sylvain Marechal entitled "Shall Woman Learn the Alphabet.''' The book 
proposes a law prohibiting the alphabet to women, and quotes authorities, weightv 
and various, to prove that the woman who knows the alphabet has already losr 
part of her womanliness. The author declares that woman can use the alphalet 
only as Moliere predicted they would, in spelling out the verb "amo:'" that th^y 
have no occasion to peruse Ovid's Ars Amoris, since that is already the ground 
and limit of their intuitive furnishing: that Madame Guyon won'd have 1 een far 
more adorable had she remained a beautiful ignoramus, as nature made her that 
Rtith. Naomi, the Spartan woman, the Amazons. Penelope. Andromache. Lucr 
tia. Joan of Arc, Petrarch's Lauia. and the daughters of Charlemagne could not 
spell their names; while Sappho, Aspasia. M idame de Maintenon, and Madame de 
Stael could read altogether too well for their good; finally, that if women were 
once permitted to read Sophocles and work with logarithms or to nibble at any 
side of the apple of knowledge there would be an end forever to their sewing on 
buttons and embroidering slippers.^ 

This sounds very much like the objections that used to be put forth, and, indeed. 
in some quarters are still putting forth, against the higher education of the negro. 

There has been a radical change of sentiment on this question during the prog- 
ress of the nineteenth century. Indeed, this century did more than all the list 
of preceding years to emancipate the weak and lowly and to place them on equal 

1 A Voice from the South, by Mrs. Anna J. Cooper, pp. 48-49. 



824 EDUCATION REPORT, 1900-1901. 

footing witli the rich in the rivalry of life. Educational facilities have been fur- 
nished for women on a scale and schedule approximating those provided for men. 
In this matter, as in all other phases of human emancipation and broadening of the 
bounds of opportunity, the United States has taken the leading part and played the 
most conspicuous role. All of this, however, has had reference mainly to the gen- 
tler sex of the favored race; But while the showers of blessings were scattering so 
freely, some of the surplus droppings have fallen even upon the weaker sex of the 
weaker race. The negro woman represents the most unfortunate class of Ameri- 
can womanhood. The mere contemplation of her condition fills the soul with 
infinite pity. No negro can think of the unfortunate status of the womanhood of 
his race without feeling the force of the wailful plaint of the prophet of old: "Oh, 
that my head were Avaters, and mine eyes a fountain of tears, that I might weep 
day and night for the slain of the daughter of my people. "^ The sins and weak- 
nesses of both races were and are visited upon her. No one has described the con- 
dition out of which negro womanhood sprung with more clearness and accuracy 
than the late Dr. Alexander Crunimell: 

In her girlhood all the delicate tenderness of her sex has been rudely outraged. 
In the field, in the rude cabin, in the press room, in the factory, she was thrown 
into companionship of coarse and ignorant men. No chance was given her for 
delicate reserve or 'tender modesty. From her childhood she was the doomed vic- 
tim of the grossest passions. All the virtues of her sex were utterly ignored. If 
the instinct of chastity asserted itself, then she had to fight like a tigress for the 
ownership and possession of her own person, and oftentimes had to suffer pains 
and lacerations for her virtuous self-assertion. When she reached maturity all 
the tender instincts of her womanhood were ruthlessly violated.'^ 

Her home life was of the most degrading nature. She lived in the rudest huts, 
and partook of the coarsest food, and dressed in the scantiest garb, and slept in 
multitudinous cabins upon the hardest boards.^ 

Gross barbarism, which tended to blunt the tender sensibilities, to obliterate 
feminine delicacy and womanly shame, came down as her heritage from genera- 
tion to generation; and it seems a miracle of providence and grace that notwith- 
standing these terrible circumstances so much struggling virtue lingered amid 
these rude cabins; that so much womanly worth and sweetness abided in their 
bosoms.* 

On first view one would say that bringing the facilities for the higher culture 
within the reach of such a condition is like casting pearls before swine. But it 
has-been abundantly demonstrated that the influence of culture is able to reach 
and to relieve, even unto the uttermost limit of degradation. The world has 
probably never witnessed a more heroic striiggle than these women, hampered, as 
it were, with a millstone chained about their necks, have made and are making for 
virtue, knowledge, and light. 

Mrs. Mary Church Terrell, ex-president of the National Association of Colored 
Women, who is herself a college- bred woman, and whose life adds emphasis and 
exemplification to her words, says: 

Nothing, in short, that could degrade or brutalize the v/omanhood of the race 
was lacking in that system from which colored women then had little hope of 
escape. So gloomy were their prospects, so fatal the laws, so pernicious the cus- 
toms, only fifty years ago. But from the day their fetters were broken and their 
minds released from the darkness of ignorance to which for more than two 
hundred years they had been doomed, from the day they could stand erect in the dig- 
nity of womanhood, no longer bond, but free, till now, colored women have forged 
steadily ahead in the acquisition of knowledge and in the cultivation of those vir- 
tues which make for good. To use a thought of the illustrious Frederick Douglass, 
if judged by the depths from which they have come rather than by the heights to 
which those blessed with centuries of opportunities have attained, colored women 
need not hang their heads in shame. Consider, if you will, the almost insur- 

1 Jeremiah, ix, 1. ^ Africa and America (The Black Woman of the South), p. 6i. 

3Ibicl.,p. 65. ^Ibid., p. 66. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 82$ 

mountable obstacles which have confronted colored women in their efforts to 
educate and cultivate themselves since their emancipation, and I dare assert, not 
boastfully, but with pardonable pride, I hope, that the progress they have made 
and the work they have accomplished will bear a favorable comparison at least 
with that of their more fortunate sisters, from whom the opportunity of acquiring 
knowledge and the means of self-culture have never been entirely withheld; for 
not only ai"e colored women with ambition and aspiration handicapped on account 
of their sex, but they are everywhere baffled and mocked on account of their race. 
Desperately and continuously they are forced to fight that opposition, born of a 
cruel, xmreasonable prejudice which neither their merit nor their necessity seems 
able to subdue. Not only because they are women, but because they are colored 
women, are discouragement and disappointment meeting them at every turn. 
Avocations opened and opportunities offered to their more-favored sisters have 
been and are closed and barred against them. While those of the dominant race 
have a variety of trades and pursuits from which they may choose, the woman 
through whose veins one drop of African blood is known to flow is limited to a 
pitiful few. So overcrowded are the avocations in which colored Avomen may 
engage and so poor is the pay, in consequence, that only the barest livelihood can 
be eked out by the rank and file. And yet, in spite of the opi^osition encountered 
and the obstacles opposed to their acquisition of knowledge and their accumula- 
tion of property, the progress made by colored women along these lines has never 
been surpassed by that of any people in the history of the world. Though the 
slaves were liberated less than forty years ago, penniless and ignorant, with neither 
shelter nor food, so great was their thirst for knowledge and so herculean were 
their efforts to secure it, that there are to-day hundreds of negroes, many of them 
women, who are graduates, some of them having taken degrees from the best 
institutions of the land. From Oberlin, that friend of the oppressed, whose name 
will always be loved and whose praise will ever be sung as the first college in the 
country which was just, broad, and benevolent enough to open its doors to negroes 
and to women on an equal footing with men; from Wellesley and Vassar, from 
Cornell and Ann Arbor, from the best high schools throughout the North, East, 
and West, colored girls have been graduated with honors, and have thus forever 
settled the question of their capacity and worth. But a few years ago in an 
examination in which a large number of young women and men competed for a 
scholarship, entitling the successful competitor to an entire course through the 
Chicago University, the only colored girl among them stood first and captured 
this great prize. And so wherever colored girls have studied their instructors 
bear testimony to their intelligence, diligence, and success. 

With this increase of wisdom there has sprung up in the hearts of colored 
women an ardent desire to do good in the world. No sooner had the favored few 
availed themselves of such advantages as they could secure than they hastened to 
dispense these blessings to the less fortunate of their race. With tireless energy 
and eager zeal colored women have, since their emancipation, been continuously 
prosecuting the work of educating and elevating their race, as though upon them- 
selves alone devolved the accomplishment of this great task. Of the teachers 
engaged in instructing colored youth it is perhaps no exaggeration to say that 
fully 90 per cent are women.' In the backwoods, remote from the civilization 
and comforts of the city and town, on the plantations, reeking with ignorance and 
vice, our colored women may be found battling with evils which such conditions 
always entail. Many a heroine, of whom the world will never hear, has thus sac- 
rificed her life to her race, amid surroundings and in the face of privations which 
only martyrs Cd,n tolerate and bear. Shirking responsibility has never been a 
fault with which colored women might be truthfully charged. Indefatigablyand 
conscientiously in public work of all kinds they engage that they may benefit 
and elevate their race. The result of this labor has been prodigious indeed. By 
banding themselves together in the interest of education and morality, by adopt- 
ing the most practical and useful means to this end, colored women have in thirty 
short years become a great power for good.- 

The home life of a people lies at the basis of its progress, and by the intendment 
of nature and the decree of society woman is regnant in the domestic sphere. Let 
it be frankly conceded that the education of the colored woman should be mainly 
of an industrial and domestic character. The higher education has a much nar- 
rov/er function in general for woman than it has for man. In its application to 
the colored race its function is proportionately restricted for the two sexes. If 

1 This estimate is too Iiigh. * Progress of Colored Women, pp. 7-9. 



826 



EDUCATIOISr EEPOET, 1900-1901. 



the demand for college-bred men is small in proportion to the population, that for 
colored women is indefinitely more so. 

The programme laid down by Dr. Crummell for the education of the colored 
woman of rhe South has never been, and perhaps can not be, improved upon:' 

1 . Boarding schools for industrial training. 

2, Intellectual training in the rudimentary branches. 

3. Domestic industries. 

4, The cultivation of flowers, fruits, and vegetables. 

But there is ample scope for the few ambitious and determined spirits in the 
higher reaches of intellectual pursuits. School- teaching is very largely in the 
hands of colored women, and it is necessary for those who would occupy com- 
manding places in the educational arena to equip themselves thoroughly for such 
exalte J stations. There are other fields calling for higher preparation on the part 
of colored women. Not a few such women have entered the arena as authors, 
lecturers, and as practitioners in the learned professions. The distinctive schools 
for colored girls which have done and are doing so much to elevate negro woman- 
hood are Scotia Seminary, in North Carolina; Spellman Academy, in Atlanta, 
Ga. , and Hawthorn College, in Richmond, Va. These schools do little more than 
cover the scope as laid down in Dr. Crummeirs programme, although they make 
excursions into the field of secondary studies. 

Most of the institutions for the education of the colored race admit women on 
equal terms with men. Females are to be found in all of the courses, although 
they do not so generally patronize the higher reaches of the curricula. 

The number of graduates from the collegiate courses can be seen from the accom- 
panying table: 

Colored women college graduates to 1898. 

FROM NORTHEEN INSTITUTIONS.^ 



Oberlin College - . 55 

Iowa Wesleyan University 4 

University of Kansas _-. 3 

University of Michigan 3 

Cornell University . >, 3 

Wellesley College 2 

Wittenberg University 2 

Geneva University., 2 

Butler University 1 



University of Iowa 

Adrian College 

University of Idaho 

Bates College 

Vassar College 

Mount Holyoke College 
McKendree University . 



Total 82 



FROM SOUTHERN INSTITUTIONS. 



Fisk University _ 31 

Shaw University 21 

Wilber force University 19 

Paul Quinn College 13 

Knoxville College ._ 10 

Atlanta University 8 

Southland University 8 

Howard University 8 

Central Tennessee College 7 

Rust University 7 

Livingstone College _ 6 

Claflin University 6 

New Orleans University. 5 

Philander Smith College 5 



Roger Williams University 5 

Berea College 4 

Leland University .. 1 

Virginia Normal and Collegiate In- 
stitute 

Paine Institute 

Straight University ... 

Branch University 

Clark University 



Allen University 1 



Total - 170 



Grand total 253 



» Africa and America, p. i 



2 Du Bois: College-bred Negro, p. 55. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 827 

There have been 83 colored women to graduate from Northern aiid 170 from 
Southern colleges. Of the colored colleges, only two institutions, both of which 
are under control of the Presbyterian Church, do not admit girls. 

In the year 1898-99, of the college students of Howard, Atlanta, Fisk, and 
Shaw 2'3 per cent were females. The proportion shows a decided tendency to 
increase. ^ 

Of 100 college-bred women reporting their conjugal condition, one-half had been 
married. It is interesting to note the tendency of college-bred women to marry 
and develop cultivated homes. The great need of the negro is to develop a higher 
tone of family life. The highest culture of negro women will not have been in 
vain if it is exploited in the domestic sphere. There have been 2,272 college-bred 
negro men and 252 negro women, making a total of 2,524, of whom the females 
constitute 10 per cent. These college-bred women are or have been for the most 
l)art engaged in the work of teaching. Their influence for good has been felt in 
scores of communities throughout the country. Many of them have become wives 
of influential colored men, and have thus merged their talent and influence with 
the work of their helpmates and the development of cultivated family life. 

Mention might be made of a few college-bred women who may be regai'ded as 
typical, albeit perhaps a little more conspicuous than the general average of their 
class. 

Mrs. Fannie Jackson Coppin:'- Fannie M. Jackson was born a slave in Wash- 
ington, D. C, in 1887, and was purchased by her aunt. She was sent to Oberlin 
College, where she was gradiiated with honor. 

She has the distinction of being the first colored person to teach a class at Ober- 
lin College, which she taught with good sucrcess for two years. In 1865 she took a 
position in the Institute for Colored Youth, Philadelphia, and in 1869 was made 
principal of that institution, which position she has held for thirty years. She is 
the wife of Bishop Levi J. Coppin, of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. 
Perhaps no single individual influence among the colored race has done so much to 
stimulate high aspirations and zeal for knowledge and service as Fannie Jackson 
Coppin. 

'•Without doubt she is the most thoroughly competent and successful of the 
colored women teachers of her time, and her example of race pride, industry, 
enthusiasm, and nobility of character will remain the inheritance and inspiration 
of the pupils of the school she helped to make the pride of the colored people of 
Pennsylvania. " ■^ 

Miss Lucy E. Laney is a graduate of Atlanta University. She has, mainly by 
her own endeavor, built up the Haines Institute, of Augusta, Ga. , of which she is 
principal. This institution is under the auspices of the Presbyterian Church, and 
is one of the best secondary schools in the South. 

Mrs. Booker T. Washington, wife of Prof. Booker T. Washington, principal of 
Tuskegee Institute, Tuskegee, Ala., was graduated from Fisk University in the 
class of 1889. She was a teacher at Tuskegee, where she met and married Pro- 
fessor Washington. She is a coworker with her distinguished husband and has 
been very successful in improving the social life of the black people in the black 
belt of Alabama. She is vice-ijresident of the National Association of Colored 
Women. 

Mrs. Anna J. Cooper was born in Raleigh, N. C. Mrs. Cooper entered Oberlin 
College in 1881, after the death of her husband. Rev. G. A. C. Cooper, a talented 

1 College-bred Negro, p. 57. 

= The interesting work. Women of Distinction, by L. A. Scruggs, A. M., M. D., published at 
Raleigh, N. C, 1893, contains an account of a long list of notable coloi'ed women. Much of the 
information presented is from this book, although it has been confirmed by other sources of 
information and brought nearer to date. 

2 Williams's History of the Negro Race, Vol. II, p. 449. 



828 EDUCATION REPOET, 1900-1901. 

Episcopal divine. She was graduated from Oberlin in 1884 and haa taught at 
Wilberforce University, Wilberforce, Ohio, St. Augustine Normal School, Raleigh, 
N. C, and the Colored High School, Washington, D. C, of which she is at present 
the principal. Pier book, A Voice from the South, has elicited flattering enco- 
miums from competent critics and forms a valuable part of the literature of the 
the race problem. 

Mrs. Mary Church Terrell v*^as born in Memphis, Tenn., and was graduated 
from Oberlin College in 1884. She has taught at Wilberforce University and the 
Washington High School; has served as trustee of the public schools of Washing- 
ton, D. C, and was the first president of the National Association of Colored 
Women. Mrs. Terrell is listed among the regular lecturers before the Western 
Summer Chautauquas, where her addresses are always well received. 

Mrs. Josephine Turpin Washington was born in Richmond, Va., and was grad- 
uated from Howard University in 1886, She taught for several years in her alma 
mater before she was married to Dr. S. S. H. Washington, of Alabama. She has 
written quite widely in Southern and Northern papers and magazines and is 
well known as a worker for the general social betterment of the people. 

College-bred women are everywhere doing their full share to lift the social 
life of tiie race to a higher level, which is ample justification of the training they 
have received. 

The strivings and triumphs of colored women are well expressed in the follow- 
ing citation: 

And so, lifting as we climb, onward and upward we go, struggling and striving 
and hoping that the buds and blossoms of our desires will burst into glorious frui- 
tion ere long. With courage born of success in the past, with a keen sense of the 
responsibility which we shall continue to assume, we look forward to a future 
large with promise and hope.' 

In the fruition of these desires and the fulfillment of this crescent promise the 
higher education will exercise no inconsiderable influence. 

VI.— The Origin of the Negro College. 

Before plunging "in medias res," as Horace would say, let us take a brief sur- 
vey of the educational opportunities of the colored race before the war. Schools 
for persons of color had been established and maintained at scattered points 
throughout the North for well nigh two hundred years. These schools usually met 
with the good will and approval of the white people in the several communities, 
althotigh in some instances hostility and opposition were encountered. Several 
States from the earliest times admitted colored pupils to the genei'al school system 
without distinction. One searches their records in vain for any legislation upon 
this question. It is a curious fact that the colored girl who was the initial, 
though innocent, cause of Miss Prudence Crandall's troubles had received her pri- 
mary education in the district schools of Connecticut along with white pupils. 
In general, however, it might be said that the ante-bellum opportunities for an 
education on the jiart of the colored man were few and far apart. The training 
obtained in the schools was of the most meager and rudimentary sort. It 
embraced the fundamental processes, reading, writing, and arithmetic, and but 
little more. In the larger centers, such as New York, Philadelphia, and Balti- 
more, efforts were made, with more or less success, to establish academies and 
schools of higher training. A few white institutions would now and then admit 
a colored man who was preparing for the ministry. An occasional college would 
open its doors to him, but not very often and not very wide. It was late in the 
forties, 1 believe, when Harvard first let him in. When the colored applicant? 

1 The Progress of Colored Women, by Mrs. Mary Church Terrell, p. 15. 



THE EDUCATIOlSr OF THE NEGRO. 829 

Williams by name, first knocked at the door of this ancient seat of learning there 
was great confusion and uproar. The usual tactics were resorted to— the patrons 
threatened to -withdraw their support— but President Everett manifested that 
deliberate courage which always conquers. He informed the objectors that if 
every other student should be withdrawn from the institution he would use all of 
its resources and machinery to educate tins sole colored man. Dartmouth College 
was founded about the middle of the eighteenth century for the education of the 
Indians. So far as I have been able to ascertain, it has never made any discrimi- 
nation on account of race or color. Those who have gone unto her with the 
proper intellectual and moral qualifications she has in no wise cast out. 

By all odds the greatest stimulus which the educational interest of the colored 
race received before the war was the foundation of Oberlin College in 1833. A 
few other institutions extended to colored youth a cold i^ermission ; Oberlin a warm 
welcome. She cordially invited all colored people who were hungering and thirst- 
ing after knowledge to come unto her and be supplied. This, indeed, they did. 
They flocked to her in such numbers that in 1865 fully one-third of the students 
of Oberlin College were of the colored race. The policy of Oberlin in this regard 
can not be better set forth than was done by Miss Sophia Jex Blake, an English 
woman, who visited the leading American schools and colleges in 1865, for the pur- 
pose of studying their coeducational feature as applied to women. In her report 
published in England, entitled A Visit to American Schools, we read: 

In 1834-35, the trustees [of Oberlin] took up their definite position with regard 
to one of the questions then even more bitterly agitated than now, and decided it 
by the free admission of all colored students on equal terms with the whites. This 
step marks an epoch in the educational history of America; for though solitary 
colored students had been admitted to Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, and 
possibly elsewhere, no such proclamation of welcome had hitherto gone forth 
from any educational body, and the extreme opposition which the measure called 
forth is the best testimony to the merits of its supporters. 

The Ashum Institute was established by the Presbyterian Church in 1853, and 
chartered by the legislature of Pennsylvania in 1854. Its aim and purpose are 
clearly set forth by the action of the Presbytery which founded it: "There shall 
be established within our bounds and under our supervision an institution called 
the Ashum Institute, for the scientific, classical, and theological education of col- 
ored youth of the male sex.'' This institution still survives under the name of 
Lincoln University. It is the largest and one of the most prosperous and useful of 
the negro colleges. 

When we turn from the North to the South, we are confronted by an appalling 
situation. As we look itpon the intellectual horizon and mental sky, despair and 
gloom are everywhere — "darkness there and nothing more." Here and there it 
was indeed possible to find a few negroes who had furtively snatched a few mor- 
sels of knowledge. In the earlier stages of slavery, it was not uncommon to find 
slaves v/ho had been taught to read and write. But the Missouri compromise, the 
Nat Turner insurrection, and the growing abolition sentiment of the North in- 
flamed the Southern passion. It was at this time that the antinegro sentiment 
reached the acute stage of malignity. The legislation of most of the Southern 
States forbidding the teaching of negroes bears about the same date. 

The educational value of slavery is thus portrayed by Col. George W. Williams: 

The institution of American slavery needed protection from the day of its birth 
to the day of its death. Whips, thumbscrews, and manacles of iron were far 
less helpful to it than the thraldom of the intellects of its helpless victims.' 

The real intellectual life of the race began with the overthrow of slavery. This 
applies to the North as well as to the South. When the smoke of war had blown 

1 History of the Negro Race, by George W. Williams, Vol. II, p. 117. 



830 EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1900-1901. 

away, when the cessation of strife proclaimed the end of the great American con- 
flict, when " the war drum throbbed no longer, and the battle flags were fnrled," 
there emerged from the wreck and ruin of war 4,000,000 of human chattels, who 
were transformed, as if by magic, in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, from 
slavery to freedom, from bondage to liberty, from death unto life. These people 
were absolutely ignorant and destitute. They had not tasted of the tree of knowl- 
edge which is the tree of good and evil. This tree was guarded by the flaming 
swords of wrath, kept keen and bright by the avarice and cupidity of the master 
class. No enlightened tongue had explained to them the deep moral purpose of 
the Ten Commandments and the Sermon on the Mount. They were blind alike 
as to the intellectual and moral principles of life. Ignorance, poverty, and vice, 
the trinity of human wretchedness, brooded over this degraded mass and made it 
pregnant. The world looked and wondered. What is to be the destiny of this 
peopled Happily at this tragic juncture of affairs, they were touched with the 
magic wand of education. The formless mass assumed symmetry and shape. 
Order began to rise out of chaos. Contrast that day with this day. Turn back 
4U pages of the leaves of history. Look on this picture, and then on that. The 
words of prophecy are fulfilled: " Though ye have lien among the pots, yet shall 
ye be as the wings of a dove covered with silver, and her feathers with yellow 
gold." Nowhere in the whole sweep of history has the transforming effect of 
intelligence had a higher test of its power. Nothing is great or small, high or 
low, except by comparison. The same power, mainly educational, that has brought 
the negro safe thus far, will lead him on and on until he reaches the climax of his 
destiny. 

The circumstances amid which this work had its inception read like the swift- 
changing scenes of a mighty drama. The armies of the North are in sight of victory. 
Lincoln issues his immortal emancipation proclamation; Sherman, with consum- 
mate military skill destroys the Conf edei-ate base of supplies and marches through 
Q-eorgia triumphant to the sea; Grant is on his road to Richmond; the Confederate 
iiag has fallen; Lee has surrendered; the whole North joins in one concerted chorus: 
'■ jline eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord." These thrilling epi- 
sodes will stir our patriotic emotions to the latest generations. But in the track 
of the Northt^rn army there followed a band of heroes to do battle in a worthier 
cause. Theirs was no carnal warfare. They did not battle against flesh and 
blood, but against the powers of darkness intrenched in the ignorance of a degraded 
people. A worthier band has never furnished theme or song for sage or bard. 
These noble women— for these noble people were mostly of the female sex — left 
homes, their friends, their social ties, and all that they held dear, to go to the far 
South to labor among the recently emancix)ated slaves. Their courage, their self- 
sacrificing devotion, sincerity of purpose and purity of motive, and their unshaken 
faith in God were their pass keys to the hearts of those for whom they came to 
labor. They were sustained by an unbounded enthusiasm and zeal amounting 
almost to fanaticism. No mercenary or sordid motive attaches to their fair 
names. They gave the highest proof that the nineteenth century, at least, has 
afforded that Christianity has not yet degenerated into a dead formula and barren 
intellectualism, but that it is a living, vital power. Their works do follow them. 
What colored man is there in ail this land who has not felt the iiplif ting effect of 
their labors? Their monument is builded in the hopes of a race struggling upward 
from ignorance to enlightenment, from corruption to purity of life. These are they 
who sowed the seed of intelligence in the soil of ignorance and planted the rose of 
virtue in the garden of dishonor and shame. They had no foregoers; they have 
left no successors. It is said that gratitude is the fairest flower which sheds its 
perfume in the human heart. As long as the human heart beats in grateful 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGEO. 831 

response to benefits received, these women shall not want a monument of living 
ebony and bronze. 

The National Government inaugurated the work of education among the colored ' 
people of the South. Earl 3^ in the war, Gen. U. S. Grant appointed Rev. John 
Eaton, afterwards United States Commissioner of Education, to take charg ot 
the instruction of the colored people who were following in the wake of his army. 
The work developed into enormous proportions. General Banks undertook simi.ar 
work in New Orleans. The Union Army was turned iuto a band of schoolmasters. 
Teachers from the North came down to work under the protection of the Federal 
Army. Northern churches and benevolent associations soon entered the field 
Freedmen's aid societies were organized in all the leading denominations. Con- 
tributions poured in both from this country and from Eiirope. This work on the 
part of the Government soon grew too large and bulky to be wisely managed by 
disjointed agencies. In 1864 the Freedmen"s Bureau was organized, wiih Gen. 
O. O. Howard at its head. The working of this bureau is too well known to need 
comment here. The reports of General Alvord, the superintendent of education 
for the bureau, are most valuable contributions to the history of this subject. The 
work of the Freedmen's Bureau was largely that of education. It confined lis 
efforts chiefly to building schoolhouses and furnishing facilities of instruction, 
leaving Northern benevolence to supply and support teachers. It is estimated 
that the General Government thus spent fully $"3,000,000 for the education of the 
fi'eedmen. 

The need of the higher education was soon felt. Teachers and leaders must be 
provided. Hence arose the negro college and university. When the Freedmens 
Bureau came to an end it turned its educational interests over to religious and 
benevolent societies, which had cooperated with it in the work. About this time 
also the reconstruction movement was under way. A great many things have 
been written in condemnation of this unwise experiment in government. The 
rule of black ignorance under the guidance of white villainy proved a failure. 
But it has left the South one monument that should take away some of the um a- 
vory flavor from its memory. It established the public-school system throughout 
the South, and thereby conferred upon that section the greatest boon which it has 
received since the adoption of the Constitution. It is upon this corner stone that 
the South must build all her hopes for future years. Naturally enough the reli- 
gious and denominational associations did not want their work swallowed up in 
the public-school system. These schools became chartered institutions. They 
assumed the high-sounding name of college or university, while their work was 
mostly of an elementary character. 

In addition to the institutions of the class above described, almost eveiy South- 
ern State has established a State college for colored youth as an offset to the State 
institutions maintained for the whites. The National Government appropriates a 
large sum of money for colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. Wherever 
a State has separate schools it is stipulated that the division of this fund between 
the races must be in numerical proportion to their numbers. Thus tlie negro 
colleges wei'e born in weakness. May they be raised in power. 

The accompanying table will show the order in M'hich the negro colleges were 
established, and under what auspices they were founded and supported. 



832 



EDUCATION EEPOET, 1900-1901. 
Negro colleges, in the order of establishment. ' 




1864. 
1866. 
1868. 

1869. 
1870. 
1870. 
1871. 
1873. 
1873. 
1872. 
1873. 
1874. 
1874. 
1874. 
1874. 
1874. 
1878. 
1878. 
1879, 
1879- 
1880. 
1880. 
1883. 
1883. 
1883. 
1885., 
1885., 
1885 -, 
1890.. 
1890.. 
1893.. 
1894.. 
1894.. 
1894.. 



Lincoln University 

Wilberforce University 

Howard University 

Berea College 

Leland University 

Benedict College 

Fisk University. 

Atlanta University 

Biddle University 

Southland College 

Roger Williams University _ 

Central Tennessee College _ 

New Orleans University.. 

Shaw University 

Rust University 

Straight University 

Branch College (Arkansas) 

Claflin University 

Knoxville College 

Clark University 

Alcorn University (Mississippi) 

Wiley University 

Paine University 

Allen University ._ 

Livingstone College 

Talladega College 

Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute 

Paul Quinn College 

Lincoln Institute _ 

Morris Brown College. 

Atlanta Baptist College... 

Georgia State Industrial College 

Delaware State College 

Philander Smith College 



Presbyterians. 

African Methodists. 

Freedman's Bureau, United States 

Government. 
American Missionary Association. 
Mr. H. Chamberlain. 
Baptists. 
American Missionary Association. 

Do. 
Presbyterians. 
Friends. 
Baptists. 
Methodists. 

Do. 
Baptists, 
Methodists. 

American Missionary Association. 
State. 
Methodists. 
Presbyterians. 
Methodists. 
State. 

Methodists. 
Southern Methodists. 
African Methodists. 
Zion Methodists. 

American Missionary Association. 
State. 

African Methodists. 
Colored soldiers and State. 
African Methodists. 
Baptists. 
State. 

Do. 
Methodists. 



' Taken from the College- Bred Negro. 

VII. Work, Ways, and Future of Negro Colleges. 

" New occasions teach new duties." The conditions out of which the colored 
institutions grew are quite different from those by which they are surrounded 
to-day. A great wave of philanthropic enthusiasm swept the country immedi- 
ately after the war. Institutions had been founded to meet the immediate needs 
of the situation. These schools must adjust themselves to the change of environ- 
ments. The experimental stage has passed. The following announcement of the 
trustees of the John F. Slater fund is eloquent with suggestion: 

"The trustees believe that the experimental period in the education of the 
blacks is drawing to a close. Certain principles that were doubted thirty years 
ago now appear to be generally recognized as sound. In the next thirty years 
better systems will undoubtedly prevail. "'^ 

When these schools were first founded the work was an untried experiment, 
now it is settling into definite" lines; then the great demand was to provide teach- 
ers, now there are more teachers than can be supplied with schools; then the 
public-school system had not been organized in the South, now schools are well 
established in all the States; then high and normal schools were unknown, now 
each Southern State has one or more of them under its jurisdiction. The relation 
between private and public schools is one of primary importance. There is some 
jealousy and not a little rivalry between them in many instances. The private 
schools were first in the field and do not wish to give way. It is, however, decid- 
edly unwise for private instruction to rival the public schools in their legitimate 



1 The trustees of the John F. Slater fund, Occasional Papers, No. 1, page 4. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



833 



territorj'. According to our theory of government primary education is the duty 
of the State. It is true that the Southern States are too poor to do their full duty 
in this regard. The effort which they put forth, however, is commendable in the 
highest degree. No other community in this country lays such heavy propor- 
tional taxes upon itself for school purposes as the South. 

Any supplement to the public schools of the South has always been welcome. 
The Peabody and Slater funds have added greatly to the educational progress of 
that section. But the question arises as to the wisdom of private institutions, 
calling themselves colleges and universities, duplicating the work of the public 
schools. An examination of the catalogues of many of the colored colleges will 
show that they are for the most part huge primary schools with the college course 
attached for ornament and style. 

Proportion of college students to total enrollment in negro colleges, 1S98-99. 



College. 



College Secondary Primary 
students, students, students. 



Lincoln 

Biddle - 

Fisk - - 

Howard 

Shaw 

Atlanta -.. 

"Wilberforce 

"Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute 

Leland - 

Livingstone - 

AUen 

State College (Delaware) 

Knoxville.-- 

Claflin (1897-98) 

Clark 

Philander Smith 

Roger Williams 

New Orleans _ 

Georgia State 

Paine 

Talladega 

Bust - - 

Atlanta Baptist 

Arkansas Baptist 

Straight -. 

Southland -.. 

Southern 

Wiley :.-. 

Branch (Arkansas) 



.35 








m 


135 





.51 


180 


133 


4a 


3t'5 





37 


2:25 





»{ 


230 


23 


;^i 


159 


59 


an 


138 


163 


ao 


34 


33 


w 


53 


159 


19 


111 


149 


18 


21 





18 


94 


145 


17 


109 


553 


IR 


108 


323 


1.5 


69 


238 


15 


99 


74 


14 


37 


275 


Vi 


72 


140 


10 


180 


80 


9 


68 


129 


9 


76 


125 


9 


25 


66 


9 


33 


143 


8 


131 


382 


« 


57 


70 


7 


66 


341 


5 


49 


288 


a 


57 


129 



The poet Horace tells us that a lawyer of mediocre ability may be held in high 
esteem, though he be not so eloquent as Messalla nor so learned as Aulus; but 
neither gods nor men nor booksellers will tolerate a mediocre jwet. ..What the 
Apulian bard remarks of the poet will apply vnth equal force to a college. There 
can be no excuse or toleration for an inferior institution of high pretension. The 
old adage, *'a whole loaf or none," suggests a principle that is at once salutary 
and sound. One had better remain untaught in the higher branches of learning 
than to be imperfectly instructed. From an intellectual standpoint it is better 
not to see at all than to see through a glass darkly. The worst possible condition 
of the mind is to have it crammed with smatterings of undigested and unassimilated 
knowledge. This is the state of mind from which spring bigotry, conceit, and 
shallow pretense. A self-resi>ecting individual can not afford to be very different 
in his dress and habits of life from the society in which he moves; if he finds it 
too difficult to keep pace with his class, he is relegated to the grade below by the 
law of social gravitation. So it is with an institution of learning; it can not 
afford to be much different from other schools of like grade and pretension; and 
if it can not maintain itself on such a plane, it had better fall back to the next 
lower grade of academy or ntting school. Colored colleges need not expect 

ED 1901 53 



834 



EDUCATION EEPOET, 1900-1901. 



exemption from the Tisual tests of excellence. Knowledge is color-blind. Science 
and philosophy do not accommodate themselves to the various hues of the human 
species. 

The requirements for admission to colored colleges, as well as the extent of 
courses and allotment of time to the several subjects of study, may be seen from 
the accompanying tables: 

Requirements for admission to negro colleges. 





Length 
of pre- 
paratory 
course. 


Number of years of preparatory study 
required in — 


Weeks 


Institution. 


Latin. 


Greek. 


Mathe- 
matics. 


English. 


Other 
impor- 
tant 
studies. 


study 
per 
year. 





3 
3 
4 
2 
3 
3 

2 
4 
3 
3 



2 
3 
4 

3 
3 

2 
3 
3 
3 



1 
2 
2 

1 
1 
2 


2 

2 

2 




li 

f 
2 
2 

1| 
3^ 
2 
3 




1 


2^- 
1 

1 

1| 

i 

1" 




i 
1 

2| 
2 
2 
3 
11 

u 
ll 

5 
2 


33 


Biddle 


35 




37 


Howard - 


36 




33 




34 




39 


Virginia Normal and Collegiate In- 


33 




31 




28 




36 







From this it would seem that these colleges ranked in the severity of their 
entrance requirements about as follows: 

1. Howard: Nearly equal to the smaller New England colleges. 

2. Fisk, Atlanta, Wilberforce, Leland, Paul Quinn: From one to two years 
behind smaller New England colleges. 

3. Biddle, Shaw, Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute, Livingstone: From 
two to three years behind smaller New England colleges. 

4. Lincoln: A little above an ordinary New England high school. 

Table slioiving ivhat fractional part of the four-years'' college course is devoted to 

certain studies. 



Institution. 


College 

pre- 
paratory 
course 
of- 


English. 


Modern 

lan- 
guages. 


Ancient 

lan- 
guages. 


Natural 
science. 


Political 
science, 
history, 
and phi- 
losophy. 


Mathe- 
matics. 




Years. 
4 
3 
3 
3 
4 
3 
3 
2 

2 
2 


1-8 

1-30 

1-16 

1-18 

1-15 

1-20 

1-13 

1-6 

1-15 
1-10 
1-7 


1-16 

1-6 

1-13 


1-4 
1^ 
1-3 
1-3 
1-3 
1-3 
1-3 
1-5 

1-3 
1-2 
2-5 


1-8 
1-5 
1-6 
1-5 
1-4 
1-5 
1-6 
1-5 

1-9 
1-9 
1-9 


1-4 
1-6 
1-4 
1-9 
1-5 
1-5 
1-7 
1-6 

1-7 

1-10 

1-9 


1-16 


Fisk 


1-8 


Atlanta 


1-7 




1-7 






1-7 


Paul Quinn .. ..... .. 


1-20 
1-13 
1-8 

1-8 


1-r 


Biddle 


1-6 




1-8 


Virginia Normal and Colle- 


1-5 




1-6 


Lincoln 


1-5 











THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 



835 



Approximate distribution of u'ork in negro colleges. 

[Hours of recitation per week for the year.] 
FRESHMEN. 





































































a. 2 
























t- M 








OS 

o 




oj 
< 




-a 

<D 


a 
s 
'3 

1 


6 
M 




O Q) . 

> 


S 
o 

.9 
'? 

4 


(3 
O 

3 


Latin 


f 


5 


i 




5 


5 


4 


4 


^ 


4 


Greek 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


4 


4 


5 


4 


4 




5 
2 


5 



5 
1 


5 



5 



5 




4 
1 


4 
1 


5 
(J 


4 


4 


English 


3 




t 





3 











4 


3 


1 


2 


1 







SOPHOMORES. 



Latin 

Greek 

Mathematics 

English 

History 

Natural science .- 
Civics 

Modern languages 
Other studies 



3i 


3i 


4 


5 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


U 


3? 


5 


5 


4 


4 


4 





4 


4 


3^ 


3 


5 


34 


4 


4 


3 


4 


4 


4 


3 





i 











o 


3 





3 








'Zi 






















3 


1* 





(t 


4 


4 


3 


4 











U 





li 








U 














5 




















4 























^ 


i 









JUNIORS. 



Latin 

Greek 

iViatliematics 

English 

History 

Natural science 

Political science 

Modern languages 

Psychology and philosophy 
Other studies 



(') 


IS 





4 

















4 


(') 


3* 





4 


4 


4 


4 





4 


4 


(') 

















2* 





4 


2 


1 o 





3^^ 





4 


3 


2 


3 








'(3) 














'i 











2 


'3 





5 


ti? 


6 


54 


4 


5 


2? 


3 





U 


4 








(» 








n 





M'4) 


5 


4.^ 











3 


4 


4 














u 


2 


•> 


I 


4 


14 


o 


H3) 





1 














i 









SENIORS. 



Latin 

Greek 

Mathematics 

English 

History , 

Natural science ... 
Political science .. 
Modern languages 
Psychology, etc .. 
Other studies 






























3 








H 











u 








3 


{■h 





























n 


if' 


4 


■M 





5 


J 


'3 


4 

















2 











U 





2(3) 


5 


5 


5 


4 


;h 


4 


4 


4 


4 


'^(24) 


3i 


4 


is 


4 


n 


U 


3 








{•') 

















ik 


3 








B| 


5 


2f 


4 


6 


5 


6 


4 


5 


4 








34 








" 





4 









4 



' Ten additional hours to be chosen from these. The figures in parentheses indicate a prob- 
able course. 

^ Five and one-third hours of electives to be chosen from these. The figures iu parentheses 
indicate a probable course. 

The best of these schools are almost on pai* with the average New England 
college, so far as standard of admission and reach and range of curriculum are 
concerned. Howard University stands at the head of the list. It would certainly 
not fall far below the prevailing collegiate standard, with Fisk and Atlanta as 
close seconds. From these the range is downward until they reach the level of a 
New England fitting school. 

The chartered institutions are usually located in the large centers of population, 
where the provisions for public institutions are more or less ample. Men who 



836 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1900-1901. 

have carefiTlly studied the situa,tion are asking themselves the question whether 
it is good policy to entreat Northern philanthropy to carry on a work which the 
States themselves can more easily perform. There is no doubt that there will be 
outside benevolence to assist in this work for a long time to come. Begging at 
best is a disagreeable task. It should never be indulged in unless there is some 
overshadow ing necessity. It is the unanimous opinion of thoughtful observers, 
as well as the dictate of common prudence, that these institutions should relegate 
to the public schools all the work that properly belongs there, and should confine 
their energies to that class of work which falls beyond, or at least outside of, the 
range of public instruction. 

The relative influence of white and colored men in the management and conduct 
of the schools is a matter of much moment and not a little delicacy. This ques- 
tion, however, is a persistent one. It will not down at our bidding and has no 
regard for our delicate scruples; it requires brave, heroic treatment; it should be 
handled with all the plainness of English speech. Most of these schools are under 
the management and control of some church or religious organization. These 
societies have founded the work, developed the jDlants, and accumulated the 
property. This class of schools is usually directed and ofticered by white men. 
There is a good deal of human nature even in the persons who are engaged in 
missionary work. Nowhere do we find it a common thing for men to voluntarily 
yield up authority when it is possible for them to retain it. It is only reasonable 
to suppose that this class of schools will continue to be dominated by white men. 
The argument is advanced that white people furnish the means, and it is but fair 
that they should dispose of it in any manner which they deem fit. It is true that 
practically all of the money for this work is furnished by the whites. However 
it may be liked or disliked, it will probably continue to be the fact that as long as 
the whites contribute the support they will continue to wield the dominant 
influence. 

Those institutions which are supported by the States are under the control of 
colored men. It is the policy of the South to let the negro manage his own affairs. 
It is found that those institutions which are under colored management are in no 
wise behind the rest in point of discipline, order, and good results. 

There is still another class of institutions, originally supjoorted and managed 
wholly by colored men. These are to be found for the most part within the limits 
of the A, M. E. Church. There are as many as 40 such institutions, several of 
which take high rank as colleges. It is here that we must look for the best illus- 
trations of independent action in many directions. These institutions are of the 
colored people, by the colored people, and for the colored people. 

The resources of these schools are a matter of serious concern. The total pro- 
ductive endowment of all the higher institutions is about threo- quarters of a mil- 
lion dollars. This is about sufficient to run one small college alone. The small 
amount which colored men have contributed to these funds is remarkable. There 
have been several illustrious examples of colored men in the A, M. E. Church who 
have left the bulk of their fortunes to the educational institutions; but I know of 
no others who have followed their example. The race spends immense sums of 
money for the support of their religion, but very little for education. The value 
of negro church property is placed at $26,000,000, all of which has been contrib- 
uted or solicited by themselves; but their contribution to education would hardly 
amount to a tenth part of that sum. One thing seems to be certain, the sup- 
port as well as the management of colored institutions must ultimately be 
transferred from the white to the colored race, if they are to be permanent. The 
resources of charity will not last forever. A people who really deserve and appre- 
ciate institutions for their moral and intellectual welfare will sustain them. It is 
a physical impossibility for a body to remain in stable equilibrium whose center of 
gravity falls outside of the basis of support. 



THE EDUCATIOIT OF THE NEGEO. 887 

There are entirely too manj' of these colleges. Every school that teaches the 
least bit of classics is ambitious to confer the academic degrees. There is not a 
fitting school pure and simple in the whole range of the educational work. There 
are more universities for colored people in the United States than there are alto- 
gether in England or France and quite as many as there are in Germany. If the 
educational work could be harmonized and systematized, so that a majority of the 
universities could be reduced to fitting schools and academies, leaving two or three 
stronger ones to carry on the higher lines of study, the work could be done with 
half the present expense and with thrice the elSciencj% ■ -• 

The denominational feature is largely responsible for the great number of insti- 
tutions with high-sounding names. Every denomination is anxious to have its 
own schools, to enforce its own principles, and inculcate its own doctrines. Hence 
it is not an uncommon thing to find two or three universities of as many different 
denominations in a single Southern city. Any unity of action or harmony of plan 
is made exceedingly diincult on account of this denominational rivalry. 

A university in its complete growth and equipments represents the ripest product 
of a civilization. The colored schools, notwithstanding their shortcomings, repre- 
sent more fully than anything else the progress of the race. They not only show 
what has already been accomplished, but are the surest promise of what is to be. 

The collegiate prerogative of conferring degrees is one which these schools exer- 
cise without the least modesty. Degrees were originally conferred upon students 
as a license to teach. In course of time they came to stand for various achieve- 
ments in several branches of learning. Some of them indicated the courses of 
study pursued, while others stood for eminence or proficiency in the arts and 
sciences. A love of cheap distinction seems to be the greatest malady which afflicts 
the American mind. The theory is that under democratic institutions the love of 
titular distinctions is eradicated. Our Government grants no titles of nobilitj'. 
To be an American citizen is supposed to be honor enough for any man. We laugh 
at the number of worn-out counts and earls and what-nots of the old world, but 
we can overmatch them in the number and variety of degrees. Few people seem 
to be satisfied with a plain name; they want some addition either before or after 
it. Our civilians who never saw action in the field and who know no more about 
military operations than Shakespeare's arithmetician are dubbed "captain," "colo- 
nel," or '-general." Men are called "judge" whose judgment would not be 
respected on a single item of human interest from a horse race to metaphysics. 
Masonic societies load down their votaries with a list of degrees that seem to exhaust 
the letters of the alphabet. American heiresses swap their millions for a titled 
name. 

It should not be wondered at, then, that colleges, which hold the exclusive 
patent of literary degrees, should partake of this same lavish spirit. The smaller 
and feebler colleges seem to make up their deficiencies by the number and variety 
of degrees which they confer. It is said that in many cases they are sold out- 
right. The story is told of a certain Southern institution that its faculty con- 
sisted of two members of the same family. The father was president and the son 
was professor of the whole curriculum. The faculty met on a day and voted to 
confer the degree of LL. D. upon the president, and, in order to return the compli- 
ment, the president conferred the degree of Ph. D. upon the faculty. The writer 
is familiar with the facts of the following case: An eminent divine was invited to 
deliver the commencement address before a certain college class. After having per- 
formed the task to the best of his ability the institution offered either to pay his 
railroad fare or to give him a D. D. The railroad fare was preferred. This evil 
has become so prevalent that not only educators but common-sense men in all 
walks of life have become aroused to its serious nature. Several of the leading 
institutions have decided not to confer any more honorary degrees. Mr. James R. 
Garfield has recently introduced a measure in the Ohio legislature to have that 



838 EDUCATION BEPOBT, 1900-1901. 

body regulate the matter of degrees from the colleges of the State. President 
Cleveland several years ago declined the honor of an LL. D. from Harvard Uni- 
versity; more recently he has declined the same proffer from Wilberforce. His 
declension is based on the ground that he is not a college graduate and is not other- 
wise entitled to literary distinctions. 

What has been said so far upon this topic refers to the abuse of degrees in gen- 
eral and is not especially applicable to colored schools. This abuse is a general 
one. Our 400 or more colleges have so flooded the land with learned degrees 
that they have lost their intended significance. They are not recognized by the 
institutions of Europe. There is an old adage in the South, " If you want to see 
a thing run in the ground, let the negroes get hold of it." This adage has been 
more than justified in the present instance. The matter of degrees has been car- 
ried to ridiculous, even to disgusting, extremes. The extravagant lavishness with 
which persons who in the nature of the case can have no claim to them are loaded 
with literary degrees would be amusing if it were not so amazing. Colored men 
are no longer willing to have their attainments properly characterized by the 
three R's; they must be represented by the various combinations of L's and D's. 
It has been facetiously stated that a great many colored men who stagger under 
the heavy load of A. B., A. M., D. D., LL, D., etc., would have their acquisitions 
more accurately described by A B G and the other letters of the alphabet. There 
are hundreds of colored men dubbed D. D. who can not give a critical rendering 
of a single passage of Scripture in the original or give an opinion on any phase of 
theology that would challenge respect, or write a single line on any topic, sacred 
or secular, that will live six hours after they are dead. Many of these degrees 
have been conferred on account of useful work, pious life, holy consecration, or 
ecclesiastical eminence. Too much can not be said in praise of these things. But 
it is pure mockery, a travesty upon learning, to decorate such ]Dersons with honors 
which they do not deserve and whose significance they can not appreciate. Do 
men gather grapes of thorns or figs of thistles? So far has this practice prevailed 
that when it is announced that the Rev. Mr. Blank, D, D., LL. D., is going to 
preach at such and such a church, we no longer think of a learned scholar who 
can partake of the things of God and show them unto us with logical clearness 
and power, but instead our risible emotions are aroused. Ecclesiastical degrees 
are not more abused than those of purely literary or scientific import. Many of 
the colleges fall short of the average standard. Their regular degrees, therefore, 
do not stand for a fair amount of culture. The goods are not properly labeled. 
Thus the land is full of A. B.'s and A. M.'s which could not stand the test of 
severe standards. It was but yesterday that the negro race first saw the light 
of intellectual day. The bulk of the race is still illiterate or nearly so. So it is 
marvelous beyond words that so many of them have reached the highest pitch 
of literary honors. Where else in history is there such a sharp contrast of bright 
lights and deep shadows? When we think of the suddenness with which this has 
been brought about, we can but suppose that these learned men must have sprung 
into being full fledged, like the Grecian Minerva from the brain of Zeus. 

This question has its serious as well as its facetious side. It points out an evil 
and suggests a duty. It is positively damaging to sound scholarship and to high 
standards. If the highest honors are so easily won, and when won are of so little 
significance and worth, what stimulus is there for young men to struggle for 
honest acquisitions? There needs to be cultivated a wholesome public sentiment 
which will not tolerate such intellectual sham. Institutions which have no higher 
appreciation for this collegiate function than to abuse it so shamefully should meet 
with stern popular disfavor. The educators of colored youth can render no gxeater 
service to the intellectual welfare of the race than to discourage intellectiTal dis- 
honesty under the guise of unmerited degrees. These colleges and universities 
should see to it that these bogus honors are stopped. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGKO. 



839 



Negro college graduates of u'hite colleges, according to institutions. 
(A) THE LARGER UNIVERSITIES. 



Name of college. 


Total 
gradu- 
ates. 


Name of college. 


Total 
gradu- 
ates. 


Harvard . 


11 
10 
10 
8 
4 
4 


Catliolic 


3 


Yale 


3 


Michigan 


Stanford 




Cornell 


Total. 


^ 




54 


Pennsylvania 











(B) COLLEGES OF SECOND RANK. 



Oberlin 

University of Kansas 

Bates 

Colgate 

Brown - 

Dartmouth 

Amherst 

Buclcnell - 

Oh io State 

Williams .. 

Boston University 

University of Minnesota 

Indiana 

Adelbert 

Beloit 

Colby 

University of Iowa 




University of Nebraska 
Wesleyan (.Connecticut) 

Radcliffe 

Wellesley 

Northwestern 

Rutgers 

Bowdoin 

Hamilton 

New York Univer.sity .. 

Rochester 

Denver 

De Pauw 

Mount Holyoke 

Vassar 

Total 



(C) OTHER COLLEGES. 





10 

? 

6 
4 
4 
4 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 




o 


Geneva 






Hillsdale 


Otter bein 




Lafayette 




Wesleyan (Iowa) 






Dennison 


Olivet 




Baldwin 


Albion 




Western of Pennsylvania 


University of Idaho 




Hiram 






Wittenberg 






Butler's 






Westminster 






St. Stephen's 








Ohio University 

Total 




Tabor 




Knox 


90 








Adrian 


389 


Washington and Jeffer.son 











Negro college graduates from negro colleges. 



Name of college. 


Total 
gradu- 
ates. 


Name of college. 


Total 
gradu- 
ates. 




96 
194 

94 
130 

16 

18 
140 
106 

27 
38 
616 

29 

24 

6 

44 

46 


Clark 


21 


Fisk 




29 


Atlanta 




76 


Wilberforce 




30 






1 


Paul Quinn 


Paine 

Talladega 


11 


Biddle-..- 


5 


Shaw 


Rust 


30 


Virginia Normal and Collegiate In- 


Atlanta Baptist.. 




stitute 


Arkansas Baptist 


4 


Livingstone.. 


11 


Lincoln. 


Southland . . 


19 


Berea 


Wiley .. 


9 


Allen 




9 


State College of Delaware 




c 


Knox ville 




3 


Claflin 




46 









840 



EDUCATION EEPOBT, 1900-1901. 



There have been 1,941 graduates from negro colleges, and 389 from white insti- 
tutions. Their occupations, usefulness, and influence must be taken as the high- 
est measure of the value and importance of the higher education. The fifth Atlanta 
conference was at great pains to study this phase of the question. The 1,312 negro 
graduates reporting were distributed as follows among the several vocations: 



Number. 


Per cent. 


701 


53.4 


331 


16.8 


83 


6.3 


74 


5.6 


63 


4.7 


53 


4 




Per cent. 



Teachers 

Clergymen 

Physicians 

Students.- 

Lawyers 

In Government service 



In business 

Farmers and artisans 
Clerks, secretaries, etc 

Editors 

Miscellaneous 



3.6 

3.7 

3.3 



Commenting on these figures, the report continues: ' 

These figures illustrate vividly the function of the college-bred negro. He is, as 
he ought to be, the group leader; the man who sets the ideals of the community 
where he lives, directs its thought, and heads its social movements. It need hardly 
be argued that the negro people need social leadership more than most groups. 
They have no traditions to fall back upon, no long-established customs, no strong 
family ties, no well-defined social classes. All these things must be slowly and 
painfully evolved. The preacher was, even before the war, the group leader of 
the negroes, and the church their greatest social institution.^ Naturally, this 
preacher was ignorant and often immoral, and the problem of replacing the older 
type by better-educated men has been a diSicult one. Both by direct work and 
by indirect influence on other preachers and on congregations, the college- 
bred preacher has an opportunity for reformatory work and moral inspiration, 
the value of which can not be overestimated. The report of the Atlanta confer- 
ence on "Some oEorts of American negroes for their own social betterment," 
shows the character of some of this work. 

it has, however, been in the furnishing of teachers that the negro college has 
found its peculiar function. Few persons realize how vast a work, how mighty a 
revolution has been thus accomplished. To furnish 5,000,000 and more of ignorant 
people with teachers of their own race and blood in one generation was not only 
a very difficult undertaking but a very important one, in that it placed before the 
eyes of almost every negro child an attainable ideal. It brought the masses of the 
blacks in contact with modern civilization, made black men the leaders of their 
communities and trainers of the new generation. In this work college-bred 
negroes were first teachers and then teachers of teachers. And here it is that the 
broad ciilture of college work has been of peculiar value. Knowledge of life and 
its wider meaning has been the point of the negro's deepest ignorance, and the 
sending out of teachers whose training has not been merely for bread winning, but 
also for human culture has been of inestimable value in the training of these men.^ 

Another question which philanthropists have a right to ask about these gradu- 
ates is. What are they doing for the general social betterment of the race aside 
from the vocations from which they derive a livelihood? The following table 
throws much light on this question, which gives a list of college-bred negroes who 
are engaged in religious, philanthropic, and literary work: 



Occupation. 



Number. 



Occupation. 



Number. 



Active in religious service 

Investing in negro business enter- 
prises - 

Contributing to newspapers 

Editing and publishing newspapers - 

Lecturers - 

College and .student aid 

Benevolent club work. 

Nurseries, orphanages, and homes .. 
Slum, prison, and temperance work. 



101 

48 
105 
40 
31 
30 
9 
13 
16 



Organized charity 

Kindergartens and mothers' meet 

ings.. 

Building associations 

Hospitals - 

Farming and truck gardens.. 

Savings banks 

Contributing to magazines 

Papers before societes 



' Cf . The New World, December, 1900, article Religion of American Negro. 
2 College-bred Negro, p. 65. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGEO. 841 

It is true tliat the college-bred negro has not as yet entered, in appreciable num- 
bers, upon productive pursuits, but has followed the line of least resistance, and 
fitted into positions that were already prepared. The college-bred men of New 
England, up to the middle of the present century, sought the ranks of the learned 
professions and political careers, but seldom entered upon practical pursuits. 
When the educated negro finds prepared places all occupied, he too will be com- 
pelled to launch out into profitable industry and productive enterprises. And 
then he will be found to be a captain of industry, just as he is now the leader in 
the more leisurely and learned callings. 

The negro college has a valuable function in the general educational equation 
and will occupy an important i)lace among American institutions of the future. 
They have been centers of light that have ilhiminated the darksome path of an 
entire race. They antedated the public schools, and gave to the negro his initial 
impulse toward the better things of life. There is scarcely an educated colored 
man or woman in the South who has not been touched by their beneficent influ- 
ence. The value of an object is enhanced by contemplating its absence or with- 
drawal. We do not dare even think what the condition of the negro would be if 
it had not been for these colleges. It is equally painful to speculate as to the con- 
ditions of the future if these institutions should be withdrawn. How could the 
preachers, of whom there is need for many thousands, be prepared for the work? 
Where would the lawyers and doctors and teachers in the higher range of instruc- 
tion qtialify for their function? 

The vital question of perpetuity is one of financial support. Only two of them, 
the Gammon School of Theology and the Lincoln University, are adequately 
endowed. The others must depend for the most part upon current contributions 
from the State, religious denominations, and private philanthropy. Those schools 
which have been fostered by religious denominations will doubtless continue to 
receive such support as a means of religious propagandism. Fisk University and 
the Union University at Richmond, Va., will doubtless be upheld as representing 
the highest expression of the missionary and philanthropic endeavor of their 
respective denominations. The futvire of those schools which have no definite 
mooring, but which must depend upon the ebb and flow of public and private 
favor. Is more precarious and uncertain. 

It can not be denied that the trend of private philanthropy is toward the indus- 
trial and practical idea to the discouragement of the higher culture. This turn in 
public sentiment is scarcely due to the abiding conviction that the industrial policy 
will come any nearer solving unsettled problems than the higher knowledge, but 
is perhaps the outgrowth of the feverish spirit of the Athenian, which is ever in 
quest of some new thing. When the new idea has been exploited as fully as the 
old, there will in all probability be a redistribution of public favor between the 
two according to their proper proportion and balance. 

The tendency on the part of the State colleges is to eliminate everything that 
flavors of the higher culture, and to adapt their courses to the requirements of an 
agricultural and industrial regime. There can be but little doubt that the State 
institutions will relinquish what little claim they now have to collegiate distinc- 
tion and take rank in the more elementary and x)ractical class. 

There is need of a sensible adaptation of the negro college to the requirements 
of its function in the light of what experience has taught us. 

1. Let it be conceded that a backward and suppressed race must of necessity be 
aflSicted with great intellectual poverty. Such a race can, at best, produce only 
a small number of youth who, with their present incumbrances, are likely to profit 
by the advanced courses of learning. The mass of any people must ever fall short 
of the collegiate grade. At present the negro shows only 1 student in 3,000 of the 
population, who by the widest stretch of courtesy can be said to be pursuing the 



842 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1900-1901. 

higher education. After abstracting all who are able to think, there will be left 
sufficient to toil. 

2. The courses of study should be thorough and the instruction competent. 
Nothing is so dangerous to a backward race as a smattering of learning. The 
people need sane, safe, cautious, conservative standards. They are already too 
prone to superficiality and show. 

3. The Northern college is not likely to inspire colored youth with enthusiasm 
and fixed purpose for the work which destiny has assigned them. The white col- 
lege does not contemplate the needs of the negro race. American ideals could 
not be fostered in the white youth of the country by sending them to Oxford or 
Berlin for their tuition. No more can the negro gain racial inspiration from 
Harvard or Yale. And yet it would be a calamity to cut them off from these 
great centei's of learning. They need the benefit of contact and comparison, as 
well as the greater facilities which they afford. If the negro is shut in wholly to 
himself he becomes too painfully self-conscious; on the other hand, if allowed to 
stray too far from his race, he finds himself stranded on the barren shores of cul- 
ture, or, like Mohammed's coffin, suspended in mid-air, without upper or nether 
support. The negro college in the South and the larger institutions of the North 
will preserve a just balance between these conflicting principles. 

4. Negroes should contribute liberally toward their own higher education. You 
who have been benefited ought therefore to be enlarged. Thousands of colored 
people are better able to contribute to such movements than many of the regular 
contributors in the North. No equilibrium can be stable when the center of grav- 
ity falls outside of the basis of support. 

5. There are by far too many schools which claim the collegiate function. The 
number might v,-ell be reduced to three or four— perhaps one for each of the lead- 
ing denominations and a central one in the city of Washington. 

6. There is a great need of fitting schools which should be content to do thor- 
ough secondary work without the ambition to assume full academic prerogative. 
Most of the schools which now call themselves colleges and universities might 
easily confine themselves to this work without sutiering the least in real character. 

7. The work of primary grades, now a prominent feature of most of the negro 
universities, should be relegated to the public schools, and their courses should be 
confined to those lines of instruction which fall beyond, or at least outside of, the 
scope of public instruction. The work now undertaken could thus be done at a 
tithe of the present cost with thrice the efficiency. The higher educational inter- 
est of the race needs to be rationally modified and sensibly adopted. There should 
be a sharp definition of the function and sphere of the college and those of the 
industrial school. Appeals should be made to philanthropic sources on the basis of 
relative, not rival claims. It would be as unwise policy on the part of philan- 
thropy to abandon the higher education of the negro as it would be to give up his 
industrial training. They are supplementary parts of a symmetrical whole. This 
ought ye to have done and not to have left the other undone. 

VIII. The Negro in Northern Colleges. 

There are, or were in 1890, 442 universities or colleges in the United States, 
counting the good, the indifferent, and the bad. Many of these— generally the 
poorer and feebler ones— are located in that section of the country where the races 
are not accustomea to be taught together. The largest, richest, and most influen- 
tial of these, however, are open to all, without regard to race, color, or previous 
servitude, regardful only of the present intellectual rating of the applicant. 
There are 25 or more universities, for the most part courteously so called, which 
were established for the benefit of the negro race. These schools, together with 
the higher institutions of the North, are open to colored youth. Let us now con- 
sider the relative advantages of the two classes of institutions to the negro. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGEO. 843 

It is not perhaps profitable to discuss the lai'ger question of mixed schools, 
except in so far as the logical exigencies of the subject require. It offers such 
wide latitude for difference of opinion and friction of feeling that I would gladly 
avoid it altogether if the subject in hand permitted me to do so. Some notice of 
it here, however, is unavoiadable. A stranger with a keen, inquiring, critical 
sense and unbiased prepossessions who should visit a community for the first time 
and should notice the existence of parallel courses of instruction, maintained at 
increased public cost and care, for different elements of population would begin 
to suspect that there must be some maladjiistment of social forces. If, on closer 
scrutiny, he should find that the same distinction obtains in all the other relations 
of life, in business, in politics, in society, and even in religion, and that the sepa- 
ration in each case rested upon a racial basis, he would speedily conclude that 
there must be a race problem on hand. He would also be convinced that separate 
schools do not form an isolated distinction, but are only a part of the prevailing 
social status of the two races. ISTor would he, if he were wise and liberal minded, 
rail against the existence of separate schools, knowing in the fullness of his wis- 
dom that they were expedient just so long as the causes that make them necessary 
exist; seeing also that protest would be of no avail, but would serve only to engen- 
der bad feelings and harmful friction. Separate schools are not the cause, but 
simply one of the effects of the race problem. The effect is less than the cause. 
This problem will be on our hands for many a long day, and that, too, whether 
our schools be separate or mixed. 

The advantage claimed for mixed schools is that the colored pupils gain much 
by contact with the white race, and that the two races being brought into 
close association will learn to appreciate and respect each other. It is argued, on 
the other hand, that where mixed schools prevail the negro teacher is excluded^ 
and the colored pupil, accustomed to seeing all ennobljng stations filled by white 
men and women, imbibes, consciously or unconsciously, a feeling of the inferiority 
of his race, and consequently loses ambition and self-confidence. The isolated 
instances of colored teachers, whose tenure of office is more or less precarious in 
such schools, do not materially relieve the situation. Some advocates of mixed 
schools are so enthusiastic as to claim that they will furnish a panacea for all the 
ills which the race suffers. Unfortunately, this roseate view is not sustained by 
the facts of experience. Those who believe that prejudice is not strong enough to 
survive class-room contact are greatly mistaken. The Jews in Germany attend the 
universities and rise to the highest ranks by reason of their undoubted mental 
endowments, and yet prejudice against them seems to abate no whit on that 
account. The University of Salerno, founded in Italy in the ninth century, 
received Jews both as students and teachers at a time when persecution against 
that unfortunate race was at its highest pitch. ^ There is, indeed, a democracy of 
letters, but its liberality of spirit is largely confined to its own domain. The ineffl- 
cacy of mixed schools in our land to solve the race problem is too painfully appar- 
ent. It has nowhere been shown that they have had any appreciable effect in sof- 
tening the asperities of prejudice. On the other hand, many honest observers are 
convinced that prejudice in the North is more hurtful than in the South, and that 
it is on the increase. True, it takes on another form, but only to accommodate 
itself to a change of circumstances. Nor have mixed schools produced such strik- 
ing results for the good of the race as to justify us in ascribing to them any 
extravagant advantage. 

No one, I presume, would undertake to justify separate schools, unless it be on 
the ground of expediency. The ideal school system is one in which such questions 
as we have been discussing do not enter, but where all elements of the population 
stana on an equal footing in management, instruction, and pupilage. But, unfor- 

» Britannica Encyclopedia— Universities. 



844 EDUCATION REPORT, 1900-1901. 

innately, we are creatures of circumstances. We have, therefore, to deal with 
things as they are, and not as we fancy they ought to be. It is a fact which is as 
certain and as convincing as the law of gravitation that where the colored people 
form a considerable fraction of the x^opulation the races are taught in separate 
schools; wherever there is sufficient of the African element to give decided color, 
it is secluded and set apart. This is not a question of geographical lines and 
political divisions. It depends simply upon the relative weight of the colored 
element in the community. The negro is the weaker vessel. He can only accept, 
it may be with an ineffectual protest, conditions which are forced upon him. His 
frantic outcry against existing discriminations will have no more effect than the 
wail of an infant crying in the night. 

There are three elements of greatness in an institution: (1) Great wealth, which 
enables it to secure the best equipments and facilities of instruction and to sur- 
round itself with learned professors and distinguished scholars; (2) age and schol- 
arly tradition, filling the atmosphere with a bracing influence and intellectual 
tone; (3) an enthusiastic constituencj^ and a large and Vv'idespread body of influ- 
ential alumni. The better colleges of the East possess all these elements of 
strength. Contrasted with these, the negro colleges are young, poor, and strug- 
gling. It must not be taken for granted, however, that because a college is small 
and comparatively poor it can not do good and efficient work. If such an institu- 
tion has sufficient funds to emploj' a competent faculty, and adhere to a conserva- 
tive policy of restricting its energies to a definite, limited range of work, there is 
no reason why it might, not accomplish as much in its scope as a school of greater 
pretensions. Success in the ordinary studies of a college curriculum does not 
depend so much upon large libraries and laboratories, showy and imijosing sur- 
roundings, nor yet upon the exalted abilities of the professors, beyond a fair degree 
of competency, as upon faithfulness, diligence, efficient direction, wholesome 
enthusiasm, and serious purpose. The smaller college can not rival the great uni- 
versities in the range and variety of courses, in the liberty, sometimes amounting 
to license, of electives, nor in the upper reaches of post-graduate and special lines 
of work. The mission of the small college is to do faithful and efficient work 
along definite if somewhat limited lines, stamping a deep moral and intellectual 
impress upon its products; to turn out handmade instead of manufactured articles, 
not hiding the man in the multitude. Many of the best scholars and most promi- 
nent citizens are products of feeble colleges. 

The colored student is drawn to the Northern university because of the impos- 
ing surroundings and the attractive power of a great name. His ambition is 
indeed noble, his motive worthy. It is also true that the colored man who attends 
a white school seems to gain, for a time at least, an enhanced preferment among 
his own race. This can be explained partly because of his supposed superior 
equipment and partly on the same ground that a New Englander, in years gone 
by, who had visited the national capital was looked upon with something of 
bewilderment by his less fortunate associates. The old doggerel couplet, though 
wanting perhaps in dignity, is not without direct applicability: 

How much a monkey that has Ijeen to Rome 
Excels a monkey that has stayed at home. 

The colored youth from the South, on entering a Northern institution, finds 
himself in such different relations to white men from those which he has been 
accustomed to sustain (and which, alas, he is not destined to sustain again) that 
he is often carried beyond himself by the first heat of enthusiasm. In the minds 
of many the fear exists that the Southland may be thus decimated of its best intel- 
ligence and strength. This would indeed be regretful — a sheer waste of energy. 
The negro, under the present circumstances, can add nothing to the civilization of 
the North, If the intelligence and vigorous manhood of the colored race be thas 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGEO. 845 

wasted in unprofitable fields, the negro youth would take to the North that which 
does not enrich it, but would rob the race in the South of that which leaves it 
poor indeed. Education should not cause the recipient to shrink from dutj', how- 
ever difficult or disagreeable, but to meet it manfully and to bring all of one's 
added mental resources to bear upon its accomplishment. The claim of the col- 
ored colleges is advocated on several grounds: 

1. The existence of a colored college does not prevent those colored youth who 
prefer to do eo from going to Northern institutions. It rather stimulates them to 
go. There has recently been planted at Washington the Catholic University of 
America, but that does not imply that all Catholic students will forthwith cease 
to attend Protestant tchools. Denominational institutions never include all the 
students of a particular faith. It need not be supposed, then, that negro schools 
muse include all negro pupils. It would bo a great misfortune if the colored 
race were cut off from intellectual contact with the Caucasian. The negro has 
not 3'et learned a tithe of what the white man can teach him. The time has not 
yet come for a declaration of intellectual independence. I adopt for the purposes 
of this argument the words of the late W. W. Patton, D. D., LL. D., president of 
Howard Universit5\ "But," he says in his inaugural address, "to secure this 
result (the higher education of the negro) , so difficult and yet so essential, the proc- 
ess must be such as to throw the colored man under every possible quickening 
influence. Hence it is not best to separate him carefully from his white brother 
and raise him in an institution by himself, like a tender plant in a hothouse. He 
needs the contact with the more advanced race. The acknowledgment of his 
manhood thus given will add to his self-respect and will fire his nobler ambition." ^ 

I will venture the proposition that the most wholesome and beneficial contact 
between the races in the schools is to be found in those cases where the colored 
student has first passed through some first-class negro college, and afterwards 
goes to a Northern institution for work in special lines or professional equipment. 
This view is borne out partly by facts of experience and partly by considerations 
of a general nature. So far as the results of experience are concerned, let each 
look around and judge for himself. On general prin'ciples, it might be said, the 
graduate of the colored school has been trained in the atmosphere in which his 
future lot must bo cast. He is impressed on every hand by the vast magnitude of 
the work which awaits him. If urged on by a desire to extend his knowledge in 
a greater school, he does so with the fixed purpose of applying his wider acquisi- 
tions to the needs of his race. He has also a definite attachment to some school 
as his alma mater; his zeal for the advancement of education is thus localized and 
heightened. Mr. S. W. Powell, writing in the Century Magazine on a topic of 
like import, says: " By getting their education where they would be brought face 
to face with the heartbreaking destitutions of their race, they would be more apt 
to acquire the enthusiasm and fixed purpose of the missionary. Lack of these is 
one of the most marked defects of the negro who has a little education. Unless 
these qualities are developed in those of higher gifts and attainments the task of 
elevating the race will be much more formidable." Graduates of colored schools, 
having reached a considerable degree of maturity and soberness, are not likely to 
be carried away by false enthusiasm and lose their racial balance because of a quasi 
equality with white men, artificially fostered, and destined to last only for a day. 
The graduates of these schools should not limit their further search after knowl- 
edge to American schools, but should be encouraged to go to the English, German, 
and French universities, and to gather the sparkling gems of knowledge wherever 
they glitter. 

2. The colored college serves to develop negro scholarship by giving members of 
the race an opportunity to make their education effective. The scholar must have 

> Inaugural address as president of Howard University. 



846 EDUCATION EEPOBT, 1900-1901. 

time, leisiire, and opportunity to observe, study, and reflect. Many usually finish 
their education, in the strict literary sense, at the college commencement, unless, 
luckily, their vocation in life calls for constant literary activity. A college is a 
seat, and not merely a dispensary of learning. It is not more a distributing center 
than a depository of knowledge, The mission of the college professor is not merely 
to teach, but to study, to investigate, and to grow. The great minds of Europe 
are gathered in the universities. Harvard, Yale, and Princeton mean most to 
American scholarship. If the negro student is to be permitted to go to the uni- 
versities, but is to be given no opportunity to develop beyond graduation, the 
intellectual status of the race will always be low. 

One of the striking peculiarities of the colored race is that its members are not 
inspired by the great achievements of white men. It seems to be taken for granted 
that the Caucasian should do great things. The negro seems to think that the 
white man is removed from his plane of competition. It seldom, if ever, occurs 
to the colored pupil to equal or surpass his white teacher. He is at most a 
pupil, never a disciple of his Caucasian master. But when one colored man 
rises, every other colored man begins to look upward. The negro does not 
care how far the white man outstrips him, but will do his level best to keep pace 
with one of his ovra color. There should be colored men of approved character, 
culture, and racial enthusiasm conspicuously at the front in these schools of higher 
learning. They stand out before the students as a typical embodiment of the 
possibilities of their kind. The abolition of the negro college would be the death 
knell of the higher education of the race". Colored youth would soon cease to 
attend Northern colleges if there were no stimulus beyond the commencement. 
The negroes of the North have often been upbraided for not taking better advan- 
tage of the educational facilities by which they are surrounded. They answer 
th's reproach with the query, "Cui bono?" Let us notice the harmful effect of 
this principle when applied to another situation. In a publication of the Bureau 
of Education, entitled Education in Maryland, the author attributes the back- 
wardness of that State in higher educational matters, until quite recentlj% largely 
to the fact that in the early history of the colony the youth were sent abroad for 
their higher education, to the neglect of home institutions. Some went to William 
and Mary in Virginia, others to England, and still others of Catholic parentage, 
like Charles Carroll, were educated on the continent of Europe. 

3. " Practical education" is the cant phrase of the hour. Let us repudiate the 
cheap sentiment that all negroes should be taught a mechanical trade. What is 
here meant by a practical education is one that will enable the recipient to deal 
wisely with the issues which he must grapple with in after life. Ones educa- 
tion should, as far as possible, fit for the special circumstances of his environ- 
ment. Dr. Edward W. Blyden, the world-renowned negro scholar, tells us: " The 
object of all education is to secure growth and efficiency, to make a man all that 
iis natural gifts will allow him to become, to produce self-respect, a proper 
^^preciation of our own powers and the powers of other people, to beget a fitness 
for one's sphere in life and action, and an ability to discharge the duties it 
imposes." ^ The negro's " sphere of life and action " in this land is well known. 
The American negro may attempt great works, may plant fields and build houses, 
may gather silver and gold and the precious treasures of the earth — yea, may turn 
himself to the pursuit of wisdom and surround himself with the highest delights 
known to the sons of men — but unless he measures it all by the gauge of his racial 
circumstances he will find that it is all vanity and vexation of spirit. During the 
civil war all of the moral, mental, muscular, and material resources of the North 
were called into use to defend and uphold the Union. The skilled mechanic must 
build ships and devise engines of war; the chemist must invent destructive com- 

1 Islam and the Negro Race, p. 85. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGEO. 847 

pouuds; the philosopher must uphold, the theory of the government in dispute by 
his erudition; the scholar must write books and the poet must sing songs full of 
the Union sentiment and patriotic devotion. The negro race is in the midst of a 
life and death struggle for a higher existence, for racial development and manly 
recognition. All available powers need to be impressed into service. The colored 
college is necessary ia order that the youth may be educated consciously and 
enthusiastically as to the needs of the race, 

4. The courses of study in the Northern colleges do not contemplate the needs 
of the negro. They were made out without reference to him, and indeed without 
any thought that he would ever participate in them. These may include subjects 
which to the negro student's manly instinct and sense of self-respect are worse 
than a chilling blast. In one of the most liberal of American universities there is, 
or was, a distinguished professor who is the author of a book which sinks the 
negro to the lowest depths of degradation, from which, according to its learned 
dictum, he shall be lifted nevermore. Think of a self-respecting colored student 
learning the science of man from such a source! I can more easily think of a 
Baptist minister putting his children under the tutelage of a Jesuit priest, or a 
Union general during the war sending his son to school in South Carolina. Quot- 
ing Dr. Bly den once more: "In all English-speaking countries the mind of the 
intelligent negro child revolts against the descriptions— given in elementary books, 
geographies, travels, histories — of the negro; but though at first he experiences an 
instinctive revulsion from the caricatures and misrepresentations, he is obliged to 
continue, as he grows in years, to study such pernicious teachings. After leaving 
school he finds the same thing in newspapers, in reviews, novels, in quasi scien- 
tific works, and after awhile, saejie cadc?K?o, they begin to seem the proper thing to 
saj' about his race.''' There is to the colored race a baneful influence lurking in 
that literature which sets forth the negro in every mood and tense of contempt. 

The Southern white people, if we omit a single issue, possess many admirable 
traits and qualities. Their sense of self-respect is most highly commendable. No 
Southerner would send his child to a school where any doctrine was taught repug- 
nant to his sense of dignity and self-esteem. No text-book reflecting in any way 
on Southern character can be introduced into their schools. 

The new woman, clamoring for what she considers to be her rights, has learned 
the same lesson. No institution is too venerable, no book too sacred to be 
attacked, if in her opinion it degrades and humiliates her sex. She has rendered 
a new interpretation of the Bible itself in accordance with the new notion of the 
dignity and elevation of womanhood. A distinguished bishop of an influential 
denomination has suggested a new rendering of the sacred book in its reference to 
the negro. All these parties are doubtless extreme in their sensitiveness, but the 
whole trend of manhood is to accept nothing that insults one's own soul. The 
negro university, then, in its fuller development, can be a bulwark of strength to 
the -race as a friendly interpreter of science and learning. 

5. It would be very unfortunate if the negro in Texas who desired a higher 
education should have to go all the way to Massachusetts to procure it. Should 
there not be some higher institutions of learning accessible to him nearer home? 
Emperor Frederick II gave as his reason for founding the University of Naples in 
1325 that his subjects in his Kingdom of Naples should find in the capital ade- 
quate instruction in every branch of learning and '• not be compelled in the pur- 
suit of knowledge to have recourse to foreign nations or to beg it in other lands. "'■' 

6. It is not wise to depend wholly upon the Northern institutions for the higher 
education of colored yoxith. It can not be predicted at what point they may fail. 
Prejudice is a capricious frenzy. It obeys no law and is subject to no rational 
principle. Its slightest whim will put to naught our profoundest plans and pur- 

"^ Islam and the Negro Race, p. 88. ' Encyclopedia Britannica— article Universities. 



848 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1900-1901. 

poses. It is impossible to make the operation of prejudice conform to the formu- 
las of logic. It is illogical and inconsistent and cares nothing for the discomfiture 
of its victim. If prejiidice orders it so an institution will close its doors to the 
negro to-morrow, notwithstanding it received him yesterday with open arms. 
Can anyone predict what would be the policies of the universities of the North 
should the negro contingency become " too numerous?" Dr. J. E. Rankin, presi- 
dent of Howard University, in a notable utterance before the second Mohawk 
Conference on the Negro Question, tells us: "It is true that colored men can go 
to Northern institutions of learning; that is, as an individual — one of him. But 
ten of him would break up any college class. Even Harvard would cease to elect 
him class orator. He can not be educated in large numbers except in institutions 
established for his benefit. Christian as are our theological seminaries, I believe 
that the white students of a class would regard one colored man as a ctiriosity, a 
phenomenon, and two colored men as a double enigma, but ten colored men 
would put 10,000 of them to flight." i 

7. It is objected that separate institutions tend to perpetuate prejudice. There 
is time and patience for but a word to objectors of this class. The best possible 
way to perpetuate prejudice is for the negro to do nothing and to have nothing, 
but to live like the sponge and the parasite. If the time is to come when the 
foundations of prejudice are to be broken up, separate institutions, especially if 
they be good ones, will not stand in the way. The wisest way to break down 
prejudice, if that is possible to be done, is for the negro to have something which 
white men want and not always be wanting something which they have. 

IX. Colored Men in the Professions. 

In a homogeneous society where there is no racial cleavage, only the select mem- 
bers of the favored class occupy professional stations. In India it is said that the 
populace is divided horizontally by caste and vertically by religion; but in Amer- 
ica the race spirit serves both as a horizontal and vertical separation. The isola- 
tion of the negro in all social and semisocial relations necessitates independent 
ministrative agencies from the lowest to the highest rungs on the ladder of serv- 
ice. It is for this reason that the colored race demands that its preachers, teachers, 
physicians, and lawyers shall be for the most part men of their own blood and 
sympathies. Strangely enough this feeling first asserted itself in the church- 
that organization founded upon the universal fatherhood of God and brotherhood 
of man. In the estimation of its founder there is neither Jew nor Greek, Bar- 
barian, Scythian, bond nor free. According to a strict construction of its require- 
ments, there is no difference in kind among those who are spiritually akin. And 
yet the organic separation of the races first asserted itself in the matter of religion. 
Whenever the colored adherents became sufficiently large to excite attention, they 
were set apart, either in separate communion or in separate assignment of place 
in the house of worship. V/hen the negro worshiper gained conscious self-respect, 
he grew tired of the back pews and upper galleries of the white churches, and 
sought places of worship more compatible with his sense of freedom and dignity. 
Hence arose the negro church and the negro clergy. This was the first profes- 
sional class to arise, and is still relatively the most numerous. The religious inter- 
ests of the race are almost wholly in the hands of the colored clergy. Outside of 
the Catholic Church it is almost as difficult to find a white clergyman over a col- 
ored congregation as it is to meet with the reverse phenomenon. The two denom- 
inations, Methodists and Baptists, that are wholly under negro ecclesiastical 
control, include well-nigh the entire colored race. 

The proportional number of church communicants for the colored race exceeds 

1 Report of second Mohawk Conference on the Negro Question. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGEO. 849^ 

that for the white race. In 1890 the colored race had one communicant for every 
2.T9 of the negro population, while the whites had one out of every 8.04. 

The negro church communicants were distributed as follows among the seve.al 
religious denominations: 

Regular Baptists -. 1,348,989 

African Methodist Episcopal - - - 453, 725 

African Methodist Episcopal Zion . — 349, 788 

Methodist Episcopal - 246,249 

Colored Methodist Episcopal 129, 383 

Regular Baptist North 35,221 

Discii:)les of Christ ^ 18,578 

Primitive Baptist 18,162 

Presbyterian (Northern) 14, 961 

Roman Catholic 14, 517 

Cumberland Presbyterian ._ .-.. 13, 956 

Other denominations (17) 34,448 

Total 2,673,977 

This vast host of church members is, as above stated, almost wholly under 
colored ecclesiastical control. There is need for at least 25.000 trained men to 
administer to the spiritual needs of this multitude. Herein lies one of the most 
powerful arguments for the highej education of select members of the negro race. 
The tendency of the times is to require of candidates for the professions sound 
academic training as a preparatory basis for their professional equipment. It is 
idle to say that because the negro rtice is ignorant and imdeveloped therefore its 
clergy need not measure up to the average of professional requirements. It surely 
requires as much discretion, resourcefulness, and sense to meet the needs of the 
lowly as to administer to those who are already e:;alted. It is true that the negroes 
have been gathered in the church in great multitudes under the guidance of men 
who had little academic equipment for their worlj; but we know full well that 
this is but the first step in their spiritual development, and that their futiire wel- 
fare requires not only men of consecration, but men of definite training for their 
work. Let us not forget also that the negro church has a larger function than the 
white church. Therefore the negro preacher must be not only the spiritual leader 
of his flock, but also the general guide, philosopher, and friend. 

The rise of the colored teacher is due almost wholly to the outcome of the civil 
war. The South soon hit upon the plan of the scholastic separation of the races, 
and assigned colored teachers to colored schools as the best means of carrying out 
this policy. Hence a large professional class was at once injected into the arena. 
As the negro preacher is responsible for the spiritual life of the race, so the negro 
teacher is charged with itsintellectual enlightenment. The 2,000,000 negro children 
of school age constitute the charge committed to the keeping of 30,000 negro teach- 
ers. There were at the inception a great many white laborers who generously 
entered upon this work, of whom there still remains a goodly sprinkling. But 
their function was and is mainly to prepare colored men and women for the 
responsible tasks. It was inevitable that many of the teachers, for whom there 
was such a sudden demand, should have been illy prepared for the tusk 
imposed. It was and still is in many cases a travesty upon terms to speak of such 
work as most of these teachers were able to do as professional service. We find 
here as strong an argument for the secondary and higher education of the negro 
as was furnished by ecclesiastical necessities. The duty imposed upon negro 
teachers is as onerous and requires as high a degree of knowledge and professional 
equipment as that imposed upon any other class engaged in educational work. 

ED 1901 54 



850 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1900-1901. 



The special needs of their constituency call for a higher rather than a lower order 
of training, preparation, and fitness. 

The colored doctor and lawyer have only recently entered the field in anything 
like sufficient numbers to attract attention. The same spirit that demanded the 
negro preacher has also operated in favor of the negro doctor. The relation 
between patient and physician is close and confidential. The social barrier between 
the races often operates against the acceptability of a physician of the opposite race. 
The success of the colored physi^dan has often been little less than marvelous. 

The colored lawyer has not been so fortunate as his medical confrere. The rela- 
tion between client and attorney is not necessarily close and personal, but i)ar- 
takes of a business nature. The client's interest is also dependent upon the court 
and jury, with whom the white attorney is generally supposed to have greater 
weight and influence. For such reasons the negro lawyer has not made the head- 
way that has been accomplished in the other professions. 

It must be said for the professions of law and medicine that the applicants are 
subjected to a uniform test, and therefore colored and white candidates are on the 
same footing. Colored practitioners, therefore, must have a fair degree of pre- 
liminary training and professional preparation. 

Macon B. Allen was the first colored attorney regularly admitted to practice in 
the United States. He was admitted in Maine in 1844. It is claimed by some 
that the husband of Phyllis Wheatiey was a lawyer. Robert Morris was admitted 
to the Boston bar in 1850, on motion of Charles Sumner, where he practiced with 
sp'iendid success until his death, in 1882. Prof.. John M. Langston was admitted 
to the Ohio bar in 1854. James Durham was born a slave in Philadelphia in 1762. 
His master was a surgeon. He purchased his freedom and became one of the 
most iioted physicians in New Orleans. His practice is said to have been worth 
$3,000 a year. The following account attests the success of a black physician: 

Dr. David Ruggles, poor, blind, and an invalid, founded a well-known water- 
cure establishment in the town where I write (Northampton. Mass.), erected 
espensive buildings, won fashionable distinction as a most skillful and successful 
practitioner, secured the warm regard and esteem of this community, and left a 
name established in the hearts of many who feel that they owe their life to his 
skill and careful practice. ' 

Dr. John V. Degrass was admitted in due form as a member of the Massachu- 
setts Medical Society in 1854. 

The above are only samples of negroes in the learned professions before the civil 
war. Of course, there was a larger- number of ministers and teachers. Out of 
such meager beginnings has grown the great number of professional colored men 
and women of to-day. 

The number and distribution of colored and white men among the different 
professions for the sixteen former slave States and the District of Columbia can 
be seen from the following table: 

Professional occupations.'^ 
ALABAMA. 



Profession. 



Number. 



White. Colored. 



Number of per- 
sons to each. 



White. Colored. 



Teachers .. 

Doctors 

Lawyers .. 
Clergymen 



3,188 
1,798 
1,298 
1,046 



946 

28 

13 

799 



263 
464 
642 

799 



718 
24,618 
53,2.54 

850 



' Wendell Phillips in introduction to W. C. Nell's Colored Patriots of the American Revolu- 
tion, 1853. 
2 Eleventh Census. 



THE EDUCATIOJSr OF THE NEGKO. 



851 



Professional occnjmt ions— Continued. 
ARKANSAS. 



Profession. 


Number. 


Number of per- 
sons to eac-h. 




White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 




2,792 
2,224 
1,0.52 
1, 138 


612 

40 
30. 
666 


293 
369 
816 
719 


.'jOe 




7,7<ii 




10.313 




4t>5 







Delaware. 



Teacheri? . . 

Doctors 

Cloi'gymen 
Lawyers . . 




679 
14,214 

395 
14, -127 



DISTRICT OP COLUMBIA. 





996 

2.55 

692 

1,375 


361 
129 
37 
26 


1.55 
6I« 
224 
112 


209 




hb7 




2,046 




2,911 







FLORIDA. 





1,204 
486 
630 
501 


417 

433 

12 

13 


187 
464 
30,5 
401 


397 




385 




1-3,873 




12, 806 







GEORGIA. 





3,999 
1,2*,) 
2,343 
1,713 


1,-5.35 

1,270 

4(1 

17 


217 
790 
411 


5-59 




673 




21. •175 




50,629 







KENTUCKY. 



Teachers . . 
Clergymen 

Doctors 

Lawyers . . 




377 

412 

6, 385 

19, 155 



LOUISIANA. 



Teachers . . 
Clergymen 

Doctf)rs 

Lawyers .. 




893 

871 

H,926 

15.339 



MARYLAND. 



Teachers . - 
Clergymen 
Doctors. ... 
Lawyers .. 




.565 



5,.5t>;5 
8,592 



852 



EDUCATION EEPOET, 1900-1901. 



Professional occupations — Continued. 
MISSISSIPPI. 



Profession. 



Teachers . - 
Clergymen 
Doctors 

Lawyers .. 



Number. 



White. Colored 



3,157 

8M 

1,634 

873 



1,546 

989 

34 

26 



Number of per- 
sons to each. 



White. 



173 

668 
335 
626 



Colored. 



758 
21,905 
28,644 



MISSOURI. 



Teachers . . 
Clergymen 

Doctors 

Lawyers .. 



13,689 


546 


189 


3,439 


402 


735 


5,225 


28 


484 


3,943 


8 


641 



376 

375 

5,383 

18,591 



NORTH CAROLINA. 



Teachers . . 
Clergymen 

Doctors 

Lawyers .. 



3,679 


1,091 


1,385 


855 


1,488 


46 


978 


14 



287 

762 

709 

1,079 



516 

658 

12,229 

40, 183 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 



Teachers... 
Clergymen 
Doctors ... 

Lawyers .. 




775 

787 

22,971 

29,963 



TENNESSEE. 



Teachers . - 
Clergymen 
Doctors . .. 
Lawyers . 




394 

531 

4,224 

5,669 



TEXAS. 





7,388 
2, .518 
4,286 
3,540 


1,473 

836 

54 

12 


236 
694 
408 
493 


333 




.586 




9,068 




40, 799 







VIRGINIA. 





6,026 
1,417 
1,893 
1,611 


1,459 
747 
39 
38 


169 
720 
539 
633 


435 




851 




16,253 




16,733 







WEST VIRGINIA. 



Teachers - 


3,823 
910 

1,023 
935 


134 

77 
4 


191 

803 
714 
789 


244 




425 




8,179 


Lawyers 


16,358 



The colored preachers are quite as numerous in proportion to the population as 
the white, and in some cases more so. In West Virginia there are 425 whites and 



THE EDUCATION" OF THE NEGRO. 853 

only 803 blacks to each minister of the respective races. One might expect a pre- 
ponderance of colored ministers for two reasons: (1) There is a larger relative 
church membership; and (2) the colored population has not more than half the 
density of that of the white in the area under consideration. In the StatS of Mis- 
souri, for example, 73o colored preachers cover the same territory as 3,439 white 
ministez's; and while each of the former laai on an average 375 persons to the parish 
to the latter 's 735, yet his geographical area is five times as extensive. If we turn 
to the States where the negroes predominate, we may expect to find a reversal of 
conditions. In Mississippi and South Carolina the colored parish is smaller in 
area but more populous than that of the whites. The clerical demand of the negro 
population is fully supplied in a numerical sense, albeit there is much need for a 
higher standard of professional equipment for its most arduous and delicate 
duties. 

In no case has the colored race as many teachers in proportion to the popiilation 
as the white. In some cases, like South Carolina and Alabama, the disproportion 
is glaring, the number of persons to each teacher being 217 to 775 in the former, 
and 2G2 to 718 in the latter, in favor of the more fortunate race. It must be said, 
however, that the number of persons to each teacher does not necessarily represent 
the actual distribution of the work between the races; for it is known that in every 
Southern State there are white teachers working among colored people. These 
are mainly in private and philanthropic schools, however, and do not materially 
affect the general equation, or rather the inequality, of educational conditions. 
If we take geographical conditions into account, and the fact that the two sets of 
teachers operate over the same area, it will be seen that the disparity is greatly 
enhanced. Taking all in all, it appears that the negro teaching force is in no sense 
adequate to the task imposed u]pon it. 

The colored lawyers and doctors form so small a proportion of the general popu- 
lation as scarcely to merit mention as a professional class. In Texas there is 1 
negro doctor in 9,000 and 1 negro lawyer in 40,000 of the population, while in 
South Carolina there are 22,000 and 29,000 to a colored practitioner in the respec- 
tive professions. In Alabama there is 1 black doctor to look after 24,000 patients, 
and each colored lawyer has 52,000 clients. The work in these professions is con- 
ducted mainly by the whites, although the Twelfth Census will undoubtedly show 
a large increase in the colored practitioners. Where numbers are small, propor- 
tions are sensitive. The number of persons to each practitioner will be materially 
reduced. The argument which we sometimes hear that negroes are leaving the 
farm and the shop to rush into the learned professions is not borne out by the col- 
lected facts in the case. In Alabama, for instance, only 1 negro in 50,000 has 
entered upon the practice of law and 1 in 25,000 upon the profession of medjicine. 
While it is true that there is no large demand for colored men in these professional 
pursuits, especially outside of the large centers, nevertheless the steady progress 
of the people in property, intelligence, and diversified material and commercial 
interests calls for a conservative increase in the number of professional colored 
men both in medicine and in law. 

It can not be claimed that the colored race has developed superlative names in 
the several professions. There are not a few ministers of piety and eloquence. 
The teacher in the public service must maintain the average proficiency of the sys- 
tem to the satisfaction of the white superintendents. The negro lawyers are in 
open competition with their white colaborers, and must render satisfactory service, 
else they wf*uld have no clients. Colored physicians generally have a good record 
for professional skill and integrity. There is no movement affecting the lot and 
life of the colored race so suggestive of its educational needs as the size of the pro- 
fessional class. 



854 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1900-1901. 

X. Negroes who have Achieved Distinction along Lines calling for 
Definite Intellectual Activity. 

The iMividual is tlie proof of the race, the first tinfoldment of its potency and 
promise. The glory of any people is perpetuated and carried forward by the 
illustrious names which spring from among them. As we contemplate the great 
nations and peoples, whether of the ancient or of the modern world, their command- 
ing characters rise up before us, typifying their contribution to the general wel- 
fare of the human race. 'On the contrary, no people can hope to gain esteem and 
favor which fails to produce distinguished individuals illustrative and exemplary 
of its possibilities. 

For four centuries the African race has been brought in contact with the 
European in all parts of the globe. This contact has not been of an ennobling 
character, but of the servile sort, affording little opportunity for the development 
of those qualities which the favored races hold in esteem. And yet there has arisen 
from this dark and forbidden background not a few striking individual emana- 
tions. This race, through a strain of its blood, has given to Russia her national 
poet and to France her most distinguished romancer. Toussaiut L"Ouverture, the 
negro patriot, is the most commanding historical figure of the entire West Indian 
Archipelago. In South America persons of negro blood have gained the highest 
political and civil renown. 

The Anglo-Saxon deals with backward peoples on a different basis from the 
Latin races. While he has a keener sense of justice and is imbued with a spirit of 
philanthropic kindness, yet he builds up a barrier between himself and them which 
it is almost imjjossible to overcome. To him personal solicitude and good will and 
racial intolerance are not incompatible qualities. On the other hand, the Latin 
races, while possessing a much lower order of general efficiency, accept on equal 
terms all who conform to the prevailing standards. Under the Latm dispensation 
color offers not the slightest bar to the individual who exhibits high qualities of 
mind or soul. We need not be surprised, therefore, to find that the colored men 
who have reached the highest degree of fame should have sprung from the Latin 
civilization. The persons of African blood who are most nearly comparable with 
names of the first order of renown among Europeans are Toussaint L'Ouver- 
ture, of Haiti; Alexander Pushkin, of Russia; Alexander Dumas, of France. In 
France, Italy, or Spain color is only a curious incident. The Afro-American 
therefore belongs in a category by himself. His circumstances and conditions are 
so different from those of his European brother that although of same color they 
are not of the same class. 

Several lists of distinguished colored men have been prepared, the most impor- 
tant of which, perhaps, was published by Abbe Gregoire, and was prepared to 
answer the argument of Thomas Jefferson and others, who undertook to prove 
the negro's intellectual inferiority. This work contains accounts of negroes in all 
countries who had reached eminence and distinction in all lines of endeavor.' An 
account of the part played by colored men in the Revolutionary war contains the 
deeds and achievements of noted negroes.'- Rev. William J. Simmons brings the 
former work nearer to date and includes many colored men now living.^ A list of 
distinguished colored women has also been compiled.^ 
Numerous magazine articles have appeared on this subject from time to time, 

1 De la litterature des Negres, ou Recherches sur leur f acultes intellectuelleH, leur qualites 
morales, et leur litterature; suivies par notices sur la vie et les ouvragea des Negres qui se sent 
distingues dans les sciences, les lettres et les arts. Par H. Gr6goire. Paris, 1808. 

- Colored Patriots of the American Revolution, by William Cooper Nell, with introduction by 
Harriet Beecher Stowe. Boston, 1855. 

^ Men of Mark, lUl pages, by William J. Simmons, D. D. Cleveland, 1887. 

■* Women of Distinction, by A. L. Scruggs, M. D. Raleigh, 1893. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGSO. 855 

The two which are, perhaps, of the greatest importance, and which include the 
substance of the rest, appeared in the International Quarter.y Review ' and in the 
North American Revie ^ 

An interesting syllabus has recently been prepared by Mr. A. O. Stafford on 
"Negro ideals," which gives a good outline of the efforts of the negro toward 
better things.'' 

It is with some hesitancy that a few names of the more distinguished Afro- 
Americans are here presented. In such a restricted list it is inevitable that many 
should be omitted who are equally worthy as some who are mentioned. The 
names here presented have not been selected because of general distinction, but 
rather for technical, artistic, and intellectual achievements in the scholastic sense. 

Only those have been included of whose achievements the world takes account. 
There is no name in the list which may not be found in Apple!^on"s Cyclopedia of 
American Biography. Nothing is great or small except by comparison. The 
names here jiresented are at le;!St respectable when measured by European stand- 
ards. It is true that no om of them reaches the first, or even the second degree of 
luster in the galaxy of the v/orld's greatness. The competing number has been so 
insignificant and the social atmosphere has been so repressive to their budding 
aspirations that it would be litte short of a miracle of genius if any member of 
tuis race had reached the highest degree of glory. It is true that if not one of 
these had ever been born the bulk and quality of science, literature, and art 
would not be appreciably affected. 

While these contributors must be measured in terms of European standards in 
order that there may be a sane and rational basis of comparison, yet there is 
another measure which takes account of the struggles and strivings out of which 
they grew. In the light of European comparison it appears that they represent 
more than the marvelous vision of a one-eyed man among the blind, but rather 
the surprising visual power of a one-eyed man among two-eyed men. The sig- 
nificance of these superior manifestations, however, must not be measured 
solely by their intrinsic value. They serve both as an argument and an inspira- 
tion. They show the American people that the negro, at his best, is imbued with 
their own ideas and strives after their highest ideals. To the negro they serve as 
models of excellence to stimulate and encourage his hesitant and disheartened 
aspirations. 

One will be struck by the versatility and range of the names in the list. They 
cover well-nigh every field of human excellence. It will be noticed that the imi- 
tative and esthetic arts predominate over the more solid and severe intellectual 
acquisitions. Is this not the repetition of the history of culture? The ])oet and 
the artist precede the scientist and the engineer. This meager fruitage does not 
furnish cause of self-complacent glorification on the past of the negro, but is only 
an index of the promise of the tree of which they are the initial bearings. With 
its extended range and scope, the rising generation can lo )k upon them in the 
light of promise rather than fulfillment. 

That which they have done but earnest of the things that they shall do.* 

Phyl'is Wheatley was born in Africa and was brought to America in 1761. She 
was bought from tne slave market by John Wheatly, of Boston, and soon devel- 
oped remarkable acquisitive faculties. In sixteen months from her arrival she 
cotTld read English fluently. She soon learned to write, and also studied Latin. 
She visited England in 1774 and was cordially received. After returning to Boston 

1 " The intellectual position of the negro," by Prof. Richard T. Greener. International Quar- 
terly Review, July, 1880. 

2 " Negro intellect," by William Matthews. North American Review, July, 1889. 
' Hampton Sumner Nin-mal Institute Papers, July, 1901. 

* Tennyson's "Locksley Hall." 



856 EDUCATIOK REPORT, 1900-1901. 

she corresponded with Countess Huntington, the Earl of Dartmouth, Rev. George 
Whitfield, and others, and wrote many poems to her friends. She addressed some 
lines to Gen. George Washington, which were afterwards published in the Penn- 
sylvania Magazine for April, 1778. General Washington wrote a courteous 
response and invited her to visit the Revolutionary headquarters, which she did, 
and was received with marked attention by Washington and his officers. Her 
principal publications are xln Elegiac Poem on the Death of George Whitfield; 
Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral, published in London in 1773, 
and republished as The Negro Equalled by Few Europeans, two volumes, Phila- 
delphia, 1801. The letters of Phyllis Wheatley were printed in Boston in 1864, 
collected from the proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society.* 

Benjamin Banneker was born November 9, 1731, near Ellicotts Mill, Md. Both 
his father and grandfather were native Africans. He attended a private school 
which admitted several colored children along with the whites. Although his 
early educational facilities were scanty, young Banneker soon gained a local repu- 
tation as a miracle of wisdom. In 1770 he constructed a clock to strike the hours, 
the first to be made in America. This he did with crude tools and a watch for his 
model, as he had never seen a clock. Through the kindness of Mr, Ellicott, who 
was a gentleman of cultivation and taste, he gained access to his valuable collec- 
tion of books, and was thus inducted into the study of astronomy. In this study 
he gained great proficiency and constructed an almanac adapted to the local 
requirements of Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Maryland. This was the first alma- 
nac constructed in America, and was published by Goddard & Angell, Baltimore. 
Banneker "s Almanac was published annually from 1792 to 1808, the year of his 
death. It contained the motions of the sun and moon; the motions, places, and 
aspects of the planets; the rising and setting of the sun, and the rising, setting, 
southing, place, and age of moon, etc., and is said to have been the main depend- 
ence of the farmers in the region covered. He lived mainly from the royalty 
received from this publication. Banneker sent a copy of this almanac to Thomas 
Jefiierson, which elicited a flattering acknowledgment on the part of the philoso- 
pher and statesman. Banneker assisted the commissioners in laying out the lines 
of the District of Columbia. A life of Banneker was published by Hon. J. H. B. 
Latrobe, Baltimore, 1845, and another by J. S. Norris, 1854." That Thomas Jeffer. 
son believed in the intellectual capacity of the negro and appreciated the force of 
the argument that the treatment of this race found justification in its assumed 
low state of mental possibility is revealed by his letter to Benjamin Banneker, 
the black astronomer: 

Sir: I thank you sincerely for your letter of the 19th instant and for the 
almanac it contained. Nobody wishes more than I do to see such proofs as you 
exhibit that nature has given to our black brethren talents equal to those of the 
other colors of men, and that the appearance of a want of them is owing merely 
to the degraded condition of their existence, both in Africa and America. I can 
add with truth that nobody wishes more ardently to see a good system commenced 
for raising the condition both of their body and mind to what it ought to be as 
fast as the imbecility of their present existence and other circumstances which 
can not be neglected will admit. I have taken the liberty of sending your 
almanac to M. de Condorcet, secretary of the Academy of Sciences at Paris and 
member of the Philanthropic Society, because I considered it as a document to 
which your color had a right for their justification against the doubts which have 
been entertained of them. 

I am. with great esteem, sir, 

Yoiir most obedient humble servant, 

Thomas Jefferson. 

Mr. Benjamin Banneker, 

Near Ellicotts _Lower Mills, Baltimore County.^ 

' See Appleton's Cyclopedia of American Biography, Vol. VI, pp. 449, 450. 

2 Williams's History of the Negro Race, Vol. I, pp. 385-398. 

3 Jefferson's Works, Vol. Ill, p. 291. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO. 857 

Lemuel Haynes was born in Hartford, Conn., Jnly 18, 1753. His father was an 
African, his mother a white woman. He received the honorary degree of A. M. 
from Middlebnry College in 1804. After completing a theological course he 
preached in various places and settled in West Rutland, Vt., in 1788, where he 
remained for thirty years and became one of the most popular preachers in the 
State, He was characterized by a subtle intellect, keen wit, and eager thirst for 
knowledge. His noted sermon from Genesis 3 and 4 was published and passed 
through nine or ten editions. His controversy with Hosea Ballon became of 
world-wide interest. The life of Lemuel Haynes was written by James E. Cooley, 
New York, 1848. 

Ira Aldridge was born at Belaire, Md., about 1810.' There is some dispute as to 
the exact composition of his blood, some claim that he was of pure African descent, 
while others contend that he was of mixed extraction. He was early brought in 
contact with Mr. Kean. the great tragedian, and in 1826 accompanied him to 
Europe. Mr. Kean encouraged his dramatic aspiration, and on one occasion, at 
least, permitted him to appear as Othello, while he himself took the part of lago. 
As an interpreter of Shakespeare he was very generally regarded as one of the best 
and most faithful. He appeared at Covent Garden as Othello in 1833, and in Sur- 
rey Theater in 1848. On the Continent he ranked as one of the greatest tragedians 
of his time. Honors were showered upon him wlierever he appeared. He was 
jiretented by the King of Prussia with the first-class medal of arts and sciences, 
accompanied by an autograph letter from the Emperor of Austria; the Grand 
Cross of Leopold: a similar decoration from the Emperor of Russia, and a mag- 
nificent Maltese cross, with the medal of merit, from the city of Berne. Similar 
honors were conferred by other crowned heads of Europe. He was made a mem- 
ber of the Prussian Academy of Arts and Sciences and holder of the large gold 
medal; member of the Imperial and Arch Ducal Institution of Our Lady of the 
Manger in Austria; of the Russian Hof-Yersamlung of Riga; honorary member 
of the Imperial Academy of Arts and Sciences in St. Petersburg, and many others. 
Aldridge appeared with flattering success in Amsterdam, Brussels, Berlin, Bres- 
lau, Vienna, Pesth, The Hague, Dantzic, Konigsberg, Dresden, Berne, Fraukfort- 
on-the-Main, Cracow, Gotha, and numerous other cities in the leading parts of 
the standard plays of the times. He was an associate of the most prominent men 
of Paris, among whom was Alexander Dumas. When these two met they always 
kissed each other, and Dumas always greeted Aldridge with the words "mon 
confrere." Aldridge died at Lodz, in Poland, 1867. 

Col. George W. Williams was born in Pennsylvania in 1849. He was educated 
in public and private schools and completed his theological training at West New- 
ton Theological Seminary. His History of the Negro Race in America is the sole 
existing authority on the subject of which it treats, and forms, without doubt, as 
valuable a literary monument as any yet left by a colored man. 

Paul Laurence Dunbar is still a young man under 30 years of age. He has 
already made an impression on American literature that can never be effaced. 
He has published Oaks and Ivy, Majors and Minors, Lyrics of Lowly Life, and 
Lyrics of the Hearthstone, together vath half a dozen volumes of fiction and 
short stories. Several of his works have been reprinted in England. Speaking of 
his early poems, William Dean Howells says: "Some of these [poems in literary 
English] I thought very good. What I mean is, several people might have writ- 
ten them, but I do not know anyone else at present who could quite have written 
his dialect pieces. There are divinations and reports of what passes in the hearts 
and minds of a lowly people whose poetry had hitherto been inarticulately 

1 There is some dispute as to the exact date of his birth; 1804: is the time given by Simmons in 
Men of Maris. 



858 EDUCATION BEPOET, 1900-1901. 

expressed, but now finds, for the first time in our tongue, literary interpretation 
of a very ai'tistic completeness." ^ 

Henry O. Tanner, son of Bishop B. T. Tanner, of the African Methodist Church, 
was born in Pittsburg, Pa. , in 1859. His early educational opportunities were good, 
having studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and subsequently at 
Paris. His pictures have been hung on the line in many a salon exhibition, and 
now the Government of France has crowned the long list of medals and prizes 
which Mr. Tanner has received by buying one of his most important works, The 
Raising of Lazarus, for the Luxemburg Gallery. The picture has already been 
hung in the Luxemburg Gallery, and in the course of time will naturally be 
transferred to the Louvre. Other notable pictures by the same artist are Nicode- 
mus, owned by the Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia; The Annunciation, which 
now hangs in the Memorial Hall, Philadelphia; the Betrayal, in the Carnegie 
Gallery, at Pittsburg. - 

Dr. Daniel H. Williams, of Chicago, is widely knov/n throughout the medical 
profession. He has performed several noted operations that taxed the skill of sur- 
gical science. 

In 1897 Dr. Williams performed an operation on account of a stab wound of the 
lieart and pericardium, a report of which was published in the Medical Record, 
March 27, 1897, attracted the attention of the entire medical and surgical frater- 
nity, and was published in the medical journals of nearly every country and lan- 
guage. It has also been referred to in most recent works on surgery, especially in 
International Text- Book on Surgery and Da Costa's Modern Surgery. 

An article on " Ovarian cysts in colored women," by Dr. Williams, published in 
the Philadelphia Medical Journal, December 29, 1900, had for its purpose the refu- 
tation of the idea that had been almost universal among surgeons, that colored 
women did not have ovarian tumors. The re-ord of the cases collected by Dr. Wil- 
liams furnishes sufficient data to sustain his contention. It is also shown in this 
article that the same may be said of fibrous tumors. This article has been consid- 
ered of such value to the profession that it has been copied extensively in medical 
literature and notably in some of the best German and French medical journals. 

Dr. Williams has performed various important operations that have been pub- 
lished in medical journals and widely commented upon in the medical world. He 
was surgeon in ch:ef of the Freedmen's Hospital, at Washington, D. C, from 
, 1893 to 1897. 

Charles W. Chestnut was born in Fayetteville, N. C, about fifty years ago. He 
moved to Cleveland, Ohio, where he was employed as court stenographer. Mr. 
Chestnut has written several works of fiction which, according to competent 
critics, place him among the foremost story tellers of the time. The Wife of J\Iy 
Youth, The House Behind the Cedars, and the Marrow of Tradition are published 
by Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, Mass. 

Prof. W. S. Scarborough was born in Georgia in 1853, was graduated from 
Oberlm College in 1875, and is professor of Greek at Wilberforce University. He 
is a member of the American Philological Society and of the Modern Language 
Association. He has published First Lessons in Greek (New York, 1881), and the 
Theory and Functions of the Thematic Vowel in the Greek Verb. 

Prof. W. E. B. Du Bois was born in Massachusetts about thirty-three years ago. 
He was graduated from Fisk University and subsequently from Harvard, alter 
which he studied two years in Germany and earned his Ph. D. degree from Har- 
vard. He has been a teacher in Wilberforce University, associate in sociology at 
the University of Pennsylvania, and professor of history and political economy at 
Atlanta University. His chief works are The Suppression of the African Slave 

1 Introduction to Lyrics of Lowly Life, by W. D. Howells. 

!" See "A negro artist of unique power," by Elbert Frances Baldwin, Outlook, April, 1900. 



THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGKO. 859 

Trade, publislied in the Harvard Historical Series; The Philadelphia Negro, pub- 
lished under the auspices of the University of Pennsj-lvania. and numerous special 
studies and investigations that have appeared in the proceedings of the Atlanta 
conferences and the bulletins of the Bureau of Labor, as well as sundry magazine 
articles. Mr. Du Bois has done more to give scientific accuracy and method to the 
study of the ra e question than any other American who has essayed to deal 
with it. 

It is generally believed that while the negro possesses the imitative he lacks the 
initiative faculty; that while he can acquire what has already been accumulated, 
he can not inquire into the unrevealed mystery of things. As an illustration of 
how easy it is for the achievements of the negro to escape his fellow-colaborers, 
the following incident may be regarded as typical. The Patent Office sent out 
circulars inquiring as to the number and extent of colored patentees. One of the 
leading patent attorneys responded that he had never heard of the negro invent- 
ing anything except lies; yet the Patent Oliice record reveals 2.50 colored patentees 
and more than 400 patents. Many of these show the highest ingenuity and are 
widely used in the mechanical arts. 

Granville T. Woods was born in Ohio, and is 44 years old. He has more than 
twentj' x'atents to his cre'lit. Mr. Woods is the inventor of the electric telephone 
transmitter, which he assigned to the American Bell Telephone Company for a 
valuable considei-ation, said to amount to §10,000. This transmitter is used in 
connection with all the Be'l telephones. 

Elijah T. McCoy, of Detroit, Mich., has t.iken out 30 patents, mainly devoted to 
the improvement of lubricating devices for stationary and locomotive machinery. 
His inventions are in general use on locomotive engines of leading railways in the 
Northwest, on the lake steamers, and on railways in Canada. 

There are numerous colored people who have achieved distinction in fields call- 
ing for practical energy, mcral courage, sound intelligence, and intellectual 
resource. Mr. Frederick Douglass and Prof. Boo.ker T. Washington are. in gen- 
eral average of distinction, the most renowned of their race, although their fields 
of exertion are not mainly intellectual, in the academic sense of the term — and 
yet Mr. Douglass was one of the most eminent American orators, and his autobi- 
ography form.'^ an integral part of the literature of the antislavery struggle; and 
Mr. Washington's Up from Slavery is one of the most popular books printed in 
the first year of the twentieth century. As Mr. Douglass's life is woven in the 
warp and woof of the great epoch ending in the civil war, so Mr. Washington's 
life and work have become a vital part of current educational literature, and his 
place in the history of education is assured. 



CHAPTER III. 

THE COLLEGE-BRED NEGRO. « 

The following information lias been selected (in large part reprinted verbatim) 
from a report of the restilts of a social study, made under the direction of Atlanta 
University, to the Fifth Conference for the Study of Negro Problems, held at 
Atlanta University,'' May 29-30, 1900. The report refeiTed to was drawn np by 
W. E. Burghardt DiiBois, Ph. D., corresponding secretary of the conference. 
Appended to this chapter is an argument by President Bnnistead of Atlanta 
University in favor of the higher education of the negro. 

The general idea of the Atlanta Conference is to select among the various and 
intricate questions arising from the presence of the negro in the South, certain 
lines of investigation which ^N^ill be at once simple enough to be pnrsned by vol- 
untary effort, and valuable enough to add to our scientific knowledge. At the 
same time the different subjects studied each year have had a logical connection, 
and will in time form a comprehensive whole. The starting point was the large 
death rate of the negroes; this led to a study of their condition of life, and the 
efforts they were making to better that condition. These efforts, when studied, 
brought clearly to light the hard economic struggle through which the emanci- 
pated slave is to-day passing, and the conference therefore took up one phase of 
this last year. This year the relation of educated negroes to these problems, and 
esijecially to the economic crisis, was studied. 

Schedules of inquiry, containing 26 questions, were sent out to nearly 2, .500 negro 
graduates: returns more or less complete were received from 1,2.j2. Any gradii- 
ate who had received the degree of B. A. or B. S. from an institution which had 
"a course amounting to at least one year in addition to the course of the ordinary 
New England high school," was considered a college graduate for the pui-poses 
of the inquiry. 

nSeo also an article entitled "The education of the negro," by Prof. Kelloj' Miller, of Howard 
University, in Vol. 1 of the Report of 190(MI1, chap. 16. That article contains a nuiaber of 
tables and some other matter from Dr. DuBois's report not reprinted in this chapter. 

& Atlanta University is an institution for the higher education of negro youth. It seeks, by 
maintaining a high standard of scholarship and deportment, to sift out and train thoroughly' 
talented members of this race to be leaders of thought and missionaries of culture among the 
masses. 

Furthermore, Atlanta University recognizes that it is its duty as a seat of learning to throw 
as much light as possible upon the intricate social problems affecting these masses, for the 
enlightenment of its graduates and of the general public. It has, therefore, for the last five years, 
sought to unite its own graduates, the graduates of similar institutions, and educated negroes 
in general, throughout the Sor.th, in an eflf ort to stxidy carefully and thoroughly certain definite 
aspects of the negro problems. 

Graduates of Fisk University, Bcrea College, Lincoln University, Spelman Seminai-y, Clark 
University, Wiiberforco University, Howard University, the Mehari'y Medical College, Hamp- 
ton and Tuskcgee Institutes, and several other institutions have kindly joined in this movement 
and added their efforts to those of the graduates of Atlanta, and have, in the last five years, 
helped to conduct five investigations: One, in 189G, into the '• Mortality of negroes in cities; " 
another, in 1897, into the "General social and physical condition " of .5,000 negroes living in .selected 
parts of certain Southern citias; a third, in 1898, on " Some efforts of American negi-oes for their 
own social betterment; " a foiirth, in 1899, into the number of negroes in business and their suc- 
cess. Finally, in 1900, inquiry has been made into the number, distribution, occupations, and 
success of college-bred nesvoes.— From the Introduction. 

191 



192 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1901-1902. 

The number of negro college graduates, -with their date of graduation, was 
ascertained to be as follows: 

I Number of negro graduates. 





From— 




Negro 
colleges. 


White 
colleges. 


Before 1876 


137 
143 
250 
413 

465 

475 

58 




1876-1880 


22 


1880-1885 


31 


1885-1890 


43 


1890-1895 - 


66 


1895-1899a-. 


88 


Class unknown 


64 






Total __ 


1,941 


390 







a The report for 1899 is incomplete. 
NEGRO GRADUATES FROM WHITE COLLEGES. 

In corresponding with white colleges, for the purpose of procuring information 
bearing upon the subject of the inquiry, most of the colleges addressed confined 
themselves to furnishing a simple list of graduates; some, however, added infor- 
mation as to the standing and character of their negro students, information 
which is considered all the more valuable from its having been unsolicited; others 
made some statement of the conditions regarding the admission of negro students. 
The following extracts will serve to show the trend of these observations: 

From the University of Kansas Ave learn (January, 1900): "I am pleased to 
state that this year we have twice as many colored students in attendance at the 
university as ever before; in all, 38. The rule is that no student shall be allowed 
to take more than three studies. If he fails in one of the three, it is a 'single 
failure;' in two of the three, a 'double failure.' The latter severs the student's 
connection with the university. There are 1,090 students in attendance at the 
present time. The semiannual examination was held last week, and as a result 
there are 200 'single failures' and 80 ' double failures.' The gratifying part of 
it is that not one of the 28 colored students is in either number." 

From Bates College, Scranton, Me., President Chase writes (February, 1900): 
' ' We have had about a dozen colored people who have taken the full course for 
the degree of A. B. at Bates College, one of them a young woman. They have 
all of them been students of good character and worthy piirpose." One was a 
"remarkably fine scholar, excelling in mathematics and philosophy;" he was 
" one of the editors of the Bates Student while in college." Another was "an 
honest, industrious man of good ability, but of slight intellectual ambition." A 
third ' • was a good scholar, especially in mathematics. ' ' A fourth graduated ' ' with 
excellent standing. He was a good all-around scholar, but excellent in the 
classics." A fifth "acquired knowledge with difficulty." A sixth did work 
" of a very high order," etc. 

The secretary of Oberlin writes (February, 1900) in sending his list: " It is a list 
containing men and women of whom we are proud." 

Colgate University, New York writes of a graduate of 1874 as " a very brilliant 
student," who " was graduated second best in his class. It was believed by many 
that he was actually the leader. ' ' 

A graduate of Colby College, Maine, is said by the librarian to have been " uni- 
versally resi)ected as a student, being chosen class orator." 

Wittenberg College, Ohio, has two colored gradiiates. " They were both bright 
girls and stood well up in their respective classes." 

A negro graduate of Washburn College, Kansas, is said by the chairman of the 
faculty to be '• one of the graduates of the college in whom we take pride." 

The dean of the faculty of Knox College, Illinois, writes of two negro students. 
Senator Bruce, of Mississippi, and another, who graduated and was remembered 
because of " his distinguished scholarship." 
_ A black student of Adrian College, Michigan, "was one of the best mathema- 
ticians I ever had in class," writes a professor. 



THE OOLLEGE-BRED NEGRO. 193^ 

Adelbert College, of the Western Reserve University, Ohio, has a negro gradu- 
ate as acting librarian, who is characterized as "one of the most able raen we 
know;"' while of another it is said, "we expect the best." 

Lombard University, Illinois, has " heard favorable reports " of its single negro ■ 
graduate. 

The dean of the State University of Iowa writes (December, 1899) of a graduate^ 
of 1898: " He distinguished himself for good scholarship, and on that ground was 
admitted to membership in the Phi Beta Kappa Society. He is a man of most 
excellent character and good sense, and I expect for him a very honorable future. 
He won the respect of all his classmates and of the faculty. As president of the 
Phi Beta Kappa Society I received him into membershii:> vsdth very great i)leasure 
as in every way worthy of this honor. We have three colored people in the uni- 
versity at present; two in the collegiate department and one in law. You are 
aware that we have but a small colored population in Iowa. In all cases colored, 
yoiing men in the university receive the very best treatment from instructors and^ 
stiidents." * * * 

Boston University writes of one gradiiate as "a fine fellow." He is now doing; 
post-graduate work at Yale, and the agent of the Capon Springs Negro Conference 
writes (November, 1900) that "I continually hear him mentioned in a comj)li- 
mentary way. On the other hand, two negro boys were in the freshman class not 
long ago and were both conspicuously poor scholars. ' ' 

Otterbein University, Ohio, has a graduate who " was a most faithful and cap- 
able student." 

The dean of Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, writes (December, 1899) of: 
their graduates: "The last two or three are hardly established in business yet» 
but the others are doing remarkably well. These men have been in each case 
fully equal to, if not above, the average of their class. We have been very muck 
pleased with the work of the colored men who have come to us. They have been 
a credit to themselves and their race while here and to the college since gradua- 
tion. I wish we had more such." 

The president of Tabor College, Ohio, says of two colored graduates: " They are 
brainy fellows who have done very much good in the world." 

A graduate of Soiathwest Kansas College "was one of the truest, most faithful 
and hard-working stxidents that we ever had." 

One of the most prominent Methodist ministers in Philadelphia said to the 
president of Allegheny College, Pennsylvania, speaking of a colored graduate: 
"Any college may be proud to have gradiiated a man like him." 

The University of Idaho graduated in 1898 a young colored woman of " excep- 
tional ability." 

Westminster College, Pennsylvania, has graduated two negroes. "Both were 
excellent students and ranked high in the estimation of all who knew them." 

Of a graduate of Hamilton College, New York, the secretaiy says: "He was. 
one of the finest young men we have ever had in our institution. He was an 
earnest and consistent Christian, and had great influence for good with his fellow 
students. No one ever showed him the slightest discourtesy. On leaving college^ 
he spent three years in Auburn Theological Seminary; was licensed to preach by- 
one of our Northern Presbji:eries, and then went to Virginia, near Norfolk, where 
he built a church and gave promise of great usefulness, when, about two years 
ago, he suddenly sickened and died." * * * 

At the larger colleges the record of negro students has, on the whole, been good.. 
At Harvard several have held scholarships, and one a fellowship; there has been 
1 Phi Beta Kappa man, 1 class orator, 2 commencement sfteakers, 3 masters of 
art and 1 doctor in philosophy. In scholarship the 11 graduates have stood: 4 good,. 
3 fair, 2 ordinary, and 2 poor. 

At Brown one of the most brilliant students of recent years was a negro; h& 
was among the junior eight elected to the Phi Beta Kappa. 

At Amherst the record of colored men has been very good, both in scholarship 
and athletics. A colored man captained the Amhei'st football team one year and 
he is now one of the chief Harvard football coaches. 

At Yale and Cornell colored men have held scholarships, and some have made 
good records. 

Among the women's colleges the color prejudice is much stronger and more 
unyielding. The secretary of Vassar writes (December, 1900) : " We have never 
had but one colored girl among our students, and as no one knew during her 
course that she was a negro, there was never any discussion of the matter. This 
young woman graduated from the college, and although it is now well known 
that she is a negro, the feeling of respect and affection that she won during her 

ED 1902 13 



194 EBTJOATIOE- EEPOET, 1901-1902. 

college cotirse has not been changed on the part of those who knew her here. 
There is no rule of the college that wotild forbid our admitting a colored girl, but 
the conditions of life here are snch that we should hesitate for the sake of the 
candidate to admit her, and in fact should strongly advise her for her own sake 
not to come." 

Barnard College, New York, the new woman's adjunct of Columbia, says 
(December, 1900): "No one of negro descent has ever received our degree, and I 
can not say whether such a person would be admitted to Barnard, as the question 
has never been raised; but there is nothing in oiir regu.lations that excludes any- 
one of any nationality or race." 

Wells College and Elmira College, New York, both agree in saying that they 
never have had negro students and " do not know what would be the policy of 
the board of trustees if such a person should make application for admission." 

A prominent Southern institution, the Eandolph-Macon Woman's College, of 
Lynchburg, Va., writes frankly: " We entirely favor the education of negroes to 
any degree they may wish, but are not prepared to enter upon the work ourselves. 
We believe that in all boarding schools and colleges the races must, for the good 
of both, be educated separately." 

In the West the sentiment is more favorable. The president of Rockford Col- 
lege, 111., writes: "I think that no one of negro descent has ever received the 
bachelor's degree from this college. In 1889-90 such a lady came here from St. 
Louis. This one was here only about two years, I believe. She afterwards mar- 
ried. Persons of negro descent, if able to meet our requirements, would be 
received here. So far as I know, however, this is the only such student that we 
have had; but before she left us, she had made herself very popular with her f ellov/ 
stiidents." 

The trustees of Mills College for women, in Alameda County, Cal., " decided 
some years ago that it was not best for us to receive siich students." 

In New England there is usually no barrier, although Motmt Holyoke puts 
the statement negatively: " We do not refuse admission to colored persons, but 
we seldom have application for this class of candidates." 

They have one negro graduate from Smith College, we learn: " Our first colored 
student graduated last year with the degree of A. B. * * * We also have two 
students of negro descent in our present senior class. No person is refused admis- 
sion to Smith on account of color, provided she is able to meet our reqairements 
for entrance. Miss was an excellent stu.dent, and very popular." 

Wellesley had quite a number of colored students, of whom two graduated. 
" Both these yoimg women had more than average ability, and one did brilliant 
work." 

Radcliife College, the Harvard "annex," has two colored graduates, who are 
well spoken of. 

In all Northern institutions there have appeared, from time to time, black 
students as well as white who lacked ability to do the required work. The negroes 
of this sort are of course always conspicuous. It is naturally much easier to con- 
vince an average American group of a negro's inferior attainments than of any 
unusual abUity in any line. So that one such student has often done more by his 
failure to form public opinion than several others by their success. Then, too, 
there has been, in some instances, a tendency to coddle black students simply 
because they were black; in some cases scholarships have been granted them, and 
pass marks given which in strict com.petition they did not earn. Of course these 
cases are more than balanced by the opposite kind, whero the prejudice and imcon- 
scious bias of students and instructors have made life so intolerable for some 
lonely black student that he has given up in despair, or done far poorer work 
than he might have done. In the older institutions all these phases are now pass- 
ing away, and the black student is beginning to be received simply as a student, 
without assumptions as to his ability or deserts until he has given e-vddence in his 
work and character. 

Besides the negroes who have graduated from these coUegOE, there has been a 
large number who have piirsued a partial course, but taken no degree. They have 
dropped out for lack of funds, poor scholarship, and various reasonr. Then, too, 
many institutions having no graduates have promising candidates at present, 
'i'he registrar of the University of lUinoic informs us " that so far no negro has 
ever been graduated from the University of Illinois. One member of our present 
senior class is a negro, and he will doubtless be gradua,ted next June. He is a 
good scholar, and is very much respected in the LTniversity. He is this year the 
editor of the student's paper." 



THE COLLEGE-BRED NEGRO. 



195 



Wabasli College, Indiana, "has had frequently colored students enrolled in her 
classes, but none have completed their course. We hare at present two colored 
stiidents in attendance at college." 

Dickinson College. Pennsylvania, "has never conferred a degree upon a negro. 

We have two at i^resent time in attendance at the College: One, Miss . a 

member of the freshman class, and the other. Mr. •, a member of the junior 

class, and one of the brightest scholars and most highly esteemed gentlemen in 
attendance at our institution." 

The universities of Wyoming. Montana, and California, have all had. at one 
time or another, colored students. 

Syracuse University has three negro students now, "especially bright and 
promising. ' ' 

The L'^niversity of Vermont dropped two colored members of the class of 1897 
' ' on account of inability to do the work. " ' 

Wheaton College, Illinois, has "had many colored students, and some good 
ones, but none of them has gained the degree of A. B.'" 

Among the colleges who have never had any negro students it is not easy to 
learn how many would actually refuse stich students. Most of the replies are 
noncommittal on this point, as in the case of John Hopkins. " No colored man 
has ever been a candidate for a degree here." 

So. too. from Bryn Mawr they write: ' ' President Thomas desires me to acknowl- 
edge the receipt of your letter, and to say that no person of negro descent has 
ever applied for admission to BrjTi Mawr College, probably because the standard 
of the entrance examinations is very high and no students are admitted on 
certificate." 

The attitiide of Princeton is thus defined (December. 1900): "The question of 
the admission of negro students to Princeton University has never assumed the 
aspect of a practical problem with us. We have never "had any colored students 
here, though there is nothing in the university statutes to prevent their admis- 
sion. It is possible, however, in view of our proximity to the South and the 
large number of Soiithern students here, that negro students would find Princeton 
less comfortable than some other institutions; but I may be wrong in this, as 
the trial has never been made. There is, as I say, nothing in the laws of the 
college to prevent their admission." 

In other places, usually smaller Western schools, the attitude is quite cordial. 
"I am sorry to say that we have no negro graduates as yet." writes Carleton 
College. Minnesota. Whitman College, Washington, says:*" We should be glad 
to receive any negroes if they were to apply, biit there are few in this section of 
the country." The University of Oregon says the same thing. 

To sum up, then: Negroes have graduated from Northern institutions. In 
most of the larger universities they are welcome and have, on the whole, made good 
records. In nearly all the Western colleges they are admitted freely, and have 
done well in some cases and poorly in others. In one or two larger institutions, 
and in many of the large women's colleges, negroes, while not'exactly refused 
admission, are strongly advised not to apply. The summer schools at Harvard, 
Clark, and the University of Chicago, have several negro students. 



BIRTHPLACE OF COLLEGE-BRED NEGROES. 

The birthplace of 646 college-bred negroes is given as follow.^: 



South Carolina 95 

North Carolina . _ 80 

Tennessee 73 

Virginia 60 

Georgia 55 

Mississippi . 48 

Alabama 34 

Ohio 84 

Kentuckv ... - - 25 

Maryland 17 

Indiana 4 

Massachusetts 3 

West Virginia 3 

Iowa 3 

New Jersey .. 3 

Michigan 3 



Rhode Island 1 

Connecticut 1 

Vermont 1 

Colorado 1 

Pennsylvania 17 

Missouri 13 

Louisiana 13 

Illinois 11 

District of Columbia 10 

Texas 9 

Kansas 9 

New York 5 

Arkansas 4 

Florida 4 

Delaware , 1 



196 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1901-1902. 



In foreign lands: 

Hayti 4 

West Indies 1 3 

West Africa 2 

Ontario 1 

North 30 

South ...542 

West 64 

Abroad 10 

Total 646 

The most interesting question connected with birthplace is that of the migra- 
tion of colored graduates — that is, where these men finally settle and work. If 
we arrange these 600 graduates according to sections wh«re they were born and 
where they now live, we have this table: 

Migration of college graduates. 



Persons born in— 


Are now living in — 


A. 


B. 


C. 


D. 


E. 


P. 


O. 


H. 


J. 


K. 


L. 


M. 


A New England 


2 
1 

A 
3 


1 
10 

18 

8 
2 


3 
5 

148 

35 

7 


1 
1 

39 

159 
4 

4 

1 


1 
1 

12 

6 
9 

4 
















B. New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey 

C. Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Vir- 
ginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Caro- 
lina, Missouri, District of Cohimbia 

D. South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Missis- 


4 

1 
1 

5 

1 


5 
26 

1 

3 
5 


1 
1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


E Michigan Wisconsin, Illinois, Ohio 










1 


F. North and South Dakota, Minnesota, 














G. Oklahoma, Texas, Arkansas, Indian Ter- 






3 
2 


































2 
2 






















3 


3 


— - 


— 


2 






2 






L. California, Nevada, Washington, Or egon_ 































































This means that of 254 college-bred negroes born in the border States (i. e. , Del- 
aware, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, Missouii, and 
the District of Columbia) , 148 or 58 per cent stayed and worked there; 39 or 15 per 
cent went farther South; 26 or 10 per cent went Southwest; 13 or 5 per cent went 
to the middle West, etc. Or again: 

Of 73 college graduates born North, 35 stayed there and 38 went South. 

Of 507 college graduates born South, 443 stayed there and 62 went North. 

These statistics cover only about one-fourth of the total number of graduates, 
but they represent pretty accurately the general tendencies so far as our observa- 
tion has gone. It is therefore probably quite v^ithin the truth to say that 50 per 
cent of Northern-born college men come South to work among the masses of their 
people at a personal sacrifice and bitter cost which few people realize; that nearly 
90 per cent of the Southern-born graduates, instead of seeking that personal free- 
dom and broader intellectual atmosphere which their training has led them in 
some degree to conceive, stay and labor and wait in the midst of their black neigh- 
bors and relatives. 



WOMEN -GRADUATES. 



The number of negro women 
as follows: 



graduates, not including the graduates of 1899, is 



Oberlin 55 

Shaw 31 

Paul Quinn 13 

Atlanta 8 

Southland 8 

Rust 7 

Claflin 6 



Philander Smith 5 

Iowa Wesleyan 4 

University of Kansas 3 

Cornell 3 

Geneva 3 

Leland 1 

University Iowa U. 1 



THE COLLEGE-BEED NEGRO. 



197 



Idaho 

IJates 

Clarke. --- 

Straight 

Branch, Arkansas 
Mount Holvoke . _ _ 
Fisk r 



Roger Williams 5 

Berea 4 

University of Michigan 3 

Wittenberg 2 

Wellesley 3 

Butler 

Adrian 

McKendree . 

Virginia Normal and Collegiate 

Allen 

Paine Institute 

Vassar 



1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

31 

Wilberforce 19 

Knosrvdlle 10 

Howard 8 

Central Tennessee 7 

Livingstone 6 

New Orleans 5 

Total women 253 

Total men 3, 373 

Before the war 10 women graduated, as far as we have been able to ascertain; 
from 18G1 to 1869, 36; from 1880 to 1889, 76; 1890 to 1898, 119. 

The rapid increase of college-bred women in later years is noticeable, and the 
present tendency is toward a still larger proportion of woraen. Twenty-three 
per cent of the college students of Howard, Atlanta, Fisk, and Shaw were women 
in the school year of 1898-99. The economic stress will probably force more of 
the young men into work before they get through college and leave a larger 
chance for the training of daughters. A tendency in this direction is noticeable 
in all the colleges, and if it results in more highly trained mothers it will result in 
great good. Of 100 college-bred women reporting their conjugal condition, one- 
half had been married, against nearly 70 per cent of the men. 



EARLY TKAINING. 

There is little in the matter of early training that lends itself to statistical state- 
ment, but there is much of human interest. A number of typical lives are there- 
fore ajipended which show in a general way the sort of childhood and youth 
through which these college-bred negroes have passed. First as to the men: 

3Ien. 

" My early life was sjjentin the schools of the American Missionary Association. 
I attended Beach Institute and finally Atlanta University. ' ' 

'• I attended the public schools in Augusta, Oa. , and sold papers, brushed boots, 
and worked in tobacco factories. While in college I taught school in summer 
time." 

" Born in Springfield, Mass., where I attended the public schools, and acted as 
driver and hotel waiter. I attended Fisk University and during vacations taught 
school, worked in a sawmill, waited on table, and acted as Pullman porter." 

" My parents were old and poor and I worked my way through school and helped 
to support them by manual labor. ' ' 

"I came to Texas with my parents about 1876, and attended the Galveston 
public schools. I then went to college, assisted in part by my parents and in part 
by my own efliorts. Tlie expenses of the last two years were paid by a scholarship 
which I won by examination." 

' ' I spent most of my youth with my uncle , a merchant in Florence . S. C. , where I 
attended the public school, which was poor. I afterwards worked five years on 
my father's faiTQ, and finally went to college." 

" I attended public schools in Virginia, working in white families morning and 
night for my board. I then worked my way through a normal course, and finally 
through Hillsdale College." 

"I was a farmer before going to school. My church conference sent me to 
school. My parents were jwor and my mother died when I was but 4 years old." 

" I came to Kansas when 9 yearg old and lived on a farm until I was 20, neither 
seeing or hearing from any of my relations during that time. In 1871 I went to 
Oberlin and began work in Ray's Third Part Arithmetic." 



198 " EDUCATION EEPORT, 1901-1902. 

" I was born a slave in Prince Edward County, Va. I worked as a farmer and 
waiter and then went to Hampton Institute. After leaving Hampton I lielped my 
parents a few years and then entered Shaw." 

"Isold papers and went to school when a boy; I learned the brick-mason's 
trade of my father. After graduating from the high school I worked in the print- 
ing office of a colored paper, tlms earning enough to go to college." 

"I was borii in Calvert County, Md., being one of 7 children. We lived 
at first in the log cabin which my father had built in slavery times. Soon we 
moved away from there and settled on a farm which my father commenced buying 
on shares. I went to school, worked on the farm, and taught school until I was 
22, when I entered Lincoln." 

"I was born in Crawford County, Ga. My father moved to Macon, then to 
Jones County, then back to Crawford County, then to the town of Forsyth, and 
finally to the State of Mississippi. I finally left home at the age of 16 and roamed 
about for two and a half years. I saved some money by work on a railroad and 
started to school." 

" My parents, having been slaves, were poor. I was the fifth of 10 children, and 
the task of educating all of us was a serious one for the family. My parents made 
every sacrifice, and at 9 years of age I was helping by selling papers on the streets 
of Pittsburg, and colored papers among the negroes on Saturday. After com- 
pleting the common schools I worked as elevator boy and bootblack, and finally 
at the age of 15 was enabled to enter the engineering course of the Western Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania." 

" I was born in a stable; my faither died when I was 2 years old. I blacked 
boots and sold sulphur water to educate myself iintil I was 18." 

" My mother and father took me from Alabama to Mississippi, where my father 
joined the Union Army at Corinth, leaving me with my mother, brother, and 
sister. We went to Cairo, 111., and then to Island No. 10. There mother and 
brother died and my sister sent me to Helena, Ark. , in charge of an aunt. My 
father died during the siege of Vicksburg, and I was sent to the orphanage in 
Helena, which afterwards became Southland College." 

" My father died when I was 5 and my mother when I was 12, leaving me an 
orphan in the West Indies. At 14 I left home with a white man from Massachu- 
setts. I went to school one year in Massachusetts, then shipped as a sailor and 
stayed on the sea ten years, and finally returning, started to school again." 

" I was born in Alton. 111., in 1864. In 1871 we moved to Mississippi, and hap- 
pening to visit my grandfather at Wilberforce, Ohio, I begged him to let me stay 
there and enter school. He consented, and by housework, taking care of horses, 
and his help I got through school." 

" I was born of slave parents v/ho could neither read nor write. I had but five 
months' regular schooling until I was 17 years of age. Then I worked my way 
through a normal school in South Carolina, and thus gained a certificate to teach 
and helped myself on further in school." 

"Father died aboiit my ninth birthday, sol attended the public schools and 
worked on the farm to assist mother earn a livelihood for herself and the four 
children. Late in my teens, after three months' day labor upon the farm, rail- 
road, wood chopping, etc., I entered Alcorn with the sum of $20.50. By working 
there I was enabled to remain in school six years, the last five of which I secured 
work as a teacher in Wilkerson County. The money I obtained was used by 
myself, my two brothers, and a sister in common, as from time to time each joined 
me in college. Mother would accept very little of our earnings for herself, lest 
we might be deprived of an education." 

" I was born and reared on my aged mother's farm near Thomastown, Miss. I 
began going to a country school at 12 years of age, having learned my A B C's 
under Uncle York Moss, at his Sunday school, where we used Webster's " Blue- 
back.' My chances for attending even a country school were mea,ger, for I had 
to help on the farm. Attending two and four months in the year, I got far enough 
advanced by the time I was 16 to teach a little and use my earnings in entering, 
fixst, Tougaloo and then Alcorn." , 

" I was reared on a farm and was 16 before I knew my letters and 21 before I 
spent a month in school." 



THE COLLEGE-BEED NEGRO. 199 

" In early life I lived with ray parents, wlio were ex-slaves and took great pride 
in working hard to educate their children. I attended the first Yankee schools 
established in Savannah. As soon as I conld read, write, and figure a little I 
started a private afternoon school at my home, which I taught." 

'• I was born a slave. Soon after the fall of Port Royal, S. C in 1861, three of 
ns escaped from Charleston to Beaufort, and joined the Union forces. We were 
taken on the U. S. gunboat Unadilla. There I was attached to a lieutenant in 
the Forty -eighth New York Regiment of Volunteers, and remained with him until 
he was wounded before Fort Wagner. I then went North, attended night school 
in Portland, Me., and finally entered Howard University." 

" I was the fifth child in a family of eleven. My father was a poor farmer and 
did not believe in education, so my training was neglected until I was able to work 
and help myself. ' ' 

" I was born a slave and taken North to an orphanage by Quakers after the war, 
both my j^arents being dead. Afterwards I was sent to New Jersey, and then 
worked on a Pennsylvania faitn until I went to Lincoln." 

' ' My father was set free prior to the war and purchased my mother. He died 
when 1 was 8, leaving a little home and $800 in gold. My mother was an invalid 
and we had to work at whatever came to hand, going to school from three to five 
nionths a year. At the age of 15 I stopped school and labored and taught a three- 
months' school at $25 a month. Finally I entered Roger Williams University, 
working my way through and helping mother." 

'• Twelve years of my life was spent as a slave. I worked at driving cows, car- 
rjing dinner to the field hands, and running rabbits. My master ovv^ned 300 
negroes, so that boys were not put in the field iintil they were 18. When I was 
freed I did not know a letter, but I worked my way through Webster's ' Blue- 
back ■ speller." 

''I was born the slave of Jefferson Davis's brother and attended contraband 
schools before the close of the war." 

'• Mine was the usual life of a boy whose follfs were comfortably circumstanced. 
School was the chief occupation. At 16 I went to sea as a cabin boy, and on return- 
ing entered Lincoln." 

"I was raised partly on a Mississippi jjlantation and partly in and near New 
Orleans. For about two years I was with the Union Army as servant to an officer 
in a Vermont regiment. I went with him to Vermont, where I attended school 
and finally entered Dartmouth College." 

"I had very little early training, and was apprenticed at the calker's trade 
from 13 to 16. At the age of 18 I joined the Fifty-fifth Massachusetts Volunteers, 
and was finally discharged on account of wocinds. I then entered the preparatory 
department at Lincoln." 

"Lived in Lebanon, Tenn., until 11 years old, when I joined a company of 
colored men and went to West Tennessee. I kept books and cooked for the com- 
pany. I moved the whole family at last to West Tennessee, and bought and paid 
for a fai-m by raising cotton and teaching school. I then entered Fisk University, 
and by teaching and farming during vacations supported myself and two sisters 
in school." 

" The gi-eater portion of my early life was spent in East Tennessee, whither I 
had been broiTght away from my parents when only 5 years of age. My mas- 
ter kept me as errand boy about his store and house until the close of the war. 
By this time, under the tutelage of the white children of the family, I had learned 
to read. In the summer of 1865 I started out without a cent of money to try my 
own fortune in the world, working at anything I cotdd find to do. I made con- 
siderable money, attended public schools, and finally entered Fisk University," 

' ^ Soon after the war my father built a log schoolhoiise on a spot given him by 
his former master. I went to school seven months before my father died, after 
which I was compelled to go to work to support my widowed mother. At the 
age of 20 I entered school again." 

" Bom of a good woman in Mississippi, I left home while the war was raging 
and went to Alabama. There I finally went into the service of an ex-Confederate 
general, who sent me to the Burrell School, an institution fostered by the Ameri- 
can Missionary Association. Afterwards I went to Tovigaloo and Roger Williams. ' ' 



200 EDUCATION" EEPOET, 1901-1902. 

" I lost my mother wlien I was only 1 year old. I was tlien sold as a slave to 
an aged French couple, who treated me as their child. Then, in 1862, I was sold 
again, taken to Texas, resold, and finally, "when free, returned to New Orleans in 
1869. I found my father dead, and so I went North and stayed there until I 
entered Fisk in 1876. I had had but little schooling up to this time — only what I 
had picked up at a night school and at an eight-months' free school in Texas." 

' ' I was born in Raleigh, N. C. , and emancipated in Pennsylvania in 1830. I went 
to school and learned the three E,'s and afterwards went to Ohio and ent/Cred 
Oberlin, working at my trade of gunmaker all through the course. I studied, 
because I found knowledge was power; I also found that I was a bom mechanic. 
I never had the idea that education would elevate me into any profession whatso- 
ever. My trade occupied my whole mind and thought." 

"I was born of slave parents and worked when young in a tobacco factory. I 
was taught to read by an ex-Confederate soldier. I entered school right after the 
surrender of Lee and remained till I finished the college course." 

"I had the advantage of a father who had a good education, for his time. He 
was free and able to conduct his business in Augusta, Ga. , during slavery time. 
I quit school and served two years at a trade. A Northern teacher offered to help 
me finish my education and my parents gave me my time." 

" My earliest recollections are of slavery, the perturbed conditions at the begin- 
ning and end of the war, the struggle of mother and grandmother under the new 
conditions, and the assumption of the support of the family by myself at the age 
of 10 years." 

"My parents moved to Providenco, R. I., when I was very young. I attended 
school about five years and night school one winter. Then I learned the barber's 
trade. During the winter of 1890-91 I decided to prepare myself for work among 
my people in the South and entered Livingstone College." 

' ' My mother and I were sold away from my father, who lived in South Carolina, 
and taken first to Mississippi, and then to Banks County, Ga. Here, when I was 
6 years of age, my master started me at work in a stable, with the pur]X)se of 
making me learn the care of horses and become his carriage driver. I wa« freed 
in 1865, and then my mother and I walked to Newberry, S. C. (110 miles), and 
found father again. We were very poor and my parents had to hire me out for a 
year. Then they decided to send me to school and I went very irregularly from 
1866 to 1874. I gained at last a State scholarship in the South Carolina College, 
but the Republicans, after two years, were forced out of power and the college 
closed to them. Finally I entered the Atlanta University." 

"I was born in Buffalo, N. Y., in 1867, the son of the sexton of a large city 
church. I passed through the common and high schools of the city, and at the 
same time worked as office hoj and waiter. In 1879 I came South to enter college 
and prepare for teaching. ' ' 

"About the close of the war Confederate soldiers stole me from my parents in 
South Carolina and took me to Georgia. I ran away to Temiessee, where I worked 
as janitor in a white school and studied at night by the aid of the principal, who 
was very friendly. He afterwards sent me to Howard University." 

"I was born in Richiaond, Va., and when 3 years of age was sold with my 
mother, sister, and brother away from my father and taken to South Carolina. 
We have never seen father since. My new mistress taught me the alphabet, and 
after emancipation paid my expenses through school and college." 

" I worked my way through college. I was the oldest of eight children, with 
father bitterly opposed to education, although he had a commanding mind and 
had heard lectures at the University of Virginia before the war. Have been 
practically the head of the family for over 12 years, and assisted and encour- 
aged all the children to educate themselves. Five of them went or are going to 
school." 

" My mother died when I was but 2 years old, and I was left to the care of my 
mother's mistress, wlio, though a slaveholder, cared for me a^ though I was her 
own child, until emancipation, when my father took charge of me and placed me 
in school under Northern teachers sent South by the Presbyterian board of edu- 
cation." 



THE COLLEGE-BRED NEGRO. 201 

' ' I was reared on a farm ; then became meat cook on a steamboat during vaca- 
tion. I served two years and five months as first sergeant Company C, Fifty-fifth 
Massachusetts Volunteers, diiringthe civil war, and was i7ijured t^vice, at James 
Island and Honey Hill engagements. I made out contracts between ex-slaves and 
former masters in South Carolina in the Freedman's Bureau, under Gen. O. O. 
Howard, after being disabled." 

*■ Until 15 years old I stayed with my grandparents, and followed the occupa- 
tion of my gTandfather, a gardener. From 15 till 171 clerked in a colored grocer's 
store; from 17 till 19 I worked in a colored restaurant, giving my earnings to my 
grandparents, for they cared for my wants and gave me what little school train- 
ing I had. My parents were dead. In my 20th year I taught a five months' dis- 
trict school, with the proceeds of which I began a course of study at Wilberforce 
University." 

' ' My early life, until I was 6 years old, was spent on a large plantation. At that 
age, father having secured a little home of his own, consisting of 3 acres of land 
and a log house, I with the family was carried thither. At the age of 10 1 entered 
my first school, where I learned to read and write. The school was a Presbyterian 
school. During the summer I worked on a farm which father rented. At the ^ 
age of 12 we moved to Lexington, N. C. I still attended school in winter and' 
worked in a brickyard in summer. At the age of 14 my school days stopped until 
I was 19 years old. I did hotel work during the intervening years, and taught 
a three months' country school. At the age of 19 I entered college." 

" My early hfe was spent as most poor boys, at work. I have served in every 
capacity from a dinner boy to a clerk. Have clothed myself since I reached my 
14th year, beginning with earning 25 cents a week, and in two years I com- 
manded a salary of §6 per week. At 18 I was head clerk for a produce firm that 
did a business of §10,000 a year. This was at Nashville, Term." 

'■ I was bom on a farm near Chillicothe. Ohio, November 15, 1825. At the age 
of 4 years I was taken with my parents to Jackson County, where there was a com- 
munity of colored people; they had settled in close proximity in order to educate 
their children, becaiTse they were debarred from attending the public schools with 
white children. I attended a seleet school until 14 yeai's of age." 

'• My first school-teacher was Mr. Turner, who was the colored Congressman 
from Alabama. His school was destroyed by Kuklux while I was attending it. 
Next attended Freedman's Bureau school and Swayne school in Montgomery, 
Ala. I attended Storr's, in Atlanta, and taught school when 15 years old; entered 
Atlanta University in 1874. Taught school during vacations." 

" Born in Yazoo County, Miss., 6 miles from Yazoo Citj'. I was taught my 
letters by my father. He died in 1866, and left mother with nine children, six 
sons and three daughters, three younger than myself. Desiring her children to 
have educational advantages, mother removed to Vicksburg in December, 1866. 
Here I entered the United Presbyterian mission school. I attended five years, 
sometimes day school and sometilnes night school, as circumstances i)ermitted, 
being larg;ply dependent upon myself for support. I often had to hire out to earn 
money with wliich to purchase books and clothes, but when I hired out in the day 
I attended school at night. I taught school 1871-72. Was paying and collecting 
teller in A^icksbnrg branch of the Freedman's Savings Bank \873-lS75. Taught 
school 1875-76. Entered preparatory department of Oberlin September, 1876; 
admitted to college 1879. Matriculated at Dennison University in 1880, gTaduat- 
ing in 1884. Though a slave I always had love for books and craved learning, in 
which I was much stimulated by mother, who, though unable to render me any 
financial assistance, gave all moral and prayerful help." 

" Father was in good circximstances, so my opportunities for atlvancement were 
as fair as those of the average colored boy. I attended the pubHc school of my 
native town -antil 17 years of age, then I went to Straight University, New Orleans, 
La., graduating from the classical course in 1881. My home surroundings were 
favorable to success. I had an excellent father, who is still living; my mother, 
whose memory l can not too greatly reverence, has been dead for many years. 
Their teachings, example, and influence have molded my character. Whatever 
success I have had I owe to them." 



202 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1901-1902. 

Women. 

"I was 'born on a farm in Ohio, and lived there until I was 16. My father 
died when I was 12 and I had to provide for myself. At the age of 16 I tanght a 
country school and saved $100. With this I went to Oberlin, and went through 
by teaching and working. ' ' 

' ' I am an African Methodist preacher's daughter, and from my 10th until my 
15th year we were continnally traveling over the State. Finally we came to 
Atlanta, where I stayed till I finished school." 

"Lived a short time in Virginia, some time in Ohio, but principally in Miasonri. 
Attended pnbllc schools in Macon, Mo., nntil the age of 15, when I went to Lin- 
coln Institute for one year and Oberlin for five years." 

" Was born and schooled in Philadelphia during the dark days of slavery. Was 
intimately associated with the work of the ' underground railroad ' and the anti- 
slavery society. I was sent to Oberlin in 1864." 

"My early life was spent at my home at Shoreham, Yt., where I attended 
!N"ewton Academy. In the fall of 1891 I entered Mr. Moody's school at North- 
field, Mass., graduating as president of my class. I then entered Middlebury 
College, Vermont." 

" My father v/as route agent between Norfolk and Lynchburg. Va. Both of 
my parents had som.e education a,nd were careful to send their children to school. 
I started in the public schools at 7. " 

"■' I went to school at Ivionroe, Mich., until a female seminary was opened there 
from which colored children were barred. I then went to Oberlin." 

" My father was a Creole and my mother a free negro woman. We moved from 
Mobile, Ala. , to Wilberforce, Ohio, where I was reared. My parents were devoted 
Christians and were blessed with the comforts of life. My father had a fine 
collection of books." 

"At a very early age I assumed the responsibility of housekeeper, as my mother 
died and I was the oldest of a family of five; hence I labored under many disad- 
vantages in attending school, but nevertheless I performed my household duties, 
persevered with my studies, and now I feel that I have been rewarded." 

' ' My mother and I ' took in ' washing for our support and to enable me to get 
an education. After finishing the public schools of Jacksonville, 111., I was sup- 
ported four years in college by a scholarship. -" 

' ' My early life was spent in Darlington, S. C. I did not attend the public school 
until I was a large girl, but was taught at home, first by my naother, then by a 
private teacher. When the public school was graded, in 1889, 1 entered the high- 
school course." 

' ' While a schoolgirl I taught persons living out in service , going into the premises 
of some of the most i:)rominent white i)eople in New Orleans. I always kept a large 
class of night pxipils at the same time. I paid my tuition out of these earnings." 

i OCCUPATIONS. 

The most interesting question, and in many respects the crucial question to be 
a,sked concerning college-bred negroes is: Do they earn a living? It has been 
intimated more than once that the higher training of negroes has resulted in 
sending into the world of work men who can find nothing to do suitable to their 
talents. Now and then there comes a rumor of a colored college man working at 
menial service, etc. Fortimately the returns as to occupations of college-bred 
negroes are quite full — nearly 60 per cent of the total number of graduates. 

This enables us to reach fairly probable conclusions as to the occupations of 
college-bred negroes. Of 1,312 x)ersons reporting there were: 

Per cent. 

Teachers 53. 4 

Clergymen 16. 8 

Physicians, etc 6.3 

Students 5.6 

Lawyers 4.7 

In Government service 4 

In business 3.6 

Farmers and artisans 3-7 

Editors, secretaries and clerks , 2.4 

Miscellaneous =.^- 5 



THE COLLEGE-BRED NEGRO. 



203 



Over half are teachers, a sixth are x>reachers. another sixth are sttidents and 
professional men; over 6 per cent are fanners, artisans, and merchants, and 4 per 
cent are in Government service. 

These fignres illustrate vividly the function of the college-bred negro. He is, as 
he ought to be. the group leader, the man who sets the ideals of the community 
where he lives, directs its thought, and heads its social movements. It need hardly 
be argued that the negro people need social leadership more than most groups. 
They have no traditions to fall back upon, no long-established customs, no strong 
family ties, no well-defined social classes. All these things must be slowly and 
painfully evolved. The preacher was even before the war the group leader of the 
negroes, and the church their greatest social institution." Naturally this preaclier 
was ignorant and often immoral, and the problem of replacing the older type by 
better educated men has been a difficiilt one. Both by direct work and by indirect 
influence on other preachers and on congregations the college-bred preacher has 
an opportunity for reformatory work and moral inspiration the value of which 
can not be overestimated. The report of tlie Atlanta conference on '" Some efforts 
of American negroes for their owm social betterment" shows the character of 
some of this work. 

It has, however, been in the furnishing of teachers that the negro college has 
found its peculiar function. Few persons realize how vast a work, how mighty a 
revolution has lieen thus accomplished. To furnish five millions and more of 
ignorant peojile with teachers of their own race and blood in one generation was 
not only a very difficult undertaking but a very important one, in that it jilaced 
before the eyes of almost eA-ery negro child an attainable ideal. It brought the 
masses of the blacks in contact with modern civilization, made black men the 
leaders of their communities and trainers of the new generation. In this work 
college-bred negroes were first teachers and then teachers of teachers. And here 
it is that the broad culture of college work has been of peculiar value. Knowledge 
of life and its wider meaning has been the point of the negro's deepest ignorance, 
and the sending out of teachers whose training has not been merely for bread- 
wnnning, but also for hiiman culture, has been of inestimable value in the training 
of these men. 

In earlier years the two occupations of preacher and teacher were practically 
the only ones open to the black college graduate. Of later years a larger diversity 
of life among his people has opened new avenues of employment. The following 
statistics of occupations according to the year of graduation illustrate this partially: 



Occupation. 


Before 
ISTO. 


1870-1879. 


1880-1884. 


1885-1889. 


1890-1894. 


1895-1898. 


Total. 


Teachers ... 


10 
5 

1 

? 
1 

1 
1 


6.5 

38 

5 


74 

26 

1 

11 


159 

56 

3 

14 


179 

56 

1 

23 


214 
31 

1 

■ 7 


701 


Clergymen 

Editors 

Lawyers _ 

Gunmakers _. 


313 
9 
63 

1 


Miners 











1 


Merchants 


1 
8 

i 
1 

12 

i 
1 
1 
1 

3 


14 
13 


9 
16 


13 
31 

4 


5 


43 


Physicians - 


76 


Drnggists 


4 


Clerks and. secretaries 




1 


5 


11 


23 


Elocutionists 




1 


United States civil service 




8 
5 


15 
2 


13 
6 


6 
1 


50 


Farmers 




36 


Real estate dealers 




4 


Matrons 




1 


2 


Dentists 






1 


1 


3 


Enarineers i 




1 


Missionaries ' 


3 
3 
1 




1 
14 


3 
53 

2 


9 


Students 1 


4 


74 


Printers _ _J i 


3 


City civil service ' 1 


1 




1 


Sta'te civil service '___ ' 


. " ■ 


2 

1 




2 


Librarian 1.. 1 


1 




1 


Tailor 1 1. 


1 


1 
1 
1 
1 


1 


Draftsman 1 1 


1 




1 


Hotel work ^. 1 ..1 . . 


I 




1 


Carpenter 1 1 . 


":: 1 """"I 


1 












" 





A study of present and previous occupation gives a still deeper insight into the 
problem of work. For instance, the following number of person^ have never had 
but one occupation; they began as teachers and are still teaching, or as preachers 
and are still preaching: 



aCf. The New World, December, 1900, article on " Religion of American negro.' 



204 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1901-1902. 



Persons who have never changed occu2)ation. 



Teachers 315 

Clergymen 106 

Lawyers 26 

Physicians . 24 

Students 15 

Farmers 7 

In business 7 



Editors 3 

Artisans 3 

United States civil service 3 

Clerks and secretaries 3 

Dentists 2 

Hotel work 1 



Let lis now add to these such persons as have changed occupations once. In the 
following table the period of study necessary in preparing for a profession is not 
considered a different occupation. 

Previous and present occupations of persons who have had but tivo successive 
occupations. {Showing also persons who have had hut one occupation. ) 





Previous occupation. 


Present occupation. 


Teach- 
ers. 


Clergy- 
men. 


Stu- 
dents. 


Farm- 
ers. 


Clerks 
and 
secre- 
taries. 


In busi- 
ness. 


United 
States 
civil 
serv- 
ice. 


Physi- 
cians. 


Lawyers 


11 

(315) 
7 
5 
4 
26 
2 
9 








1 
7 


2 
9 

(7) 


1 
13 


1 


Teachers 


18 




6 






1 
1 

(106) 


1 


""""(7) 


(3) 
.. 

1 
1 






Farmers 


1 


1 
1 






1 









i 

1 




(24) 












Students 


7 
12 


2 
1 


(15) 
1 
1 
1 


.- 


i 


3 

(3) 
















Editors 


1 
3 






1 










1 




















Changed work 


87 
315 


23 
106 


5 
15 


7 
7 


12 
3 


14 

7 


17 


1 




34 






- Total . .'.... . 


402 


129 


20 


„ 


15 


31 


20 


25 








Previous occupation. 


Total 


Present occupation. 


Law- 
yers. 


Edi- 
tors. 


United 
States 
Army. 


Den- 
tists. 


Arti- 
sans. 


Ma- 
tron. 


Menial 
work. 


ber 
report- 
ing. 




(26) 












1 
1 

1 


43 


Teachers 


2 


1 




3 


1 


378 


In business 


15 


Dentists 








(3) 






2 


Clerks and secretaries 


2 
1 






1 




1 


14 








15 


Clergymen 


1 












ia5 


Eeal estate agents 














4 


Physicians ... 














1 


36 
















1 


Students 














1 


28 


United States civil service 














18 


















1 


Editors 




(3) 












5 










(3) 




(i) 


6 












1 


















Changed work ._ .. . 


7 
26 


3 
3 


1 


§■ 


3 
3 


1 


6 

1 


187 




515 






Total . . 


33 


6 


1 


2 


6 


1 


7 


703 







Many interesting things may be noted in the above table. For instance, 43 
lawyers report; of these, 26 started on a law course immediately after graduation, 
finished it, went to practicing, and are still engaged in that work; 11 taught 
before reading law, 2 were in business, and 4 in other employments, from which 



THE COLLEGE-BRED NEGRO. 205 

they turned to law. There are reservations to be made, of conrse, in interpreting 
these figures; some persons report a few months of teaching as a " previous occu- 
pation," while others ignore it; some have not changed occupations, because being 
young graduates they have not given their present vocation a sufficient trial. 
Nevertheless, with care in using, the table has much to teach. We find that the 
profession of teaching is a stepping stone to other work; 87 persons were at first 
teachers and then changed, 11 becoming lawyei-s, 7 going into business, 26 enter- 
ing the ministry, 12 entering the United States civil service, etc. Seven have at 
various times engaged in menial work, usually as porters, waiters, and the like, 
but all but one man working in a hotel have done this only temporarily. It is 
quite possible that others who are engaged in such work have on this ac-coimt 
sent in no reports. We see in this way that of 700 college-bred men over 500 have 
immediately on graduation found work at which they are still employed. Less 
than 200 have turned from a first occupation to a second before finding apparently 
permanent employment. 

Making all allowances for the gaps in these statistics and some bias on the part 
of those reporting, it seems fair to conclude that the majority of college-bred men 
find work quickly, make few changes, and stick to their undertakings. That 
there are many exceptions to this rule is probable, but the testimony of observers, 
together with these figures, makes the above statement approximately true. 

ORADUATES OF A SINGLE TYPICAL COLLEOE. 

It might be well here to turn from the more general figures to the graduates of 
a single representative institution. A graduate of Dartmouth College who has 
been in the work of educating negro youth for over thirty years writes as follows 
in a small publication which gives the record of Atlanta University graduates, 
including the class of 1899: 

* ' This leaflet covers an experienc-e of about a quarter of a century of graduating 
classes. It will tell of the work of only the graduates of Atlanta University, all 
of whom have been kept under the watchful eye of their alma mater. It would 
be difficult to trace the careers of the thousands of others who did not graduate 
but who have attended the institution for a longer or shorter period, although 
many of them are known to have made good use of their meager attainments and 
some are occupjTng prominent positions. If it were asked why no larger per- 
centage of the students have obtained diplomas or certificates of graduation a 
sufficient answer would be found in the one word, ' jpoverty.' Their parents have 
been too poor to spare them fi-om home or to pay their expenses at school and 
they themselves have been utterly unable to fmd any employment sufficiently 
remunerative to permit them to keep on and graduate within a reasonable limit 
in time. Probably the world can not show instances of greater sacrifices by par- 
ents or greater pluck, persistency, and self -denial of students than are to be found 
among the patrons and pupils of Atlanta University. 

"While the 94 graduates from the college department represent only a small 
portion of the work done by the university, they represent a very important part 
of that work, as will be e^ddent from a statement of the jKtsitions they occupy and 
the work they are doing. 

" Of these 94 graduates 12 have died, and it seems to the writer of this leaflet as 
rather remarkable that only 1 has died during the four years since a similar leaflet 
was written. Of the 82 now living 11 are ministers, 4 are physicians, 2 are law- 
yers, 1 is a dentist, 43 are teachers, 1 is a theological student, 1 is studying at 
Harvard University and another at the University of Pennsylvania, 10 are in the 
service of the United States, 6 in other kinds of business, and 2 are unemployed. 

' ' Three of the ministers are pastors of Ck)ngregationai churches in the cities of 
Chattanooga, Tenn.; Selma, Ala., and Savannah, Ga.; two are pastors of Baptist 
churches in Augusta, Ga., and Charleston, S. C; two of Methodist churches in 
Griffin, Ga., and Portsmouth, Va.; one is chaplain of the Tuskegee Nonnal and 
Industrial Institute and dean of its Bible school; another is secretary of the Inter- 
national Sunday School Convention; another is the general secretary of the Baj)- 
tist negro churches in Georgia, and another is presiding elder of the African 
Methodist Episcopal churches in Sierra Leone, Africa. All the churches named 
are centers of great power and wide influence. Some of these ministers have 
made addi-esses in national and international assemblages, one is a fellow of the 
Royal Geographical Society, and one has had the unique pleasure of being a 
member of the board of education in a large Southern city for eleven successive 
years. 

"Many of the teachers are holding high positions. Eleven are principals of 



206 EDUCATION REPORT, 1901-1902. 

public schools and three of high schools. Others are designated as follows: Pro- 
fessor of Latin and Greek in Clark University, Atlanta, Ga.; teacher of music in 
Savannah, Ga.; president of the State Industrial College of Georgia; principal of 
Howard Normal School, Cuthbert, Ga.; principal of ISTormal School, Oakland, 
Tes.; professor of Greek in Morris Brown College, Atlanta, Ga.: vice-principal of 
N'ormal School, Prairie View, Tex.; principal of Knox Institute, Athens, Ga.; 
superintendent of the industrial department in Biddle University, Charlotte, 
N. C.; professor-of modern languages, history, and pedagogy, and vice-president 
in Lincoln Institute, Jefferson City, Mo.; president of the Florida Baptist College, 
Jacksonville, Fla. ; professor of natural science in the State Normal School, Frank- 
fort, Ky. ; principal of the Georgia Normal and Industrial Institute, Greensboro, 
Ga.; principal of Walker Institute, Augusta, Ga.; superintendent of mechanical 
department of Knox Institute, Athens, Ga.; teacher of science in the J. K. Brick 
Noraial and Agricultural School, Enfield, N. C; assistant s^iperinteudent of the 
mechanical department in Tougaloo University, Tougaloo, Miss. 

" The four physicians are located in Denver, Colo.; St. Joseph, Mo.: Savannah, 
Ga,, and Chicago, 111. All of them were among the very first in their classes in 
the medical schools that they attended. 

" The two lawyers are practicing severally in Boston. Mass., and Augusta, Ga., 
and are successful in their profession. One is a master in chancery by appoint- 
ment of the governor of his State. The one dentist lives in Atlanta and has an 
extensive practice. 

' ' One of these graduates was a lieutenant iii the Army diiring the Spanish war 
and is now a captain of United States Volunteers, serving at Manila. Another 
was paymaster with the rank of major. 

' ' Several of the graduates who are clerks in the United States service in Wash- 
ington have taken a full course in law or medicine. And when it is considered 
that this has required several hours of hard work in the evening after a full day 
at the office, for months and years, one can understand that they have grit and 
perseverance. Then three at least have been mail agents on railroads under four 
successive administrations, and have successfully passed the severe examinations 
required and conquered the violent opposition that has arisen against them from 
various sources. 

' ' The peculiar conditions existing in the South have prevented these graduates 
from becoming prominent in political affairs. Yet one of them has been a mem- 
ber of three successive national Republican conventions and another has repre- 
sented his county in the Georgia legislature, while a third has served two terms 
in the Texas legislature, being elected by the aid of the votes of Southern white 
men in a predominantly white community. * * * His most conspicuous serv- 
ice has been rendered to the negro farmers of bis State. _ This has been done 
through the organization of a farmers' improvement society with many branches, 
whose members are pledged to become landowners, to diversify their crops, to 
improve and beautify their homes, to fight the credit system by biiying only for 
cash on a cooperative plan, and to raise their own supplies so far as possible. The 
fact that he can report to-day 88 branches of his society scattered over the State 
of Texas with 2,310 members, who have bought and largely paid for 43,000 acres 
of land, worth nearly half a million dollars, is a valuable illustration of what one 
negro with high ideals and an earnest purpose can accomplish for the economic 
and material advancement of his race. 

" Several graduates have done considerable newspaper work, and many sermons 
and addresses delivered by them have been published. At least two publications 
have been highly commended by the press. Of President Richard R, Wright's 
Historical Sketch of Negro Education in Georgia the Journal of Education says: 
'And it is just this that makes his story so valuable a.nd forces one to read it 
straight through from beginning to end, which is not the way books and pam- 
phlets ai*e usually read in newspaper offices.' And of Prof. William H. Crog- 
man's Talks for the Times the New York Independent says: ' The author speaks 
for his race and speaks in strong, polished English, full of nerve and rich in the 
music of good English prose.' 

"And these gradiiates are not fickle and unstable, but retain their positions year 
after year, doing faithful, earnest, and patient service. The length of the pastor- 
ates of the ministers has been far above the average, and one of the teachers is 
completing his twenty-fourth year in the same institution. 

" Do not these simple statements impress their own lessons? Should they not 
help to silence the sneers against Latin and Greek and higher education for 
negroes? Could less than a college course have fitted most of these men and 
women so well for the responsible positions they are occupying and the work they 



THE COLLEGE-BRED FEGRO. 207 

are doing as pastors, professors, principals, physicians, editors, teachers, Sunday 
school siiperintendents, home builders, and leaders of their people? If half of 
them had failed to fill the place for which their education ought to have prepared 
them, even then their teachers and friends would not have been disheartened. 
But almost none have failed t(3 meet reasonable expectations. This record of the 
college graduates is ftill of encouragement and inspiration."' 

THE WORK OF TEACHERS. 

A glance at the work done by negro college graduates in different fields can be 
but casual, and yet of some value. The teachers we asked to estimate roughly 
the pupils they had taught. Some answered frankly that they could not, while 
others made a statement, which they said was simply a careful guess. From these 
estimates, we find that 550 teachers reporting think they have taught about 300,000 
children in primary grades and 200.000 in secondary grades. From this we get 
some faint idea of the enoi^mous influen(jp of these TOO teachers and the many 
other college men who have taught for longer or shorter periods. 

OTHER PROFESSIONS. 

Outside the work of teachers, the chief professions followed are the ministry, 
law, and medicine. In most cases a regular professional course is pursued after 
the college course is finished, in order to prepare for the profession. The chief 
theological schools are Biddle, at Charlotte, N. C; Howard, at Washington, D. C; 
Gammon, at Atlanta. Ga.; Straight, at NewOi'leans, La.; Payne, at Wilberforce, 
Ohio; Lincoln, in Pennsylvania, and Union, at Richmond, Va. These institu- 
tions and others have turned out large numliers of ministers, until the supply 
to-day is rather more than the demand, and the number of the students is falling 
off. The work of replacing the ordinary negro preachers by college-bred men will 
go on slowly, but it will require many years and much advance in other lines 
before this work is finished. Some colored men have gone to Northern theolog- 
ical schools, usually to the Hai-tford Theological School, Newton Seminary, and 
Yale University. The leading negro ministers to-day are not usually college-bred 
men; still a large number of the rising ministers are such, and the influence of 
the younger set is widespread. 

There are comparatively few negro law schools, those at Shaw University and 
Howard being practically the only ones. There has been a good deal of contempt 
thrown on the negro lawyer, and he has been regarded as superfluous. Without 
doubt to-day lawyers are not demanded as much as merchants and artisans, and 
they have often degenerated into ward politicians of the most annoying type. At 
the same time there has been a demand for negro lawyers of the better type. The 
negi'oes are ignoi'ant of the forms of law, careless of little matters of procedure, 
and have lost thousands of dollars of hard-earned property by not consulting law- 
yers. In criminal cases in the South, vv^here public opinion would support and 
protect in many cases the innocent but unfortunate white, it would allow the- 
negro to go to the corrupting influence of the chain gang. Such practice a white 
lawyer woiild not care to follow, because of the prejudice of his clients. Where 
public opinion sets strongly against a negro suspect, it is very difficult to get a 
white lawyer to make more than a perfunctory defense, even if convinced 
of the man's innocence. His standing in the community would be seriously jeop- 
ardized if he showed too much zeal. There is. therefore, a distinct place for the 
black lawyer, but one hard to fill, with small and uncertain income in most cases. 
Here and there are exceptions, especially in the North. In Boston, for instance, 
there are four or five colored lawyers who make fair incomes, largely from white 
practice — foreigners, Jews, Italians, and some few Americans. In Chicago there 
are two or three colored lawyers v*ith large incomes, and a host who make a living. 

Some of the reports from lavryers are of interest: 

A Memphis lawyer v/ho has practiced for twenty-five years says: " I can not 
complain of the treatment I have received at the hands of both bench and bar." 

A lawyer of Vicksburg, Miss., says: "• There are two colored lawyers here in bar 
of about fifty. I do not enjoy any considerable white practice, but get my share 
from my race.'" 

A Kentucky lawyer writes: "In my profession I am succeeding fairly well. 
My experience with the whites in all sections is that the white man looks upon 
himself as white and you as black." 

A South Carolina man says: "As a rule white lawyers appear friendly; some 
will associate in cases with colored lawyers. The country white, however, who 



208 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1901-1902. 

sits on the jury is tisually ignorant and prejudiced. When the jury is intelligent 
the chances are better. I am doing fairly well." 

A very successful Tennessee lawyer reports his collections in 1899 as amounting 
to over $4,000. 

A Nashville lawyer writes: ' ' I Imow of no special success attending my practice. 
I am making a living out of it." 

A North Carolina practitioner say»: " I handle real estate for both white and 
colored. I have a paying practice in all State courts. My clients are all colored." 

From the North the character of the replies differs somewhat. " My practice is 
largely amongst the whites," says a Minnesota lawyer. From Chicago come several 
reports: "As a lawyer of six years' practice here, I have no reason to complain. 
My clients are about evenly divided between the two races. " "In my practice as 
a lawyer for the past seven years I have done general law practice. Nine-tenths 
of my patronage from point of emolument has been and is from white clientage. 
I do considerable business for Irish people, a few Germans, many Poles and 
Bohemians, and many of English desqgnt." "My clients are nearly all white. 
When people here want a lawyer, they want a man that can do their work, and 
they don't consider the color of his skin." 

From Buffalo, N. Y., a lawyer wiites: " My practice has not yet assumed pro- 
portions sufficiently extensive or varied to warrant m.e in making deductions upon 
present success. I can see no reason, however, why a colored man of high char- 
acter and the requisite qualifications should not succeed in the practice of law. 
Of the white man's skeptical attitude toward the professional negro's ability and 
training one has frequent experiences at once amusing and disgusting." 

Another writes: " My experience as a lawyer in Buffalo has been pleasant, and 
in my intercourse with the lawyers, almost exclusively white, I have had no cause 
for complaint, being apparently respected by bench and bar. I have been success- 
ful in winning cases, but have had less success in collecting fees." 

A Minnesota lawyer, graduated in law in 1894: " Was appointed clerk of crim- 
inal court, and resigned December 21, 1898, to serve as a member of the Minnesota 
house of representatives. Am still a member, and have been practicing law. The 
district I represent — the Forty-second — is an entirely white district. I led the 
Republican ticket by 690 votes." 

A Cleveland, Ohio, lawyer says: " My practice is increasing." 

An Omaha, Nebr., lawyer says: " My practice has been mixed both as to kind 
of cases and classes of people. ' ' 

A Boston lav/yer, who is common councilman of Cambridge from a white ward, 
reports "fair success." 

Another Boston lawyer has been alderman of Cambridge for several years. 

A Philadelphia lawyer says: " My practice is largely confined to Jews. The 
better class of negroes is not so likely to patronize me as the whites are." 

The chief negro medical schools are Meharry, at Nashville, Tenn.; Leonard, at 
Raleigh, N. C; Howard, at Washington, D. C; Knoxville, at Knoxville, Tenn., 
and New Orleans, at New Orleans, La. These institutions have done remarkable 
work in sending out colored physicians. Their standard is lower than the great 
Northern schools, but in most cases the work seems honestly done and the gradu- 
ates successful. Negroes have also graduated at the Harvard Medical School, 
the Medical School of the University of Pennsylvania, and other Northern insti- 
tutions. The rise of the negro physician has been sudden and significant. Ten 
years ago few negro families thought of employing a negro as a physician. To-day 
few employ any other kind. By pluck and desert black men have cleared here a 
large field of usefulness . Moreover , in this profession far more than in the minis try 
and in the law the professional standard has been kept high. The college-bred 
physician has had quacks and root doctors to contend with, but to no such extent 
did they hold and dominate the field as was the case in the churches and criminal 
courts. The resiilt is to-day that there is scarcely a sizable city in the United 
States where it is not possible to secure the services of a v/ell- trained negro physi- 
cian of skill and experience. The Freedmen's Hospital, of Washington, has made 
an extremely good record in the difficult operations performed, general efficiency, 
and training of nurses. Hospitals have grown up in various cities under colored 
medical men, notably in Chicago, Charleston, and Philadelphia. There are State 
medical associations in Oeoxgia, South Carolina, Tennessee, and several other 

The testimony of physicians themselves is usually hopeful. From the North a 
report from Newark, N. J., says: " I am and have been medical representative on 
our grand jury. Two-thirds of my practice is among whites. I run a drug store 
in connection mth my practice." 



THE COLLEGE-BRED NEGRO. ' 209^ 

From New York City: "At first I fotincT the whites very backward in dealing 
with me, but success in several emergency cases gave me some rejiutation. Now 
my practice is about equally divided among black and white." 

Another from New York City says his practice amounts to about $10,000 a year, 
and he actually collects about half of that. About a third of his patients are 
white. 

From Philadelphia one rei)orts a large practice, chiefly among blacks and in the 
colored hospital. One colored physician is connected with a large white hospitaL 
A lady physician from the same city reports " marked courtesy and respect on the 
part of all." 

From the "West a Chicago physician says: " I have been quite successful in the= 
short time I have been practicing. About one-half of my patients are white." 
• Another Chicago physician represented the State of Illinois at the Associatiort 
of Military Surgeons of the United States. 

From Minnesota one writes: " I am succeeding in the practice of medicine in a. 
city whose negro population is very small." 

From Denver it is reported that a negro was the first chief medical inspector of 
the Denver health office, and he was also State sanitary officer. He has a large 
practice. 

From the border States a Tennessee doctor reports: " I have succeeded in build- 
ing up a good practice here among my own people. No missionary ever had a- 
better field for useful labor. ' ' 

A man who ranked his class at the Harvard Medical School reports a practice- 
between $3,000 and $4,000 a year. " I am fully succassful as a practitioner and 
surgeon, and I belieA'e I enjoy the confidence of a large number of people." 

From Missouri a report says: " I meet with most of the best white physicians^ 
in consultation, and they treat me with coiu-tesy." 

From Kentucky a young physician reports: " I am located in a town of 12,000» 
inhabitants, one-third of whom are colored, and am thoroughly convinced that 
there is a great field here in the South for the educated young colored man. As 
a physician I am well received by my white professional brother. We ride in the 
same buggy, consult together, and read ejich other's books. I have a few white 
patients, but most of them are colored. I have purchased property on one of our 
best residence streets, and also a business house on the main street of our town."' 

A 'rejiort from Baltimore, Md., reads: "As a physician I find my practice a 
paying one." 

From the heart of the South come many interesting reports. A North Carolina, 
man says: " I have a fair practice for the length of time I have been at work.. 
My intercourse with the, white members of my profession is cordial along profes- 
sional lines. I seek no others." 

Another North Carolina physician " has treated more than 40,000 patients with:, 
reasonable success." He is now condiicting a sanitarium for consumptives. 

A colored man of Savannt h, Ga., has been one of the city physicians for niore 
than five years. '* I have treated no less than 25,000 patients, including several 
hundred whites." 

A Columbia, S. C, practitioner is often "called upon by white physicians to- 
consult with them in medical cases and assist in surgical cases in their practice^ 
I have an extensive and paying practice among my own people and a considerable 
practice among the poorer classes of the white people." 

Another North Carolina physician has been tisually invited to attend the white- 
State medical society meetings. 

On the other hand an Arkansas doctor says: " I have experienced some prejudice' 
among my white friends. We do not have much to do with each other as 
physicians." 

Still another Arkansas man reports that he ' * has had a half interest in some of 
the real major surgical ox)erations done in this city. I have a large field and ant 
often called to see patients at a distance of 20 and 30 mUes." 

In Macon, Miss., an unusually successful doctor says: "My practice here is' 
very large and among both colored and white. Before I settled here no one had 
heard of a ' colored doctor.' The history of my parents, who had always lived here,, 
helped to establish me. I have had white people come here from a distance and . 
board here to get my treatment. ' ' 

No thoughtful man can deny that the work of negro professional men as thus' 
indicated has been, and still is, of immense advantage in the social uplift of the- 
negro. There have of course been numerous failures, and there has been a tend- 
ency to oversupply the demand for ministers and lawyers. This is natural and isi 

ED 1902 14 



210 



ED.¥CATIO]S' BEPO.Il,T, 1901-19G2. 



not a racial peculiarity, nor indeed is it chargeable to tke Mglier edTication of tlie 
negro. It was the natural and inevitable rebonnd of a race of menials grEinted 
now for the first time some freedom of economic choice. In the ministry this 
natural attraction was made doubly strong by the social prominence- of the negro 
church, and by the undue ease with which theological students can get their tra,in- 
ing all over the land. ISTevertheless, granting all the evils arising from some over- 
crowding of the professions, the good accomplished by well-trained ministers, 
business-ldlse lawyers, and sMILed physicians, has far outbalanced it. 

OWNERSHIP OF PROPERTY. 

It is very difficult to collect reliable statistics of propei-ty which are not based 
on actual records. It was not ad_-\dsable, therefore, to ask those to Vv^hom reports^ 
were sent the amount of property they were worth, for v»dth the best of motives 
on the_ part of those answering the resulting figures "vvould be largely estimates 
and personal opinion. One kind of property, however, is least of all liable to be 
unknown to persons or to be exaggerated in honest reports, and that is real estate. 
Each college-bred negro, was asked,. tliei*ef ore, to state the assessed value of the 
real estate owned by him. The following table was the resiilt of 557 answers: 

Assessed valve of I'eal estate. 



Under SIOO... 

§100 to §300 

S20O:toS3OO. 

§300 to §400 

§400 to §500. ,..- 

§500to§7.50 - 

§750 to §1,000- 

§1,000 to §3, 000 

§2.000 to §3,000 

§3^000 to §4,000 

§4,000 to §66,000 



N timber. 



15- 
10 
5 

68 
28 
129 
73 
42- 
18 



Actual 
amount. 



§150. .50 

410. m 

2,035.00 

4, 810. 00 

1,625.01 

31,400.00 

23,375.00 

163, 230. 00 

1.5B, 400.00 

239,887.00 

83, 600. 00 



§5,000 to §6,(»0 

§b, 000 to §7,000 

.S7,000 to §8,000. 

§8,000 to §10,.000- 

§10,000 to iS15,000 

§15,000 to §20,000 

.§20,000 to §25,(M) 

Own no real estate 



Number 



Total _. 

Average per individual.. 



Actual 
amount. 



§182,275.00 
75, .540; 00 
56,500.00 
79; 37,5. GO 
161, 030.00 
71, .550. 00 
21, 700. 00 



1,342,862.50 
•2,411.00 



With regard to the 85 who are tabulated as owniing no real estate, it is not cer- 
tain that in all cases this is a fact, or that some of them may not have had prop- 
erty which they did not wish to report. There is no way of knowing, of course, 
how far these 557 persons are representative of the 2,331 negro gradtiates. All 
things considered, however,, this is probably an understatement of the i>roperty 
held; for while many of those not reporting held no property, yet most of those 
who did report represent the more recent graduates, who have just begun to 
accumulate,, while numbers of the other graduates with considerable property 
could not be reached. Some who are known to own property did not report it. 
It is therefore a conservative statement to say that college-bred negroes in the 
United States own on an average $3,400 worth of real estate, assessed value. If 
the assessed value is two- thirds of the real value in most ca,ses, this represents 
$3,600 worth of property, raarket value. To this must be added the worth of all 
personal property, so that the average accumulations of this class may average 
$5,000 each, or $10,000,000 for the group. Such figures are, of course, mere esti- 
mates, but in the light of the testimony they a,re XJlausible. 



THE FUTURE OF THE NEGRO. 

Among the most interesting of the answers received were those given to the 
questions: "Are you hopeful for the future of the negro in this country?" "Have 
you any suggestions?" Of 733 answers received, 641 were hopeful. 40 were doubt- 
ful, and 52 Avere not hopeful. Two hundred and seventy-six persons simply 
answered ' ' Hopeful. ' ' 

Others who were hopeful made the following- suggestions as to the best methods 
and ways of advance: One hundred and twenty-five, "College and industrial 
training;" 49, "Accumulate land and wealth;" 47, "Better trained leaders;" 34, 
' ' More unity among ourselves ; " 28 , " The way seems dark ; " 17 . " A more friendly 
feeling between the races;" 11, "Parents and women hold the keys to success:" 
10, "America is our home; stay here and work out the problem;" 8, " Better sex- 
ual morals;" 8, " Keep out of politics;" 7, "Eventually some must emigrate;" 6, 



THE COLLEGE-BEED NEGEO. 211 

"Learn economy;'' 4. "The negro will never rule, Imt will gradually gain his 
rights:" 1. " Emigi-ation talk should be stopped." 

Of persons who said simply " Not hopeful " there were 49. Others who were 
not hopeful or doubtful said: Nine. " They must raigrate;" 6, " Fight for morals, 
industry, and higher education:" 5, " Little chance for the masses; Certain indi- 
vidiials will survive;" 4, "Do not accumulate means;" 3, "The industrial craze 
must be stoi:)ped;" 2, " Prejudice has gone to the North;" 2, " He must enter the 
commercial world;" 1, " Tendencies of the youth to crime." 

The different points of \ievr can best be appreciated by reading the following 
extracts: 

" I am hopeful of the negro. The changes in a rapidly developing country like 
onrs will afford many opportunities for the advancement of the negro; let him 
acquire the keenness of vision to see them and have the good sense to embrace 
them; let him seize every opportunity to put any community or the country at 
large under obligations to him for some manly ser-vice, regardless of how he is 
treated now. These obligations will be paid, if not in this, in the next genera- 
tion. Problems will do good. Every theory presented by his opponents can be 
shattered by facts, facts, facts. There is no way in the world to deprive him long 
of a vote. It is very dark for him now. I think ignorance is making it harder 
for him than it would otherwise he. Not simply a want of knowledge of letters, 
but a general deficiency in everything necessary for well-being." 

" Yes. but it is only in proportion as the negro is socially, commerciallj', and 
politically oppressed hy the white people. In other words, under existing circum- 
stances, I count oppression a blessing." 

" Sometimes I am hopeful, sometimes I am not. In this part of the country 
negroes do not seem to embrace opportunities. Too much talent is wasted in 
politics and in office holding." 

" I have always heretofore lived North and have not known the real condition of 
my people South. While I think I may say I am hoi>eful, yet as I see the condi- 
tions here I sometimes tliink that it is the progress rather than our lack of prog- 
ress that is causing the continued friction between the races." 

" While I am hopeful of the future of the negi-o in this country, I realize that 
he is now passing through the most crucial period of his existence here, if we 
except his condition in slavery. The sympathy of the North is being largely with- 
drawn from him and the South I believe to Ije growing more antagonistic to his 
progress and self-respect as a citizen. I would suggest a college education for the 
few exceptionally bright and industrial training for the majority of the negro 
youths. ■ ' 

" His future depends upon his own self-i'espect and thrift." 

" Despite hindrances, too many opportunities are opened and oi5eningfor us for 
it to be possible to despair. The work of sclioolhouses and churches, of such 
organizations as you represent, means a brighter day. The greatest need of our 
people, as I can see it, is parents. We need, need sadly, fathers and mothers who 
realize the full importance of the training of the children sent to them. Every 
home that has a cultivated, womanly mother and a manly, intelligent father is a 
source of strength and jiower. God grant that such homes may increase." 

' ' This coimtry offers the negro the brightest f iiture of any in the world. He 
will and must succeed." 

"Present oppression, suppression, and misrepresentation must give place to a 
sentiment of fairness and fair play. We must expedite its coming by developing 
a ministry that will study and comprehend the moral needs of the race and teach 
accordingly. Parents must be awakened to a sense of their duty as parents — the 
trend of the youth toward the vices must be checked. I am not in sympathy with 
those who say that the negro should eschew politics to the extent of neglecting to 
exercise his fi-anchise." 

''" The negro must know that he must rid himself of obnoxious characteristics, 
save money, acquire property, learn trades, and become moral. The leading men 
among us must have sense enough to denounce the rapist as well as the lynchers." 

' ' Guard well the sanctity of the home. Make a home, beautify it, make it pure, 
protect it, defend it, die by it. If the youths of our race were sent out from pure, 
happy, well-regulated homes, half the battle would be fought to begin with." 



212 EDFCATION REPORT, 1901-1902. 

" In spite of conditions, apparently inanspicions, I am snfficiently optimistic to 
be hopeful of the f titure of the American negro. I consider the ostracism — polit- 
ical, social, industrial, etc. — to vrhich he is subjected to be a training school out 
of which he will emerge a united race and, as a necessary concomitant, invincible. 
The key to the situation is the fostering of the spirit of race pride and the forma- 
tion of ideals necessary to be realized and possible of realization." 

' ' I think the strong caste prejudice in certain sections will lessen as those sec- 
tions become less provincial and more cosmopolitan. " 

" I find that the negro's ignorance, superstition, vice, and poverty do not dis- 
turb and unnerve his enemies so much as his rapid strides upward and onward." 

" I would like to see a restricted ballot fairly applied; I believe the negro would 
be the greater gainer." 

"I suggest that one-tenth of his external religious energy t-e applied to the 
accumulation of homes and desirable lands." 

' ' The future of the negro depends upon his making himself felt as a race. Not 
by force, but by intelligence and wealth. Also, I would add that our colored 
lawyers have much to do, for through them we are to get our legal rights." 

" When we look at the masses of our people and see on the one hand ignorance 
and on the other careless indifference, it is difl&cult to feel very hopeful for the 
future. We see so many of our young people who seem to have no thought of 
the future, no ideas beyond haviiig a good time in the present, who seena able to 
have no enthusiasm over anything higher than a ball or like entei'tainment. They 
can not be brought to take interest in any measure that will benefit us as a 
people." 

"Patience, character, time. I believe the negro will have to build up a gov- 
ernment of his own somewhere." 

" A good many of our young men and ladies, after they have gone to college, 
think that manual labor is not for them to do. When we get more real estate we 
can open stores and other places of business and employ the college-bred negro." 

" Money, money, money, is what he needs." 

" The negro should engage in business, have his own stores, dry goods, drugs, 
groceries, banks, his own professional men; and make naorality and education 
the basis of worth." 

" I would suggest that we accumulate more property, get homes, and that those 
who have homes invest their money in negro enterprises." 

"I am very hopeful. All of the older races have -risen and fallen; the white 
race is at its zenith and of necessitj^ will fall and the negro take its place." 

" I am indeed hopeful for our future, and not only in this country but here in 
the South. Daily I ride through thousands of acres of land owned by negroes in 
Mississippi. They are happy and prospering. Let us fear God, treat our white 
neighbor with courtesy, save money and educate our children, and the close of 
the twentieth century will find us a great and prosperous peoj)ie." 

"For the remote future I am hopeful; but a triumph v/hich is to come only 
' after the silence of the centuries ' holds out little to those of the present age; 
and still there is some pleasure in planting trees for future generations." 

" I have never seen any good or sensible reason to despair of the future of our 
people in this country, though I must admit the outlook at times is anything but 
hopeful. I can not escape the conclusion that it would have been better for the 
race in the long run had a Territory or Territories been set apart for it. His 
progress would certainly have been more apparent. As it now is he is over- 
shadowed by the white race. The negro may eventually reach his best here and 
will doubtless, but it will be a long while yet." 

"I am hopeful for individual members of the race, but for the race as a whole 
I am not. I am in favor of expatriation." 

" I would suggest that our leading men do less talking on the negro question 
as such. Much talking means much concession, and much concession means less 
opportunity." 

' ' More should turn their attention to business and fewer enter the professions 
of teaching or preaching. ' ' 



THE COLLEGE-BRED NEGEO. 213 

"As a race, no; as individuals, yes. Class legislation, sncli as * Jim Crow cars,' 
disfranchisement, and other kindred evils, is slowly undermining the manhood 
of the race. The negro begins to think that he is in all respects inferior to all 
other people." 

"I believe that the wheels of progress never glide backward. How fast the 
advancement of the negro will be is left to his control. I believe in union of 
negroes — that they should stand together in all things, and that their inherent 
prejudice should be turned from each other and directed toward those who hate 
them." 

'' Suppress the so-called political leaders among us and send those who incite to 
deeds of violence to the Transvaal, and the period of right living and right thinfi:- 
ing which must come will be hastened. ' ' 

' ' Those of us who are getting out of the wilderness and mire of ignorance and 
degradation must help those who will not or can not help themselves." 

" Why should I not be hopeful? The abandonment of the priesthood of a race 
has always been attended with disasters. Let the negro stick to his church in 
the service of God. Be honest, honorable, peaceable, make and save money, 
educate his children as highly as he can afford to, attend to his own business, and 
let white people settle their ovsm quarrels." 

' ' I suggest that religious and educational work should be done on the missionary 
plan in the lanes and quarters where the lowest and most vicious negroes live. 
Negro churches are not practical enough in their work. Religion is too often 
mistaken for piety. Our educated young people are too high above the masses to 
help them. Let them personally help in the moral uplift of the criminal classes, 
and especially their children. Industrial training should be advocated for the 
masses, but higher education should not be discouraged v/hen the means and 
ability are sufiScient. 

" I believe that ultimately, just as the Pilgrim Fathers left England to escape 
persecution, so the negro will have to leave this country to escape color persecu- 
tion. It is also necessary for him to leave this country to gain racial independ- 
ence. As long as the negro is carried alx)ut in the lap of the superior race as an 
infant in 'swaddling clothes,' which he is, or as long as he permits any other 
people to assign to him a place he does not like, or which he has not carved out 
for himself, or which he is unable to maintain, so long will he continue to remain 
helpless and despised. There are plenty of countries in the Tropics where the 
thrifty negro may go, and where by patient and earnest toil he might lay the 
foundation of a government which would be free from color persecution and 
which would be attra-ctive to future generations of American negroes." 

'• I am hopeful, though it is dark just now and the woi;ld seems to be against 
us. God is just and will lead us through the cloud in His time. The people 
should be urged to buy land, get homes, educate their children, save their money, 
live honestly, and stick together — that is, love our race better than any other." 

' ' The abiindance of ignorance and poverty among our people is the general 
hindrance." 

" I would suggest that we be honest with ourselves, not try to lay the blame 
upon some one else; stop whining and try by individual effort and accomplish- 
ment to prove our claim and right to American citizenship." 

" My suggestion is that he make good use of the opportunities at hand; develop 
that which is best in himself. Don't strive to be other jjeople, but make himself 
the equal, and if possible the superior, of other people." 

" When I look back to the jwint from which the negro started, the distance he 
has already come, and the achievements he has made through adverse circum- 
stances, all this is to me but dim prophecy of future possibilities, and therefore I 
can see no reason for despair, though the night be dark and the storm rage." 

"I have the most profound confidence in the future of the negro; but there is 
need, first, of a greater dissemination of knowledge among the masses; second, 
more attention given to real character building; third, facts creditable to the 
negro made known; fourth, falsehoods answered and publicly exposed; fifth, 
immoral and weakening habits rebuked, and Judases among negroes denounced. " 



214 EDUCATION REPORT, 1901-1902. 

" If the white people were more disposed to reason on the race question from 
the negTo"s standpoint, and the colored people were also more disposed to reason 
on the question from the white man's standpoint, there would be good ground for 
being more hopeful." 

" I was hopeful until 1 went to Alabama." 

"If the fullest glow of warmth and glare of light possible to American life 
would be afforded him he would eome to the light and walk in the light, biat 
with a flaming sword at every gate he can not progress. Without a radical and 
early change in the general judgment and treatment of the negro the first half of 
the twentieth century will place him in a position more inextricable and more 
hopeless than Ms enslavement." 

' ' I am. sorry to say that the future for the negro in this country looks very dark 
to me, and the more I come in contact with the masses of the people, especially 
our people, the more confirmed becomes my opinion." 

"Am much afraid of the bad influence of so-called leaders who lack the moral 
stamina, and often have large influence with the masses. They work on their 
prejudice, and appeal to their instincts. In place of noisy ' leagu.es,' 'conven- 
tions,' and showy resolutions and talk, only talk, more solid, honest, modest work 
among us would wonderfully help. Our leadership is often superficial in char- 
acter, sentimental, insincere. We are often discredited among better classes of 
other ra,ces because we fail to discriminate on lines of character." 

"In a manner, yes. He is a sluggish, lazy creature, however, and must be 
driven either by necessity or some other master, or he will not accomplish much. 
They need competent leadership, especially in the pulpit, from which point most 
of them may be reached. Too many of their ministers are mercenary politicians 
entirely lacking in character. ' ' 

"Very hopeful. The work lies mainly in the hands of teachers and ministers. 
They must insist upon neatness, cleanliness, good, orderly homes, refinement, 
quiet manners in all public places. Teach boys and girls to establish an ever- 
increasing bank account. Every family should have at least one good newspaper 
and family magazine." 

"No, there is no future here for the negro but peonage. A few of the quad- 
roons will lift themselves out of the slough of oppression and go to the English 
colonies. The mass will go lower and lower to the dead level of mere existence. 
Tlie reasons for this are the terrible combination of odds against the negro and his 
own qualities." 

"A few years ago I had great hope that the depressing conditions which existed 
then could not last long, but my hopes have about faded. The main reason for this 
is in the fact that prejudice against the colored man has spread from the South to 
the farthest point North. ' ' 

" I am discouraged when I note, particularly in the South, the tendency of our 
young men to immorality, vice, and crime. The saloon and the dice are playing 
terrible havoc with the ' flower ' of the race. I am more hopeful for the young- 
women, as shown by the numbers that a^re being trained in schools and colleges." 

' ' The negro can not be a great race in this country. Let the race learn all the 
trades and professions, and thus be prepared for separation, for ser>aration mtist 
come some time." 

"I am hopeful. I would suggest that the negro leaders, preachers, teachers, 
editors, etc., assemble and have a conservative understanding as to how we shall 
best reach and improve the condition of that class of negroes who are guilty of 
the crimes which are the alleged cause of the confusion in this country. That 
class of negroes who are guilty of confusing this country with heinous crimes is 
a class that never attend church and school, nor do they read a paper." 

" I believe he can prosper here if hell get an education, be honest, and accumu- 
late property. I believe the future of the negro rests with the women. Every 
effort should be made by mothers and schools to raise their morals. I would 
advise young women not to take immoral men as their equals. Mothers should 
teach their daughters that it is better to be alone than in bad company. ' ' 

" Our future looks dark to me. I think colonization out West or in the West 
Indies our only hope." 



THE COLLEGE-BEED NEGEO. 215 

" There is no hope for the negro in America unless pnt to himself. As long as 
he is found with the white people so long will he be their servant. This is clearly 
seen every day. The prejudice is too great. Emigration is the only solution. 
Let him get to himself." 

'■ The negro religion at the present time is a hissing and a reproach. Kipling 
says: ' When the negro gets religion he returns to the first instincts of his 
nature.' We are cartooned to the full extent of the law and many of these car- 
toons have m^^ch truth in them. Purify negro worship. Uncloud the negro's 
God and the church will be the true solvent of the difficulties of the race." 

" I have hope, because we have a Bible. In a heathen country in the midst of 
like conditions I should utterly despair. The American conscience wall some day 
I'espond to the Sermon on the Mount." 

" Tliis is the most favored spot on the globe for any man. I do not recognize 
any demands upon the negro different from those upon every other man of our 
conglomerate civilization and nationality. My suggestion is that we be ourselves 
to the very' fullest and highest." 

" To my mind the future of the negro in this country seems dark. Ten. fifteen, 
and twenty miles from the cities and towns in this State you will find the major- 
ity of our people practically slaves to the landlords. We need a true Moses to 
lead us away." 

" I do not think that the negro will ever reach the height of his ambition in 
this country. I think we should have a territory to ourselves; somewhat like the 
Indians have." 

'• I am not very hopeful of the negi'o as a race. The only suggestion I would 
make is that those of us who haA'e influence do something to stop this indus- 
trial craze. It is popular because many of the whites believe that the theory is 
to educate the negro to be a good servant. The average white man cares little 
for the negro as a man. If he is to be ediicated to take some inferior place the 
whole country applauds." 

" It is a hard question. I fear the negro is degenerating. Our boys and men 
are for the most part lazy around our cities and towns, and the outlook so far as 
they are concerned is gloomy." 

" I think that the physical vitality of the race has been and is still being lowered 
by immorality and the race stock i>ermanently weakened. 

" I am hopeful, but I fear I shall never live to see the better day which is 
assuredly coming. The present negro will have to suffer, sacrifice, work, and die 
for those who will come after us. I think we are too sycophantic. We do not 
agitate enough right here in the South, and we do not avail ourselves as we ought 
of the right of petition to redress our grievances." 

"I write from Oklahoma. This place offers to my mind the best opportunity 
negroes have had in tMs country. The civilization is being built up now and 
negroes have a chance to be in the formation." 

"I think the negro has a fiiture in this country, but they must rise as individ- 
uals and not as a mass. ' ' 

" I fear more from the negro's own misconduct toward himself than I do from 
the outrages of others. I am hopeful, however, of the negro's future." 

" The negro can succeed in this country. One of the jirincipal things against us 
is the boastful spirit in the negro. Let him throw away that spirit and take on 
one of kindness and obedience to law and order, puttirig forth every effort to 
accumulate money and to buy land and other of thfe earth's treasures, he will 
succeed beyond man's estimate." 

" The negro in this country must learn to be a unit, to stop social strife, and, 
above all, to forbid the ignorant to attempt to rule those of their own race who 
are educated and are competent to fill positions of tmst and honor on their merits 
and educational qualifications." 

" Let each negro forge ahead regardless of proscription. Success must come to 
the man who works regardless of obstacles." 

" I am hopeful, yet it will be necessary for us to open the eyes of our people to 
the fact that we are being supplanted by white men. White men are taking 
employment from us. What must be done? We must do something." 



216 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1901-1902. 

"His future is beclouded. He is drifting morally, and unless there be some 
speedy rescue his doom is sealed. The Bible asserts that: 'A man's greatest enemy 
is in his own house; ' so my candid belief is that the negro is the greatest enemy 
of the negro. Confidence must be implanted, that organizations may be per- 
fected for protection and successful enterprise." 

' ' Can you offer a solution for the employm-ent of the great loafing classes? 
These are the ones who cause the enoiinous death rate in our cities. These are 
the ones who commit the crimes chargeable to the negTO race." 

" Not throtigh amalgamation nor deportation — often we console ourselves with 
such delusive hopes — but through much humiliation, many obstacles from within 
and without, much learning and labor, many tears and years to success." 

"I am, provided he will acquire real estate; own something that somebody 
wants; separate and go into different political parties; stop clamoring for places; 
go mate places and occupy them; economize along all lines." 

" Yes, if they can be encouraged to buy farms, and not seek the cities and towns 
unless they have a profession. Give the negro a farm and a plenty to eat and he 
will care but little for the ' Jim Crow ' car. Independence is the best way to keep 
from being oppressed." 

"If we could get the negro to see his own condition, and then be willing to 
strive with all his might to improve even the few opj)ortnnities he has, I am sure 
he would soon come to the front." 

' ' I must be hopeful of a race that has made in one generation the progi^ess that 
we have, and that in competition with the most progressive people on earth." 

" I think through industry, constancy, and self-respect the future of our race 
will be made secure. I am not in sympathy with any colonization schemes." 

"The negro can never enjoy equal civil and equal political rights with the 
white man in this country except through centuries of wars and revolutions sim- 
ilar to those Rome, England, and France esperienoed in securing equal rights to 
their different classes of subjects." 

' ' When we can get our women to see that the future success of the race depends 
on them; when they have a higher standard, when we have purer mothers, wives, 
and daughters, then we shall have better men; then will our race succeed." 

" I hardly know what to say here. If it were intelligence which was demanded 
of the negro I would be hopeful. But I fear it is not that; the prevailing belief 
among the masses of the white people is that the negro is made for all lowly 
work in life, and wherever the negro differs from this belief there is ground for 
trouble." 

"As to the future of my race I am an optimist. I believe that the salvation of 
the negro lies in the regenei-ated South." 

"I entertain hopes, but I am not enthusiastic over them." 

" I am hopeful, yet sometimes I doubt the wisdom of being so." 

" I think the future of the race in this country is indeed uncertain." 

"As a negro, ' no.' As an American citizen, growing important silently under 
persecution, individually catching the prosperity epidemic by contact until m-erit 
forces color in the background, ' yes.' " 

" The chief occupation of the young negroes of this town seems to be as waiters, 
caterers, and the like. Outside of these menial lines I see but little prospect of 
any notable success among them, though if increased ideas of soberness and thrift 
could be made theirs, they might be a more respected and powerful portion of 
this community." 

"I am sanguine. The negro must get in the van of every prof ession pursued 
by the Anglo-Saxon and stay there. Solid reason molded into general intelligence, 
sound morality, financial independence, and reverence for the Constitution and 
laws of our country is the basis upon which the race is destined to reach a pre- 
eminent place in American history. ' ' 

" I am hopeful, though I regard the present condition in the South as alarming. 
I have serious apprehensions on account of the friendship between the North and 
South as a result of the war, and I have some fear lest the industrial theory of 



THE COLLEGE-BEED NEGKO. 217 

ediication may be exaggerated or inisconstrtied and the race be put in the light 
of aspiring to nothing more than to he snccessfxil ' hewers of wood and drawers of 
water. ' ' ' 

"If we are left to carve our own future, unhampered by negative laws and 
influences. I have hope in our own powers of development, but I fear the things 
that may discourage us. ' ' 

" The fittest will sur\ave; the public schools and the graveyard will ultimately 
bring things right. ' ' 

" I am; but the difficulties seem to increase with progress. I am in favor of 
industrial education, but not to take the place of higher education." 

" I am hopeful of the negro's future. Organized support should be given for 
the education of negroes of superior mental ability at the l>est imiversities in this 
coiintry. The best among us must be fully developed and the worst truly saved." 

. " I am hopeful of our future. But inequality of wages and expenses is greatly 
hindering our progress in almost every way. Far more of our troubles are to l^e 
attributed to this than one would suppose." 

' ' History shows that the negro of America is treated better than the peasants 
of the past w«re treated, though they were of the same race as were their 
masters." 

" I have, and my hopes are based on the equality of the work that is being done 
in risk, Atlanta, Wilberforce, Central, Howard, Tnskegee, and like institiitions. 
Surely the catalogues of higher instruction are sufficient to inspire hope when one 
sees the vast amount of work accomplished by their army of graduates. I sug- 
gest that each negro principal of public school should be the representative of 
some standard negro publication; should endeavor to create an interest in race 
literature. Each teacher should take at least a half hour each week talking of 
representative colored men and women and what they have accomplished; shoiild 
teach race history in conjunction with United States history, from the battle of 
Lexington to the storming of San Juan Hill." 

" It will require an age to cement the negroes together. Intelligence, virtue, 
industry will join education and work; all lands of education, from kindergarten 
to the university, and all kinds of work, from the plow to the telescope. The 
young negTO must be put to work in order to save virtue, keep oixt of crime, and 
lay the foundation for a mighty race." 

'■ To the extent that he is willing to distill his life's blood into his chosen work, 
I am. ♦ Let him find out what he can do well, and do that thing with all his might. 
If in any case ' his legs fail him, let him learn to fight on his knees.' " 

" Yes, and no. Materially and financially, yes. For iis as a people who may 
hope to win an equal respect and consideration for our manhood from the dominant 
race, I am afraid the situation is hopeless." 

" The fault is not in our stars, dear brothers, but in ourselves." 

" We need be tier primary schools, more teaching force, and longer terms in the 
rural districts." 

"The Northern negro, as I see him, lacks earnestness of purpose, is too easily 
satisfied, lives too easy, does not appreciate the value of character, and too often 
does not know what it is. Lives too much in the present, thinks not of to-morrow. ' ' 

" We should never forget that the world belongs to him who \«dll take it." 

' ' I am hopeful for the future of the negro to a certain extent. The masses in 
the rural districts must be looked after more than they are. Earnest, educated 
men and women must go among these people to live and work. ' ' 

* "I am sorry to say that the evidence of our hox)e is not as siibstantial as I would 
like it to be." 

"The hope of the masses of the negroes will be, in my opinion, in industrial 
education." 

"I regard the future of the negro in this country as assured. He will never 
encounter absolutely insurmountable barriers to his really essential progress. Men 
are ashamed to be quoted as opposing him in that direction. The wrongs done 



218 EDUCATION EEPOST, 1901-1902. 

him in the name of resifsting his criminal tendency will operate only to spnr him 
to better things, and those who interpose to hinder him here will suffer permanent 
moral deterioration and decay." 

" While I favor industrial schools, there never was a time, m my opinion, when 
there was a greater need of college-bred negroes than there is to-day. There will 
never be too many, the road is too long and rough for too many ever to reach the 
end. Our race needs college-bred men just as badly as do the whites; in fact, we 
need them more." 

" It does seem to me notwithstanding the criticisms from without and the con- 
stant complaining within that the race is progressing." 

' ' I would suggest that each put forth effort to have a greater number of college- 
bred men and women. We need them as leadera. Our race has and is furnishing 
plenty of muscle, but we need more brain." 

' ' The responsibility of this age is upon the negro to edijcate the white man out 
of his prejudice. It is our condition rather than color that is our great drawback. 
When we want a special car, put up the money and we get it. If we owned rail- 
road stock we could help make the rules that govern the company. If we had the 
controlling amount of stock we could have our conductors. " 

" I am optimistic in spite of the lowering clouds. V/e have but recently burst 
from the storm and are not far enough away from it to become settled. I believe 
this to be the ' Sturm und Drang ' period of the negro's existence. I am aware of 
the strong arguments against such a position, but in the light of the teaching of 
history there must be, there is, a turning point down near the gates of despair; 
where once the opposing currents are mastered brighter and better conditions must 
arise. A better understanding, and the practical application of the laws of chas- 
tity, morality, Christianity; an ever increasing acquisition of wealth and practical 
intelligence; the adoption of principles of courageous manhood; the wholesale ban- 
ishment of buffoonery and instability; a closer study of those elements that have 
made the Anglo-Saxon great, and a strong pull, a long iduH, and a pull individually 
and collectively toward the acquisition of the same traits, seem to me to be a few 
of the essential things that may jpossibly level our barriers." 

"(a) In spite of the present disquieting conditions I am inclined to feel hopeful 
for the following reasons: 

" 1 . The difficulties that now confront the negro will serve to awaken his dormant 
energies, and in proportion as he applies himself to master these difficulties will he 
be developing his manhood. I notice that where the negro is most oppressed there 
he is most prosperous. For this reason I have always held that the salvation of 
the race is to be worked out in the South. , 

"2. I feel in what the negro has achieved since emancipation the promise of what 
he will achieve in the future. His power and resources have increased consider- 
ably in these thirty-five years. 

" 3. I perceive in the negro elements of character which are his saving virtues. 
He is ambitious, irrepressible, patient, and possessed of marvelous powers of 
endurance. He aspires to be something else than what he is, and will strive for it. 
If he is kept back he will still look at the object, bide his time, and seize the oppor- 
tunity when the chance invites. 

" 4. I believe that humanity, respect for law, and love of justice, which are such 
conspicuous qualities of the heart of the Anglo-Saxon — the dominant race of this 
country — -will some day reach otit and embrace the negro in America as it hajS his 
brother in Cuba and his cousin in the Philippine Islands. 

"5. I have strong faith in the irresistible power of the Christian religion to bring 
those under its inffuence to accept the doctrine of the brotherhood of man and to 
live ui3 to its obligations. 

"(f>) As the conditions of American life demand that the negro shall talre an 
active part in bringing about a change for the better in his situation, there are 
some things which should engage his most earnest endeavor. I venture to suggest 
those that now occur to me: 

"1. To try and make himself a necessity. Whatsoever his liands find to do he 
must do it so well that his services will be indispensable. And he should strive to 
be a producer as well as a consumer. In order to gain this position let him follow 
the example of his prosperous Anglo-Saxon brother, namely, of cultivating and 
applying the resources of his intellect. To this end an opportunity could be afforded 
by means of the university-extension system, adapted to the peculiar needs and 
circumstances of the race. The plan should provide for night schools, in which 



THE COLLEOE-BKED NEGRO. 219 

professional men and women can, in their own communities, give ilieir service 
freelj^ or for a small remuneration. 

"2. The practice of thrift and frugality. 

" 3. The establishing of real unity and cooperation of the race. 

" 4. The making the best use of the opportunities which are at hand.'' 

IS THE COLLEGE TRAINING OF NEGROES NECESSARY':' 

A few opinions of prominent men in answer to this query are subjoined. They 
are partly in answer to a circular letter sent to a few college president*: 

I have never lived South, and my opinion on the question you ask is not very 
valuable. It is. in a word. this, that Mr, Warner's contention is right for most 
members of the race, but that the way should be kept as wide opeu as possible for 
gifted men like * * * , Booker Washington, and many others to have every 
opportunity that any of the Northei"n or other colleges can alf ord. 
I am, very truly, yours, 

G. Stanley Hall, 
President of Clark University. 
December 10, 1900. 



I believe not only in common-school and industrial education for the negroes 
of the South, but also in their higher education. The higher education is neces- 
sary to maintain the standards of the lower. 

Yours, truly, George E. MacLean, 

President of the State University of loiva. 
December 11, 1900. 



I believe fully in the higher education of every man and woman whose character 
and ability is siTch as to make such training possible. There are relatively fewer 
of such persons among the negroes than among the Anglo-Sasons,*but for all of 
these the higher training is just as necessary and just as effective as for anyone 
else. 

For the great body of the negroes the industrial and moral training already so 
well given in certain schools seems to me to offer the greatest hope for the future. 
Very ti-uly, yours, 

David S. Jordan, 
President of Leland Stanford Junior University, 
December 14, 1900. 



Your circular of December 8 comes duly to hand. In response I would say that 
in my judgment no race or color is entitled to monopolize the benefits of the higher 
education. If any race is entitled to be specially favored in this respect I shoiild 
say it is the one that has by the agency of others been longest deprived thereof. 
The above you are at liberty to present as my sentiments. 
Yours, cordially, 

Wm. F. Warren, 
President of Boston University, 
December 13, 1900. 



In reply to your request of December 5, 1 would say that it seems to me that the 
collegiate or higher education is not a special favor to be granted to men on the 
ground of race, family, or any such minor consideration. The only condition for 
the receiving of a college education should be the ability to appreciate and to use 
it. Human nature is substantially the same everywhere. It should be the glory 
of our country to afford to all her young men and women who crave the broadest 
culture and who have the spirit and ability to acquire it, the amplest opportunity 
for development. Loolring at it more specifically, I can see that the general uplift- 
ing of our negi'o iwpulation requires a proi)er percentage of college-bred negro 
leaders. 

Yours, sincerely, George C. Chase. 

President of Bates College. 

December 17, 1900. 



220 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1901-1902. 

Yon ask for my opinion in regard to the desirableness of higher training for the 
negroes. Let me begin my statement by saying that I have the utmost faith in 
the management of the Atlanta University and several other institutions for the 
training of negroes in the South. I will, however, candidly say that in my judg- 
ment there are a gi-eat many of the negroes whom it is not worth while to guide 
through a course of university training. I think that is true also of the white 
race, but in the present condition it is peculiarly true with regard to colored people. 
My idea would be that all the training that the colored man is capable of thor- 
oughly mastering should be given him, but that in the higher departments of 
learning,' like political economy and history, the ancient classics and the natural 
sciences, only selected men should be given the fullest opportunities. I have the 
strongest confidence that such training as is given at Hampton and at Tnskegee, 
largely manual and industrial, is of the greatest importance for the negroes and 
is to be the means of fitting the race a generation or two hence to enter more fully 
into the more abstract and philosophical studies. I do not know that I have made 
myself perfectly clear, but in a general way I should say the raultiplication of 
universities of the higher sort is not desirable in comparison with the multiplica- 
tion of training schools for all the trades and manual activities. 
With best wishes, very sincerely, yours, 

Franklin Carter, 
President of Williams College. 

December 12, 1900. 



Teachers and leaders need more than a common school education. This is as 
true of negroes as of whites. 

Where shall they obtain a liberal education? With few exceptions, I think, it 
should be in the Southern colleges. The color line is so sharply drawn in North- 
ern colleges (unfortunately) that a negro is at great disadvantage, not in studies, 
but socially. * * * 

Very truly, yours, George Harris, 

President of Amlierst College. 
December 12, 1900. ^ 



I believe in the Southern negro college and the higher education of negroes. 
* * 

Very truly, yours, Joseph Swain, 

President University of hidiana. 
Decejiber 10, 1900. 



The problem is such a difficult one that I have been compelled largely to rely 
on the judgment of my friends. My opinions are chiefly taken from the experi- 
ence of Mr, William F. Baldwin, now president of the Long Island Railroad, and 
are therefore hardly such as I ought to put in a form for quotation. 
Sincerely, yours, 

Arthur T. Hadley 
President of Yale University. 
December 10, 1900. 



I am, like many others, greatly interested in the question of education of the 
negroes. There seems to me to be a place for the college properly so called which 
shall teach a certain number, who may be leaders of their race in the South, as 
preachers and advanced teachers. At the same time, I have much sympathy with 
Sir. Booker T. Washington's idea, that a large proportion of them should be edu- 
cated for industrial pursuits. 

Yours, truly, James B. Angell, 

President of the University of Michigan. 
December 10, 1900. 



How, then, are the teachers, the preachers, the physicians for the colored race of 
the South to be provided, unless the South has institutions of the higher educa- 
tion serving the negro, fitting him for these higher positions? We know very 
well that the negro, as he rises in the social scale, wiYL live in better houses and 



THE COLLEGE-BEED NEGEO. 221 

follow better trades, and, in general, be industrially and financially elevated; and 
we should not for a moment criticise the work which is going on throughout the 
South in several institutions which Bo&ton interest and sympathy have furthered. 
But there is another essential thing — namely, that the teachers, preachers, phy- 
sicians, lawyers, engineers, and siiperior mechanics, the leadei"s of industry, 
throughout the negro communities of the South, should be trained in sui)erior 
institutions. If any expect that the negro teachers of the South can be adequately 
educated in primary schools, or grammar schools, or industrial schools pure and 
simple. I can only say in reply that that is more than we can do at the North with 
the white race. The only way to have good primary schools and grammar 
schools in Massachusetts is to have high and normal schools and colleges in which 
the higher teachei^s are trained. It must be so throughout the South; the negro 
race need absolutely these higher facilities of education. — Charles "W. Eliot, 
President of Harvard College (in a si)eech at Trinity Church, Boston, February 
23,1896). 



The higher education is the last thing that the individual pupil reaches; it is 
what he looks toward as the end. But from the x>oint of view of the teachers, 
from the point of view of the educational system, the higher education is the 
very source and center and beginning of it aU; and if this is wanting the whole 
must collapse. Take away the higher education, and you can not maintain the 
level of the lower; it degenerates, it becomes corrupt, and you get nothing biit 
pretentiousness and superficiaUty as the residuum. In order to maintain the 
lower education which must be given to the South, you must have a few well- 
equipi)ed institutions of higher learning. — William D. Hyde, President of Bow- 
doin College (in a speech at Trinity Church, Boston, February 23, 1896). 



It seems fair to assume from these and other letters that the conservative 
public opinion of the best classes in America is that there is a distinct place for 
the negro college designed to give higher training to the more gifted members of 
the race; that leaders thus trained are a great necessity in any community and in 
any group. On the other hand, there is considerable difference of opinion proba- 
bly as to how large this ' ' talented tenth ' ' is — some speaking as though it were a 
negligible quantity, others as though it might be a very large and important 
body. 

The opinions of some other persons ought perhaps to be added to the above. 
First, there is the almost unbroken line of testimony of the heads of negro col- 
leges; this is, of course, interested testimony, and yet it is of some value as evidence. 
A man who left a chair in the University of Michigan to go South and teach 
negroes before the war ended wrote after twenty -five years" experience in college 
work: 

" By this experiment certainly one thing has been settled — the ability of a goodly 
number of those of the colored race to receive what is called a liberal education. 
A person who denies that shows a lack of intelligence on the subject. 

" But the possibility granted, the utility of this education is doubted both as to 
individual and race. First, then, as to the individual, aside from the mere mer- 
cantile advantage derived from education, does not the hunger of the negro mind 
for knowledge prove its right to know, its capacity show that it should be filled, 
its longing that it should be satisfied? And as to the race at large, does it not need 
within it men and women of education? How would it be with us of the white 
race if we had none such with us — no edxicated ministers, doctors, lawyers, teach- 
ers, professors, writers, thinkers? All the preaching to 8,000,000 of colored people 
in the United States is done by colored preachers, with the merest excei^tions here 
and there. Do these negroes not need preparation for their vastly responsible 
calling? 

"The entire work of instruction in the colored public schools of the South is 
done by colored teachers. These teachers can not be prepared in the white schools 
and colleges of the South. Where, then, shall they be prepared if not in special 
higher institutions of learning open to them? What is to become of the millions 
of colored people in the United States? Who are to be their leaders? Doubtless 
persons of their own race. Do they need less preparation for their calling than 



222 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1901-1902. 

do members of the wMte race for theii's? Is not their task even more difficnlt? 
Have they not questions of greater intricacy to solve? Did not Moses when lead- 
ing ex-slaves out of Egj^pt need special wisdom? Are not the colored xieople of 
to-day ' perishing for lact of knowledge? ' ' 

"But the objector wiU say, Why have these long courses; these colleges for 
colored people? Would not shorter courses be as well, or even better? The fol- 
lowing is my belief on this point, after twenty-five years of thought and experience: 
If the negro is equal to the white man in heredity and environment, he needs an 
equal chance in education; if he is superior, he can get on with less; if he is infe- 
rior, he needs more. The education require^l is not simply that of books, but of 
life in Christain homes, sttch as are supplied in nearly all our missionary schools 
for that people, and of religion through the Christain church and its influences." 

The president of another negro college said in 1896: 

" To imagine that the negro can safely do without any of the institutions or 
instriimentalities which were essential to our own advancement is to assume that 
the negro is superior to the white man in mental capacity. To deprive him of any 
of these advantages, which he is capable of using, would be to defraud ourselves, 
as a nation and a Christian church, of all the added power which his developed 
manhood should bring to us. It does not seem to be necessary in this audience to 
discuss the proposition that intelligence is power, and that the only road to intel- 
ligence is through mental discipline conducted u^nder moral influences. 

" What have we been doing for our brother in black to help him in his life 
struggle? The work began somewhat as in the days of our fathers. The John 
Harvards and the Elihu Yalesof Pilgrim history found their counterparts in Gen- 
eral Fish, Dr. Phillips, Seymour Straight, and Holbrook Chamberlain, who founded 
colleges even before it was possible for many to enter upon the college course, but 
vsdth a vn.se forecast for the need that would eventually come and is now actually 
upon us." 

These two extracts sufficiently represent the almost unanimous opinion of the 
presidents and teachers in negro colleges that this training is a success and a 
necessity. 

Further testimony is at hand from the answers which college-bred negroes made 
to questions as to their present estimate of the value of their training. This tes- 
timony is, of course, ai^t to be distinctly one-sided — -only a few peculiarly open 
natures being likely to acknowledge a failure in their own. training. Nevertheless 
the answers received were so frank and varied that they shoiild be studied: 

HAS YOUR COLLEGE TRAIMI>rG BENEFITED YOU? 

Yes 412 

It was a great benefit . 34 

The largest possible benefit 6 

It was certainly a benefit . 23 

My college training has fitted me for life - - _ 17 

A wonderful help 21 

It has been of incalculable value 7 

Immeasurable 18 

It has been of infinite value 8 

It was indispensable 20 

The college made me 9 

I owe my success to it 6 

Too difiicult to answer 1 

ISTo other would have been serviceable . 11 

Could not pursue my present course without it 4 

Indtistrial and college training together benefit me greatly 1 

To do g'reat service for my race 4 

Useful even to a laborer 1 

Have no reason to regret .__ 5 

It has been the best investment 3 

ll^othing above it but virtue 1 

Wish I laad time for more 6 

Gave me a foundation 3 

No otiier could take its place 1 

It has enabled me to educate 500 persons 1 

It has been invaluable to me 2 

Great service in rearing my children 1 

It has not, in my line of v/ork 1 



THE COLLEGE-BEED NEGRO. 223 

AVOULD SOME OTHER TRAINING HAVE BEEN OF MORE SERVICE? 

I think not 172 

Doubtful 11 

Not sure 7 

Some system to keep in mind professional intentions 1 

An agricultural course might have been of more benefit 1 

Good business course would have been better 2 

Industrial training helps 1 

Judging from present conditions, no 1 

A scientific course 1 

Tliere is no substitute 1 

No other could be of so general service . 3 

Could tell if I had used my energies in another direction . 1 

A practical coiirse in the English Bible and in music training 1 

A course in music 1 

Would not exchange for another kind. It is an eminence from which all other 

fields can bo surveyed 1 

No other kind could have 7 

Would not exchange 2 

A commercial in addition 3 

Not as far as I can observe 1 

Some other in addition would have been helpful 4 

No other would have suited my case 1 

Financially, some other might 9 

A more complete training wotild be beneficial 1 

Maniial training would have been more beneficial 1 

A complete mastery of one trade would be of great help in addition 8 

Would have to try some other to be sure 3 

Architectural drawing would have helped me . 1 

No other in my profession 2 

Tried another. Tjut found college most beneficial « 1 

A practical training would have been quite beneficial - 1 

Primary work more beneficial in my work 1 

A course in se%ving ■. 1 

A carpenter's and a printer's trade in addition 1 

Can not sav -. 18 

Yes : 2 

From a careful consideration of the f'lcts and of stich testimony as has been 
given the following propositions seem clear: 

1. The great mass of the negroes need common school and manual training. 

2. There is a large and growing demand for industrial and technical training 
and trade schools. 

3. There is a distinct demand for the higher training of persons selected for 
talent and character to be leaders of thought and missionaries of culture among 
the masses. 

4. To supply this demand for a higher training there ought to l>e maintained 
several negro colleges in the South. 

5. The aim of these colleges should be to supply thoroughly trained teachers, 
IDreachers, professional men, and captains of industry. 

The central truth which this study teaches to the candid mind is the success of 
higher education under the limitations and difi&culties of the past. To be sure 
that training can be criticised justly on many points: Its curriculiim was not the 
best: many persons of slight ability were urged to study algebra before they had 
mastered arithruetic, or Grerman before they knew English; quantity rather than 
quality was in some cases sought in the graduates, and nbove all, there was a 
tendency to urge men into the professions, particularly the ministry, and to over- 
look business and the mechanical trades. All these charges brought against the 
higher training of the negroes in the past have much of truth in them. The de- 
fects, however, lay in the application of the princij)le, not in the principle; in poor 
teaching and studying rather than in lack of need for college-trained men. Courses 
need to be changed and improved, teachers need to be better equipped, students 
need more careful sifting. With such reform there cm^ be no reasonable doubt 
of the continued and growing need for a training of negro youth, the chief aim of 
which is culture rather than bread- winning. Nor does this plain demand have 
anything in it of opposition or antagonism to industi-ial training — to those schools 



224 ■ EDTJCATIOlSr EEPOET, 1901-1902. 

which aim directly at teaching the negro to work with his own hands. Quite the 
contrary is the case, and it is indeed tinfortanate that the often intemperate and 
exaggerated utterances of some advocates of negro education have led the public 
mind to conceive of the two kinds of education as opposed to each other. They 
are rather supplementary and mutually helpfiil in the great end of solving the 
negro problem. We need thrift and skill among the masses; we need thought 
and culture among the leaders. As the editor has had occasion to say before: 

" In a scheme such as I have outlined, providing the rudiments of an education 
for all, industrial training for the many, and a college course for the talented few, 
I fail to see anything contradictory or antagonistic. I yield to no one in advocacy 
of the recently popularized notion of negro industrial training, nor in admiration 
for the earnest men who emphasize it. At the same time I insist that its widest 
realization will but increase the demand for college-bred men — for thinkers to 
guide the workers. Indeed, all who are working for the uplifting of the American 
negro have little need of disagreement if they but remember this fundamental 
and unchangeable truth: The object of all true education is not to make men car- 
penters — it is to make carpenters men." 



HIGHER EDUCATION OF THE NEGRO— ITS PRACTICAL VALUE. 
By President Horace Bumstead, D. D., 

Atlanta University, Georgia . 

All education is practical which can be turned to use and made productive of 
some desired end. In the education of the American negro there are certain ends 
which all good people agree in desiring. The appalling illiteracy of the masses 
must be reduced. The criminal tendencies of the lower classes must be checked. 
The productive capacity of the wage-earners must be increased. The domestic 
life of the race must be improved. Their citizenship must be safeguarded and 
ennobled. The development of personal character must be stimulated — this last 
the most important of all. 

MANY CLASSES OP NEGROES. 

It is idle to suppose that all these desired ends can be secured by any single 
form of education without the cooperation of other forms. No man can wisely 
shout "Eureka," and proclaim the race problem solved by any one method of 
training. The problem is too manifold, too complex, too intrioate to admit of 
solution by a single panacea. 

Moreover, the American negro is in condition to receive in due proportion a 
much greater variety of education than many people have supposed. We have 
too long made the mistake of regarding the race as one homogeneous mass instead 
of recognizing the diversity of its different classes. The 4,000,000 set free by 
the civil war have grown, probably, to 9,000,000, or nearly as many as the entire 
population of the United States in 1820. So large a population as this, mostly 
born in freedom and growing up for thirty-five years in contact with American 
civilization, could not fail in that length of time to differentiate itself into classes 
of varjdng character and ability, illustrating many different grades of progress. 
No careful observer can deny that this differentiation has taken place. The more 
hopeful classes may still be smaU relatively to the whole mass of the negroes, but 
they are too large absolutely, and they are potentially too important a factor in 
the solution of the great problem, to be safely ignored. 

With full recognition, then, oi' the varied forms of educational effort needed and 
with no desire to disparage any of them, let me come to my task of presenting the 
practical value of the higher education. And I will ask you to measure this value 
as related, first, to the individual negro himself, and second, to the social group 
or mass of negroes of whom the iBdividual forms a part. 



THE COLLEGE-BKED NEGEO. 225- 

For the individual negro who so far rises above the common mass of his race 
as to be fitt.ed to receive it, I believe that the higher edtication has a preeminently 
practical value. 

If the term "higher education'" needs definition, let me say that I have in 
mind such education as an average white boy gets when he "goes to college." I 
mean a curriculum in which the humanities are prominent and in which inter- 
course with books and personal contact with highly educated teachers constitute 
the chief sources of power. Let us, "furthermore, understand such a curriculum 
to be handled not in any dry-as-dust spirit, but with the most modern methods of 
teaching and with the most direct and practical application to the needs of modern: 
life as they will be encountered by the students pursuing it. 

INDIVIDUAL OPPORTUNITY. 

There is a practical advantage in the mere offering of such an educational 
opportunity to the individual negro of exceptional ability. So long as it is denied 
he will ask, " On what ground do you set a limit to my educational progress?" 
If we answer ' ' Because the masses of your race are not fitted to take a college 
course," he can reply, "That is a principle of exclusion which you do not apply 
to your own race, and why should you apply it to mine?" If we say, " Because, 
we doubt your individual ability to take it," he may answer, " That is a matter 
which only a fair trial can determine, and I ask the privilege of testing my ability 
as an individual." How can you justly refuse such a plea as this? If the claim- 
ant really has exceptional ability he ought to have the exceptional opportunity. 
If he does not possess such ability it is still worth something to set l)efore him the 
open door of the higher education, for then, if he does not enter it, the responsi- 
bility is entirely his own. In education there is no principle more just or wise 
than this: To every negro youth, as to every white youth, an educational oppor- 
tunity commensurate with his ability as an individual. 

Let us not forget in this connection to how large an extent it is in the province 
of all colleges to discover talent. For many boys and girls the studies of the 
grammar and even of the high school are insufficient to reveal their most marked 
aptitudes and point out the most promising path of usefulness. It is only as they 
are confronted with a college curriculum that this revelation is made in the case 
of very many. It is sometimes said that any bright negroes in the South who 
want a college education can come to Northern colleges and get it. This may be 
true as regards the very brightest who can feel the attraction of an educational 
opportunity a thoiTsand miles away and obtainable there only at high cost. But 
for a much larger number, only the inexpensive college of the vicinage, within 
easy reach of home, can either discover talent, or train it when discovered. 

TEACHING TO THINK. 

A very practical service which a college education renders to the individual 
negro is to teach him to think. The power of rational thought is one which the 
past history of the race has not tended to cultivate. Neither savagery in Africa 
nor slavery in America were favorable to it. As a slave the negro was trained 
not to think. The thinking negro was a dangerous negro. The master and the 
overseer did his thinking for him, regulating his movements and planning his 
work, and the more the negro surrendered his self -direction and became a facile 
machine in their hands, the better slave he was. This is an unavoidable feature 
in every system of human slavery. 

But the moment freedom begins and the responsibility for one's life and work 
is transferred from an outside authority to the individual himself, the jMDwer of 

ED 1902 15 



226 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1901-1902. 

rational and consecutive thinking bscomes an absolute necessity. It is the lack 
of this power which constitutes one of the chief elements of weakness in the 
negro of to-day. The studies of the usual college curriculum are especially fitted 
to develop it. Slavery did much to make the negro a worker, and since slavery 
ended we have all been very properly concerned to make him more and more a 
skilled worker. But we have been far too little concerned to make him a careful 
thinker. 

Incidentally to this, a very practical advantage which comes to the individual 
negro through a college education is the discovery of how large a part of the 
world's work is performed by the world's thinkers. The delusion that work of 
the hands is the only work worthy of the name can not remain long m the mmd 
of a college student. In the study of history, and science, and language, and 
philosophy, and mathematics, he discovers again and again how the chief workers 
in those fields have been foremost among the promoters of the world's progress, 
ever cooperating vnth and stimulating the work of the hand workers and often 
exceeding them in the severity of their toil. It is not too early for the negro to 
learn that some of the opportunity and responsibility for the brain work of the 
world belongs to him, and that in proportion as he is able to embrace it and use 
it well will his race achieve a symmetrical development of its powers, more nearly 
approaching that of other races, and so gain more and more the respect of their 
fellow-men. 

NEED OF INCENTIVE. 

But the individual negro needs not only opportunity and training for working 
with both hand and brain, he also needs incentive for working, and the highest 
kinds of incentive. If anytliing, he needs incentive more than he needs oppor- 
tunity. There are numerous opportunities open to many a negro which he fails 
to utilize simply from lack of incentive. He is too easily content with his low 
estate, and has too little ambition to improve it. There is probably not a negro 
in the South who does not have the means, the skill, and the time, which consti- 
tute opportunity, for making his condition less wretched than it is, if he wanted 
to. But the trouble is he does not want to, and never will want to until sufficient 
incentives are set before him. It is a good thing to present the incentives of 
material comfort and financial prosperity — to tell the negro he can have a bet- 
ter house and a more productive farm and an account at the bank, if he will 
only bestir himself; these are all worthy incentives for effort, but they do not go 
far enough. It is as true of the negro as of any other human being, that the life 
is more than meat and the body than raiment, and that a man's life consisteth 
not in the abundance of the things he possesseth. Does it not behoove us, then, 
to awaken within the negro's soul the desire for a better life for himself and 
family in that better home, whenever he shall get it, and to stimulate a craving 
for higher pleasures than those of the body, to the gratification of which he may 
utilize his abundant harvest and his grovnng bank account? Many a negro 
already has more of this world's goods than he knows how to use wisely, either 
for himself or for others. Making a livelihood is important, but realizing a 
wholesome life is more important. The "plain living and high thinking " of owx 
homespun ancestors in ISTew England and Virginia is a worthy object of aspira- 
tion to set before the American negro of to-day. From the colleges and universi- 
ties it came to our ancestors, and from colleges and universities it must come to 
the negro. And as it comes, his incentive to work, wdth both hand and brain, for 
both the material and the spiritual progress of America, v/ill be increased. 

But it is time to turn to the second part of our subject. 



THE COLLEGE-BEED NEGBO. _ 227 

THE EXCEPTIONAL NEGRO AND THE MASSES. 

In a recent address President Tucker, of Dartmouth College, used these words: 
"I believe, with a gi-oAving conviction, that the salvation of the negro of this 
country lies with the exceptional men of that race."' These words of President 
Tucker concisely express the tiiith which explains the practical value of the 
higher education to the negro as a social gi'oup or mass of which the individual 
foiTUs a part. In showing how college ti-aining is of practical advantage to the 
indi^ndual negro, in enabling him to discover and train Ms highest powers, and in 
furnishing the most potent incentives for their use, we have by no means stated 
the strongest reason for such education. A much stronger reason is to be found 
in the relation which the college-bred negro holds to the masses among whom he 
dwells and works. The ruasses may not be able to go to college, but they may 
send their representative to college, and when he comes home they may be wise 
by proxy. This does not mean that they are all going to learn Latin and Greek 
from their representative or make him a little demigod of culture for their wor- 
ship. But it does mean this: That in every community of negroes it ought to be 
possible for the common people, occasionally at least, to look tiito the face of a 
college-bred man or woman of their own race and catch something of inspiration 
from his high attainment. Currents of culture and progress are ever being set 
in motion among the masses of mankind by this sort "of educational induction, 
even where no direct efforts are put forth to that end. 

But the opportunity for the direct and positive acti^sdty of the college-bred 
negro in promoting the elevation of his own people is of the most varied and 
striking character. 

NEGRO PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 

Consider the matter of popular education in the public schools. The South has 
separate schools for the 'two races, and custom requires that the teachers of these 
schools shall be of the same race as the pupils attending them. The 30,000 negro 
public schools, on which the Southern States are spending six and a half milli(m 
dollars annually and have spent over a hundred millions since 1870, are greatly 
weakened and the vast sum of money spent on them wasted because of the inefS- 
eiency of the negro teachers. To stem this great tide of waste and to provide 
teachers of the desired efficiency there is no influence more potent than that of 
the negro colleges in the South. The graduates of these colleges not only teach 
in these schools, usually filling the most prominent positions in them as principals 
or otherwise, but they are also teachers of teachers, a single individuiil often 
mmibeiing the teachers whom he has trained for other i)ublic schools by the 
scores and hundreds, and the pujnls thus reached at second hand by the thou- 
sands. One graduate of Atlanta University has trained 200 teachers, who in 
turn are instructing 10,000 children. 

These college graduates are also prominent in organizing and maintaining State 
associations of negro teachers, and in C(3nducting, under the direction of State 
supeinntendents of educa.tion. the summer teachers' institutes which are fostered 
by appropriations from the Peabody fund. In one case a negro graduate lias 
served for eleven years as a member of the city board of -education by appoint- 
ment of the mayor and aldermen in a large Southern city. 

RELIGIOUS AVORK. 

The religious work of the i-ace presents another most important field of activity 
for the college-bred negro. While slavery lasted the negroes in many localities 
shared the religious privileges of their masters, and listened to the sermons of 
educated preachers. With the advent of freedom, and the inevitable sei3aration 



228 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1901-1902. 

of the races in so many of the relations of life, the negroes very naturally organ- 
ized churches of their own, to the ptilpits of which they called men of their own 
race, in most cases with little or no preparation for their work. Though some 
advantage was gained in the assumption by the negroes of the responsible man- 
agement of their own church organizations, there was an undoubted loss for the 
time being in the character of their religious and mor^l training, and it is not 
unreasonable to suppose that to this, among other causes, may be attributed the 
criminal tendencies of the race in their new life of freedom. While the character 
of the negro ministry is gradually improving through the accession of better 
educated men to their ranks, the supjily of such men is far inadequate to the 
need. 

OTHER PROFESSIONS. 

As physicians, too, college-bred negroes find an import.ant field of usefulness. 
Aside from the ordinary round of their medical practice, they are needed to foster 
the work of hospitals and training schools for nurses among their people. They 
can also do much in instructing their people in matters of hygiene, in improving 
the sanitary condition of their homes, and in the proper care of young children; 
thus helping to reduce the excessive d^ath rate of the negroes. In much of this 
work they can accomplish.far more than white physicians working among their 
race could do. 

The opportunity for the college-bred negro in the legal profession is not so large, 
nor the call so urgent as in the occupations already considered. But in propor- 
tion to their numbers the few college-bred negroes who have bec-ome lawyers are 
having as successful and useful careers as the members of other professions. 

Some editors, too, must be supplied by the negro colleges, and these, in cooper- 
ation with the lawyers and ministers, Vv'ill be more and more needed as the race 
progresses to foster a wholesome public opinion among the negroes, to elevate the 
character of tlieii" citizenship and harmonize their relations with the white race. 

SELF-REOENERATION OF THE RACE. 

Another field of activity which loudly calls for the attention of all college-bred 
negroes, whatever their specific occupation m.ay be, is the matter of organized 
efforts for their own social uplift. In ev^ry considerable community the negro 
teachers, ministers, doctors, lawyers, editors, and others occupying prominent 
positions have it in their power, by united action, to promote, efforts for reform 
in such matters as temperance, purity, the improvement of home life, the train- 
ing of children, the provision of wholesome amusements, the organizing of read- 
ing clubs, debating societies, and lecture courses, and in general so ministering to 
the higher life of their people as to help them to stem the tide of animalism and 
materialism that is ever threatening to sweep them away. Considerable of this 
work has already been undertaken with fair success, generally under the auspices 
of the negro churches, secret societies, and other beneficial orders. But the organ- 
izing power of the negroes is still in a somewhat crude stage, and gi-eatly needs 
the enlightening and directing influence which the college-bred negroes can fur- 
nish, and are already furnishing to an encouraging extent. And herein appears 
another very i^ractical advantage of the higher education of the negro, in that it 
is helping him to do for himself that which many have supposed only the white 
man could do for him. We have too long failed to recognize the tremendous 
power for the self-regeneration of the race to be found in the race's highest class, 
and in the aspiring members of its middle class. The discovery and equipment 
of this power is one of the very practical services rendered by the colleges for 
negroes. 



THE COLLEGE-BEED NEGRO. 229 

■ AX APPEAL TO FACTS. 

A striking confirmation of the positions taken in this paper is to be found in 
the results of a careful investigation into the careers of college-bred negroes 
under the direction of Dr. W. E. B. DuBois, as brought out at the Fifth Annual 
Conference on Negro Problems, recently held at Atlanta University. « 

Since 1826, 2,414 negroes have been graduated fi-om college; most of them since 
1870, and for the last six years to an average number of about 130 a year. 

With few exceptions these negro college graduat<?s have found work as teachers 
and professional men and also in newsi)aper work, business, farming, and the 
trades. Returns from some 600 show an individual holding of real estat^e of an 
average assessed value of nearly $2,500. 

Returns from more than half of all these graduates show that 55 per cent were 
teachers; 19 per cent ministers; 6 per cent doctors, and 3 per c-ent lawyers, or 83 
per cent engaged in teaching and the professions. 

Ninety per cent of those gradiiated in Soiithern colleges remain and work in 
the South, v;hile fully 50 i>er cent of those graduated in the North go South and 
labor where the masses of their people live. 

To the question: "Do you vote?" 508 answered " Yes," and 213 "No." To 
the question: "Is your vote counted?" 7 said " No," 61 were in doubt, and 455 
answered " Yes." To the question: " Are you hopeful for the future of the negro 
in this country?" 40 were in doubt, 53 said "No," and 041 answered that they 
were hopeful. 

May we not safely conclude that the negro college graduate as an individual is 
a good breadwinner, thrifty property holder, and conservative citizen, and that as 
the exceptional man of his race who has enjoyed exceptional opportunity, he is 
devoting himself in a very remarkable degree to the forms of service most adapted 
to the uplift of the masses in intelligence, morality, and good citizenship? What 
can be more practical than an education that secures such results as these? 

I plead for a larger faith in the exceptional negro — a larger faith in his capacity 
as an individual, and a larger faith in his power as a regenerator of the masses of 
his race, on whom we should seek more and more to shift the ' ' white man's 

cSos the preceding pages (191-234). 



CHAPTER V. 

THE WORK OF CERTAIN NORTHERN CHURCHES IN THE 
EDUCATION OF THE FREEDMEN, 18G1-1900. 

By A. I>. Mayo, LL.D. 

Contents. — The American Missionary Association. — The Freedmen's Aid Society of the Metho- 
dist Episcopal Church. — The Presbyterian Church (North) in connection with the schooling 
of the freedmen. — The Protestant Episcopal Church in the education of the colored race. 
The Society of Friends in the education of the colored people of the South. — The Baptist 
Church of the Northern States in the education of the colored race in the South. 



THE AMERICAN MISSIONARY ASSOCIATION. 

The first and still the most notable of the several great missionary associations 
for the training of the negro race in the Southern States, through schools of every 
grade and the ordinary methods of mission work employed by the Evangelical 
Protestant churches in the Northern United States, was the American Missionary 
Association. It was incorporated January 30, 1849, with a constitution containing 
ten ai'ticles. Article I announces its purpose "to conduct Christian missions and 
educational operations, and diffuse a knowledge of the holy Sci-iptures in our 
own and other countries which are destitute of them, or which present open and 
urgent fields of effort. ' ' Its active and voting membership was limited to persons 
of "Evangelical religious opinions, who profess faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, 
* * * not slaveholders or in the practice of other immoralities." An addi- 
tional fee of $30 constituted a life member; although " children and others who 
have not professed the faith may be constituted life members, without the privi- 
lege of voting." In a footnote, the term "Evangeli(^l faith"' is explained as in 
accordance with the Puritan creed. In Article VIII the antislavery clause of the 
organization is emphasized by the declaration that all its operations shall tend 
"particularly to discountenance slavery, by refusing to receive the fruits of unre- 
quited labor, or to welcome to its fellowship those who hold their fellow beings 
as slaves." 

As at first organized, during the twelve years jirevious to the opening of the 
civil war, the operations of the American Missionary Association do not especially 
concern the object of this essay, since there could evidently have been no field 
through all the fifteen slave States for the operation of an association that even 
refused to accept the money or the personal cooperation of slaveholders. Up to 1861 
it was a general missionary association of the strict antislavery type, including all 
persons of the different evangelical denominations desirous of using a society freed 
from cooperation with one specified class. But the breaking out of the civil war 
and the drifting of large numbers of negroes from the plantations of Virginia to 
the army of Gen. B. F. Butler, with headquarters at Hampton, for the first time 
opened a wide door for missionary activity, which during the past forty-one years 
has never been closed. It has been stated in a paper which appeared in the pre- 
ceding Report of this ofBce that the first school for the " contrabands " was opened 

285 



286 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1901-1902. 

by a woman, Mrs. Mary Peake, at Hampton, under tlie guns of Fortress Monroe. 
At the close of a three-years' service as agent of the Freedmen's Burean in ten 
counties of east Virginia, Gen. S. C. Armstrong found a school of 1,500 colored 
pupils housed in the old hospital barracks and in the Butler School in that vicinity. 

Duiing the fourteen years after this first appearance in the schools for the col- 
ored race the work of the American Missionary Association grew apace. Between 
1866 and 1870 it received $243,753.22. The Freedmen's Biireau, on its retirement 
from educational work, passed over a large sum of money to it, which was 
expended "in the erection of the first buUdings of the schools at Hampton, Va,, 
Nashville, Tenn., Charleston, S. C, New Orleans, La., and othex places. It is 
estimated that the people of Great Britain contributed not less than $1,000,000 in 
money and clothing for the colored people during these years. During this loeriod 
thb foundations of several of the association's most important schools were laid. 
Its first report after the close of the war appeared in 1869-70. 

At an important convention held at Chattanooga, Tenn., November 31-26, 1869, 
reports were received from the churches established by the American Missionary 
Association (all open to a mixed membership of white and colored) and represent- 
atives from the schools already established appeared. At this initial period the 
new public-school system of the South, though recognized in the revised constitu- 
tions of all the reconstructed States, was not in a condition to supply the wants of 
any class. Indeed the aspirations, especially among the lower orders of the white 
people, and the discontent among the better sort with the policy of reconstruction, 
largely under negro rule for four years, found constant vent in opposition to the 
teachers and directors of the schools. If the negroes were to be educated at all, 
it seemed necessary that the work should go on under the direction of the same 
agency that since 1862 had been so active among great numbers of the colored 
■ masses. But from 1870 to 1876 the association failed to receive the assistance of 
the National Government, either by supplies or by personal protection from the 
remnant of the Army of the United States gathered at military posts through 
these States. The well disposed among the white people and the new State gov- 
ernments were greatly shorn of their power or influence to prevent a reign of 
disorder. 

It was a mercy, under such conditions, that educational work should be in con- 
nection with a missionary enterprise, and really under one direction. And, 
although the people and clergy of most of the great Northern religious bodies 
had long since outgrown the church parochial system of schooling the masses 
at. home, yet under the patronage of the educational missionary societies for the 
colored people a system of parochial schools for the negroes was placed upon the 
ground that is not yet abandoned. The American Missionary Association, now 
practically one of the great missions of the evangelical Congregational Chui-ch 
(the denomination under which the common school originated and was, developed 
during the entire colonial period in New England) , had never used this parochial 
church system of schooling to any great degree, and retired from it earlier than 
any other. It can not but be regarded as a misfortune that this system should 
have been so early associated with popular education in the minds of the better 
class of the Southern negroes that it has been very difficult to eradicate it, and 
at present, in many ways, it acts as a serious obstacle to the improvement and 
proper working of the common school of the American type in every State of 
the South. 

But good things can not always be done, in the beginning, in the most approved 
fashion. The American Missionary Association took up the work among the 
negroes as it came to hand. It found the churches far more disposed to contribute 
funds, and teachers were more willing to go forth to a life of toil and sometimes 
of pern, uniformly of social and religious neglect by the Southern people of their 



THE KOETHERN CHUBCHES AND THE FREEDMEN. 287 

own color, in connection -nnth an organization supplied and backed as was tliis 
association. In the reports of the American Missionary Association at this time 
we come across much information concerning the more important schools which, 
iTnder different names, "nniversities," "colleges," "institutes," etc., have given 
their full influence and wrought with great success in the uplifting of the chil- 
dren and youth of the negro race. 

It is impossible in this essay to give more than a glance at the different insti- 
tutions or localities through which this great association for the past forty -one 
years has wrought for God and humanity and the general welfare of the Republic. 
A few brief notices will give the trend of its work, and the voluminous piiblica- 
tions of the association will supply the interesting details. 

In October, 1869, Avery Institute, at Charleston, S. C, was opened with 335 
pupils, "mainly of the better class of colored people in the city." Besides this, 
there was in Charleston a school for colored pupils, established by the family 
and friends of Col. Robert Q. Shaw, who lost his life at the head of his col- 
ored regiment in the onset on Fort "Wagner; another school under Northern 
Presbyterian protection, and one sustained by the Episcopalians. The city of 
Charleston had already moved in the establishment of a free public school for the 
sam e class , of 900 pupils. In connection with the Avery Institute general missionary 
work was carried on among the negroes. All these agencies were also concerned 
with charitable work, and distributed large amovints of clothing and supplies and 
rendered assistance of various kinds, of which no estimate has been attempted 
in computing the pecuniary cost of the work during the past forty-one years. 
During the period of reconstruction a large school for colored youth was opened 
in Charleston by Mr. L. Cardozo, a free man of color and a graduate of the Uni- 
versity of Glasgow, Scotland, where the Latin and Greek languages and other 
branches of secondary and higher education were taught. Cardozo and his 
brother became noted political officials in the reconstruction government of the 
State. This school contained 1.000 pupils and 20 teachers. The teachers of the 
American Missionary Association schools were gathered from the great body of 
churches to this attractive field, or had been employed in similar work during the 
war, or were known as friends of negro education. 

Atlanta University, at Atlanta, Ga., was also getting ujpon its foundations. 
President E. A. Ware, of Connecticut, one of the most admirable of all the men 
connected with this early work, commenced in April, 1870, and presided over the 
building operations — a dozen of the colored boys armed with shovels digging for 
the foundations. President Ware read the proclamation of President U. S. Grant 
on the ratification of the fifteenth amendment, and made a few very stirring 
remarks. This proceeding is thus noticed for its historical value and because it 
is a fair representation of the spirit of these schools at the advent of the new 
order of affairs, to which Atlanta University has already been a large contributor. 

In Louisiana, as already shown in the paper before referred to, the common 
school system, established by Gen. N. P. Banks in 1864, had gone the way of all 
positive attempts to anticipate the coming of the new education. Before the 
close of the war the American Missionary Association had sent to this State a 
band of 2G missionaries and teachers. The public schools opened by the arrange- 
ment of Genei*al Banks were under the superintendency of Maj. Rush Plumley, 
of Philadelphia. After the failure of this movement there had been no public 
schools in the State, outside of New Orleans, until 1869. The school law enacted 
that year v/as almost impotent, from lack of funds and organization and the 
want of local interest, and in 1870 it was estimated that at least 85,000 colored 
children in the State were mthout any educational jirivileges whatever. The 
American Missionary Association, in company vrith the Northern Methodist and 
Baptist missionary bodies, came to this inviting field, sustaining more schools in 



288 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1901-1902. 

the rural cTistricts than all other agencies combined, aided by the Freedmen's 
Bureau as long as it was in operation. In 1870 it supported 50 teachers with 3,000 
children in as many as 30 schools. Children were accustomed to walk 12 nailes a 
day to attend these little district schools. The people could pay the board of the 
teacher if the schooling could be given. But it is also recorded that, as soon as 
the State came under the charge of the original white population, the American 
Missionary Association withdrew from this elementary work to give its attention 
to the secondary, higher, and professional grades. Straight University had 
already been founded, by the investment of $25,000 in land and buildings in Nevr 
Orleans, contributed by the General Government through theFreedmen's Bureau, 
and soon announced itself as "incorporated in 1869, with the power to confer all 
such degrees as are conferred by universities in the United States." 

The exalted titles of the schools established by this and other of the Northern 
educational missionary bodies have furnished occasion for a great deal of ridicule, 
which might also be applied to the same mischievous habit, in many portions of 
our country, of magnifying the character and grade of schools by the magnifi- 
cence of their titles. There can be no doubt in the minds of the most reliable 
educators that this practice has been especially harmful to the genuine advance- 
ment in letters of the first generation of these children and youth gathered in 
schools, especially coming with the virtual indorsement of the churches of the 
Northern States to a people sunk in dense ignorance. It can, however, be truly 
said that the teaching faculties of all these seminaries have largely recognized the 
actual situation and labored as faithfully in laying the foundations of an elemen- 
tary education as if they did not bear the learned title of professor or president. 
For many years the best of these schools were only of the secondary rank, and in 
the most siicx^essful only a meager half dozen of the 500 pupils in attendance could 
be pushed up to a college graduation. At present the majority of these semina- 
ries are accepting the situation and giving to their pupils the mental fare adapted 
to their capacity, with a growing emphasis on a sound English education, the 
proper training of teachers, and. industrial theory and practice in great variety. 
The great work, of course, has been in the field of religious, moral, and social 
advancement, in which all these seminaries have wrought v/ith undisputed ability 
and success. 

The new school at Hampton was at first largely aided by the American Mis- 
sionary Association, which has always been its "next friend." But under the 
administration of Gen. S. C. Armstrong it was organized as an independent cor- 
poration with 6 teachers and 75 students. The institution received its charter 
from the legislature of Virginia, by which it was subsidized at the rate of $10,000 
a year for the industrial training of its pupils; but its government from the first 
was in charge of a board of 14 trustees, including men like Gen. O. O. Howard; 
President Hopkins, of Williams College, Massachusetts; Hon. James A. Garfield, 
of Ohio; State Superintendent of Public Instruction B. G. Northrup, of Connecti- 
cut; and President R. E. Strieby, of the American Missionary Association. 

At Wilmington, N. C, 800 pupils were instructed by the night schools of the 
American Missionary Association. " Three-fourths of the colored children of the 
State are living in ignorance. There are no sufficient schools for the colored people 
and there can not be till their young men are educated. There are but few colored 
men fit to hold civil office. We are trying [say the managers] to reform the 
religious worship of the people, so much of which is degrading and demoralizing." 

To far-away Florida the American Missionary Association had gone. At Jack- 
sonville during the war, in 1864, the opportunity of schools for colored children 
had been furnished under the supervision of the ■ military. April 10, 1869, a 
norma,l institute had been opened, t\70 stories high, with a library and apparatus, 
and rooms and arrangements for 300 pupils, at a cost of $16,000. There were 



THE NOETHEEISr CHURCHES AND THE FKEEDMEN. 28&*' 

400 piipils, cliiefly under the care of Mrs. Williams, of Deerfield, Mass., aiMf 
300 children were in the white schools. It is declared that this was the firsn 
normal school building erected in Florida. The State had already moved in the 
establishment of common schools, and it was compelled to look to the norma? 
institnte for the teachers of the colored children. 

In Alabama, in the beautiful city of Montgomery, on a high hill fronting the" 
State capitol where Jefferson Davis eight years before took the oath of the Presi- 
dency of the Southern Confederacy, was organized a school of 450 colored children 
and 10 teachers, in a fine building; the best schoolhouse then in the city. The 
teacher reports that he has "a normal class of 16 of the most promising young merr 
and women it has l^een my privilege to see in any school, white or colored, south 
of the Ohio River." The superintendent of public schools, after examining 11 of 
these students for service in the adjoining county, says, " they were the first col- 
ored teachers we sent out to the country. They took the carriage in sight of the' 
capitol where JefEerson Davis took his oath as President; where the first Confed- 
erate Congress met and sent the message ' to open on Sumter,' and in sight of the 
barracks where still hangs the sign 'Negro barracks,' where their fathers and- 
mothers had l^een sold as slaves." 

Berea College, Kentticky, situated at the foot of the great mountain world of 
the Central South, a region as extensive as the German Empire, inhabited by 
2,000,000 people, generally loyal to the Union during the war, but still in the most- 
primitive condition of civilization of any class of native-born people in the coim- 
try, had been organized before the war by Rev. J. G. Fee, who, during the con-- 
flict, had been compelled to leave the State while endeavoring, at the risk of his 
life, to school the negroes. In 1889 it held its fourth commencement in the pres- 
ence of one to two thousand of the country people. This college is the only school- 
of similar rank that has been able to exist and steadily grow weighted by thee 
union of the two races among its students and t-eachers. 

Fisk University, at Nashville, Tenn., named from Gen. Clinton B. Fisk. one- 
of the most active of the army men in the employment of General Eaton in the- 
educational work in the valley of the Mississippi, had an attendance of 250. This^ 
school will long be remembered in connection with the tour of the first group of 
"Jubilee Singers," who went from State to State and to England and Germany,, 
singing the old plantation melodies. They literally sung up the walls of the first- 
college building for colored youth in Tennessee, the parlors of which are adorned 
by the portraits of some of the most distinguished personages in Great Britain, 
These children of freedom were welcomed everywhere and even flattered by the^ 
crowned heads of the Old World. 

To Mississippi, at Tougaloo, near the capital of the State, indeed, to every Stat©' 
of the South, the American Missionary Association sent forth its missionary 
teachers, among them many women of large culture, high character, and social 
standing, to labor among the colored children and youth. In addition to the- 
laborious ofiice of teacher and practically mother, these excellent people were bur- 
dened with the responsibility of preparing their crude and wayward constituency" 
for the " grand and awful time " to which they had been awakened as by "the.' 
new Jerusalem coming down from Heaven, adorned with shining grace." 

At V/ashington, D. C, Howard University, a seminary of the secondary aca- 
demic, higher, and professional education, had been established as one of the firsts 
of its kind and subsidized generoiisly by an appropriation from Congress. As in- 
other schools, the American Missionary Association was interested in its begin- 
nings, although it is now an independent corporation, receiving an annual grant 
from Congress. There were 506 teachers and students at Howard, representing." 
the sixteen former slave States and the District of Columbia. 

ED 1902 19 



290 EDUCATION REPORT, 1901-1902. 

In 1870 the American Missionary Association was furnishing education to 21,840 
pupils. Besides this it was doing a great work in other directions. Its teaching 
and missionary force numbered 3,161. The reports from the field secretaries 
in 1870 showed that the new public-school system was beating its way up to 
success against great opposition, although the disordered state of political and 
industrial affairs was largely responsible for the resistance. In several of the 
States, as in Virginia at Hampton, the legislature cooperated with the American 
Missionary Association by subsidies for their schools. From this time the Freed- 
men's Bureau withdrew its aid from the American Missionary Association. It 
had disbursed $213,000 for Southern education through this agency. One of the 
most vitalizing forces of this early work was the religious zeal and consecration 
which surrounded it with an atmosphere siircharged with power and love. The 
teachers all worked on what would be a pittance in the North, and assumed bur- 
dens in and out of school hours that, of themselves, would often appear to be a 
hardship in a,ny well-organized community. They lived in crowded dorraitories 
with their students, generally partaking of the inferior diet which, although often 
better than these scholars had ever known, was of a quality ill-adapted to their 
own health. They were always in reach of these children, who needed everything, 
and obliged to sustain a relation far more resembling a public reform institution 
than a school. The very nature of the work develoj>ed in all its superior workers 
an exaggerated and often a morbid sense of responsibility, which held them to 
their posts with the courage of a soldier on a perilous outpost, only to be vacated 
at the risk of disgrace and m.aintained at the great risk of collapse of health. 
Numbers of these excellent teachers laid down their lives in this work as certainly 
as the soldiers who fell in battle ; indeed , comparatively few of them have ever been 
able to bear the strain of the work for a long succession of years. Of course they 
were not received in any proper social or even, religions fellowship by the white 
peoi)le among whom, they came to serve. Yet there were noble exceptions to this 
exclusiveness, and many a lifelong friendship dates from an acquaintance formed 
during these years of service in the Southland. It is probable that this phase of 
the situation was unconsciously exaggerated, especially by the women teachers. 
Their schools were generally established at a distance from the social center of 
the villages and cities in which they were situated. At that time there were few 
or no means of rapid transit, even in the larger towns. The teachers were gen- 
erally overworked and unable to place themselves in the way of making acquaint- 
ances, perhaps sometimes, although very useful in their work, without the social 
interest or tact to make their way in this respect. The people whose social 
acquaintance would have been a pleasure were themselves, to a great extent, 
under a cloud, often of personal affliction, made doubly severe by the straitened 
circumstances that forbade the old-time social hospitality, and under the pecu:liar 
circumstances made it next to impossible to seek new friends among the teachers 
of their former emancipated slaves. The class most accessible, not only to the 
men but to the v/omen, consisted of the public men, the physicians, superior 
teachers, and public-school oiScials, who were more frequently brought in con- 
tact with the mission schools, and from the first were glad to avail themselves of 
all the service in conventions, institutes, etc., which the newcomers had the 
strength and time to afford. It can truly be said that there was no considerable 
portion of the superior i^eople of the South who ever showed any persistent and 
public hostility to this work. 

The reports of the teachers, missionaries, and agents of the American Missionary 
A-Ssociation in these years read like a perpetual romance, and in future years will 
be regarded by the historian, jDoet, and educator as most valuable material for the 
illustration of this period. This peculiar condition continued until as late as 1880. 
■One hundred years hence the vast body of publication that grew up around these 



THE NOKTHERN CHURCHES AND THE FEEEDMEJN". 291 

schools will fm'nisli the material for an important division of our new American 
literature. Especially will the historian of education, who at the begmning of the 
second century of the Republic seems to be just coming to a sense of his place in 
the national literature, find in these interesting records of the adoption and 
the rehabilitation of the former things the wondrous versatility of the American 
people, making the Republic itself the world's '"nation of all work." The 
spectacle of more than five millions of slaves coming up from the darkness of 
centuries of pagan barbarism through the experience of two hundred and fifty 
years of chattel bondage into the possession of full citizenshii) in the world's 
chief republic was also a demonstration of the power of Christianity and t}ie 
progress of humanity never to be left out of the history of mankind. 

It ma J' be noticed that by 1880 the American Missionary Association, which at the 
beginning had included a large constituency from the different evangelical Protes- 
tant denominations, had finally become a representative of the evangelical Congre- 
gational churches of the country. In 1881 a constitutional re\'ision of the charter 
adjusted tjie association to its new i)osition. The thirty-fifth annual report places 
its expenditure for educational work among white and colored children and youth 
at $180,398.97, and its entire expenditure for all purposes at $244,578.96. The 
State of Massachusetts had furnished $150,000 of this sum. In addition to this 
the association had received for education through State aid for colored schools 
and in various other ways large sums in money and supplies. Its educational 
outfit in 1880 was 8 chartered institutions of the higher education, under tlie 
titles of college, university, and institute; 111 high and normal, and 35 common 
schools; instructed by 230 teachers and missionaries. 

In 1886, at the end of forty years of work, the association moved on a new line 
of work among the 2,000,000 of white people in the great central mountain world 
of the South. Out of this population had come tv>'o of the Presidents of the 
United States — Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson. This class of the South- 
ern i>eople, by a large majority, was favorable to the Union during the civil war 
and furnished a most efficient section of the Army of the Southwest. But the 
masses of these peojDle twenty years after the dawn of peace remained largely 
illiterate. From the center of operations at Berea College. Kentucky, with which 
the American Missionary Association had always maintained a friendly relation, 
a group of valuable schools has come up under the direct control of the associa- 
tion, into which an increasing number of the more ambitious and intelligent of 
the young mountain people have been gathered. Several of these seminaries are 
established in the new villages which have been developed by the extension 
through the vast, and to-day by far the most interesting, portion of the undevel- 
oi)ed country east of the Mississippi River, of the great railroad systems connect- 
ing the East and the West, and have proved themselves among the most notable 
agencies in the uplifting of the people of the entire district. 

In 1888 the American Missionary Association was reenforced by the generous 
gift of $1,000,000 by Mr. Daniel Hand, an aged retired merchant, residing at Guil- 
ford, Conn. Mr. Hand was born in 1801, of good Puritan stock, and until the age 
of 18 worked on his father's farm in Connecticut. In 1818 he removed to Augusta, 
Ga. , entering into business with his uncle, an old merchant of that city and Savan- 
nah. Daniel Hand succeeded to the house and, up to a few years before the 
breaking out of the civil war, was a leading member of the firm. Fifteen years 
before 1860 he admitted Mr. G. W. Williams, of South Carolina, to a business 
arrangement in which the partners had. an equal interest. At the breaking out 
of hostilities Mr. Hand v/as at the head of the capital invested in Charleston. 
During the war he resided at Asheville, N. C, relying upon Mr. Williams in 
Charleston for the general charge of affairs. After a great deal of litigation, 
largely through the personal influence of his old partner he saved the house from 



292 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1901-1902. 

wreck. At the age of 88 he made this great bequest to the American Missionary 
Association. He wisely left to the directors of the association the manner of its 
expenditure, premising that only the income should be expended annually and 
suggesting that it should be used largely as a student aid fund of $100 a year for 
promising students. 

With this reenfbrcement the association launched out in a wide expansion, so 
that it subsequently found itself involved in a debt that compelled immediate 
attention. The sinking fund of $100,000 was established and a policy of economy 
adopted. 

At the jubilee meeting in 1896, held in Boston, the association was welcomed by 
the governor of the State and the mayor of the city, and the sermon was preached 
by Dr. Lyman Abbott, editor of the Outlook, successor of Rev. Henry Ward 
Beecher, of the Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, N. Y. The receipts of this year 
were $340,798.65 and the expenditures .$311,223.85; the debt having decreased from 
$96,000 to $86,000. The income of the Hand fund was $68,830. This year was 
the fiftieth anniversary of the association. The will of Mr. Hand had left a large 
additional sum to the cause. From 1860 to 1893 the expenditures of the American 
Missionary Association in the South nearly reached the large sum of $11,610,000. 
In 1898 the association reported 6 chartered institutions, 44 normal and graded and 
27 common schools, with 413 teachers and 12,348 students. 

Of all the mission educational enterprises of the Northern Protestant evangeli- 
cal churches, the American Missionary Association seems to have borne in mind 
most completely the idea of working in connection with the Southern States and 
people in the upbuilding of the common school for the colored race. It has, more 
than others, discouraged the mischievous habit of engrafting the old-time paro- 
chial school on the churches that have been developed by its missionary activity. 
In three of these States — Virginia, Mississippi, and Georgia — at different times its 
larger schools have been subsidized by the State in the interest of their normal 
and industrial departments. It has not shown the usual desire to retain its origi- 
nal authority or to utilize its bounty to acquire the perpetual educational control 
of its schools. Four of the most important schools of the higher order with 
which it has been connected and v\?-hich have been liberally aided by it are now 
entirely separated from it — Howard, Washington, D. C. ; Hampton, Virginia; 
Eerea, Kentucky, and Atlanta University, Georgia. The explanation of this may 
be found in the fact, already stated, that although the American Missionary Asso- 
ciation first united with several of the evangelical Protestant churches in its work 
among the colored people, each of these associations in turn has preferred to sepa- 
rate itself from others and organize on a more decided and exclusive denomina- 
tional basis, looking to the church it represents for its support and guided by the 
sectarian policy thereof. This has left the American Missionary Association, like 
the A. B. C. F. M. , virtually in charge for the evangelical Congregational Church. 
It was in New England, which for one hundred and fifty years of the colonial life 
was exclusively committed to this form of Congregational Church government, 
the only ecclesiastical polity that owes its origin to the Christian people of this 
Republic, that the people's common school was developed and alone sustained 
until the close of the war of independence. That original interest in and connec- 
tion with the common school by the Congregational clergy and laity has never 
been lost by the members of this great and growing religious organization. It 
has not, like the three great remaining Evangelical Protestant churches, been 
ruptured by a sectional secession from the original body; as, previous to the close 
of the civil war there were, outside a fev/ congregations in the border cities, no 
Congregational churches in the Southern States. Hence it has been called to 
encounter no sharp conflict with a rival church of its own household and has 
been left more exclusively to the radical work of preparing the colored race for a 



THE ISrORTHERiN^ CHUECHES AND THE FREEDMEN. 293 

sviperior form of religion through a general uplift of mental, moral, social, and 
industrial life, in which all the habits and the general spirit of society will become 
the most powerful teachers and the new citizenship of the race become at once a 
TTniversity and a church. There is nothing in the idea or the policy of the Amer- 
ican Missionary Association that will forbid any or all of its present educational, 
foundations, as new times and changed circumstances might demand, to retire 
amicably from its denomination control and become independent or even State 
institutions for the mental, moral, and industrial training of the class of students 
that has always been found under its benign and progressive influence. 

In 1891 the American Missionary Association reported 8 schools of the higher 
and secondary tyiie, 4 seminaries for the mountain whites in North Carolina, 
Kentucky, and Tennessee, 2 for Indians iti Nebraska, and 93 other normal, indus- 
trial, graded, and primary schools. Its church work is almost entirely confined to 
the very poor among the Indians, and the lowland colored people of the South, with 
a growing interest for the people of the Soiithern mountains. Altogether there 
are 106 schools, with 15,353 pupils, and 343 churches, with 708 missionaries and 
13,905 church members, the majority in the South. A bureau of woman's work 
is connected with the association. 

THE FREEDMAN'S AID SOCIETY OF THE METHODIST EPISCOPAL, CHURCH. 

The first report of this society furnishes a complete account of its organization 
in 1866, the reasons for it, and its preliminary operations until May, 1868. It was 
established in response to a call, dated March 8, 1866, and signed by Bishop D. W. 
Clark, representing the board of bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
During the progress of the civil war the original work for the Freedmen in the 
North was carried on by a variety of Freedman's aid associations formed in 
Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, and Chicago during the years 1863-63. 
The first call was for the relief of the physical condition of the "contrabands," 
and it has already been related how this aid was dispensed largely through the 
agency of the Union Army, while supplies and money were forthcoming from 
these and private agencies. In 1864 the general conference of the Methodist 
Episcopal Church indorsed these additional methods of charitable aid. But as 
early as 1863-63 the call was made for additional effort in behalf of the mental 
and moral elevation of these people. Teachers were sent to the seaboard in 1803 
and to the valley of the Mississippi in 1883. The physical needs of the Freedmen 
were so well supplied by the arrangements for their self-support on the vacated 
lands and in the Army, as soldiers and laborers, that after 1863 the chief need of 
assistance was for the maintenance of schools and teachers. 

The beginning of this great v/ork seemed at first to be an open door of invitation 
by Divine Providence for the long-desired and prayed-for, but slow in coming, 
union of the different di-vnsions of the Protestant Church in some one grand and 
voluntary enterprise for the uplift of humanity. But it was soon found that here 
the churches were the first to break the bond. It was decided that the educa- 
tional workers among the negroes should be members of the churches of the evan- 
gelical type of creed. This, of course, would leave outside the large majority of 
the American people whose ' ' good will to man ' ' was manifested by undenomina- 
tional and practical labors and sacrifices, rather than throiigh the regular chan- 
nels of church work. First of all, the Friends, then the United Presbyterian 
Church, in 1863, inaugurated special denominational work among the freedmen. 
Later followed another division of the Presbyterian, and the United Brethren, and 
one type of the Baptists. In 1864 a committee was chosen by the old-school Pres- 
byterian Church (North) for the subsidizing of a proper missionary work. 

The Congi'egational Evangelical churches in 1865 reorganized the American 



294 EDUCATION REPORT, 1901-1902. 

Missionary Association, tliat had. existed since 1849, and reconsecrated it to this 
special work, and proposed to raise iiJ250,000 per annum for this piirx^ose. In the 
same year the Methodist Episcopal Chnrch organized "The Freedman's Aid 
Society," and the Northern Baptists of the regular "persuasion" called for 
$100,000 as a fund for denominational work in the South. The five leading com- 
missions already on the groxmd had fallen apart, the two in the West as a rule 
employing members of the evangelical churches as teachers, while the three in 
the East — Boston, New York, and Philadelphia — did not make church membership 
a necessary qualification for any position in the work. By 1866, despite vigorous 
efforts to combine these organizations in one free-school society, every teacher 
from the undenominational societies had been displaced and every Protestant 
religious sect save two had adopted speeial plans. 

It was inevitable that those great ecclesiastical bodies should all, in time, come 
to see that the field of denominational missionary effort for the final evangeliza- 
tion of the 6,000,000 of the freedmenand the legitimate propagandism of their own 
churches was such as had never before been opened. In jjlace of sending the 
missionaries of the cross beyond the sea to distant heathen or Mohammedan lands, 
all under foreign governments which vf ere not always friendly to such enterprises, 
here Avas a new American citizenship of 6,000,000 of our own freedmen, just 
emerging from two hundred and fifty years of bondage, needing almost everything, 
with an ardent desire to " learn their letters," and receive aid and comfort of all 
kinds from the North and the nation to whom they were indebted for their new- 
found freedom. 

The I'eport of the Freedman's Aid Society referred to declares, however, that 
they were more anxious to have schools for the freedm.en and their children than 
even to consider the founding of missions. This v\''as very natural, since during 
the period of their former slavery the negroes had all nominally been converted 
from paganism to about as much of Christianity as was possible for a people 
in their condition of ignorance and dependence. Their new religious zeal, as 
usixal, took the form of a direction to their own former denominational bodies, 
largely Baptist and Methodist, and often became a superstitious and fanatical 
caricature of the more enlightened denominational spirit of these great Christian 
sects. 

The desire to preach was very pronounced among the leading class of the freed- 
men, and it was soon apparent that one of the first uses of their liberty was to be 
the formation of great religious denominational bodies which, under the old names, 
really were the beginning of a church organization founded upon and represent- 
ing the then esisting condition of religious and moral culture among these people. 
The white clergymen of the South, although often greatly honored for their zeal- 
ous " labors of love " among the slave population, were generally dispensed with 
at this ci^isis in the new life of the race. It was therefore natural that all the 
Northern churches and clergy of the evangelical type should hasten to provide 
for the then vacant pulxjits and buildings, and on the strength of such work as 
they had done before the war, and their patriotic services during the four years 
of the sectional conflict, endeavor to take the reins and direct the civilization of 
the rising race. In the w^ords of the report, "The control of the edacational 
v7ork connected with missions was as necessary to success as the work itself, and 
this necessity, soon observed by every denomination that entered the inviting field 
presented by the South, was the chief care and guidance of denominational 
schools." 

Of course, by this decision, the church abandoned the ground already taken by 
the northern American people, that the most effective and reliable moral agency 
for educating and training American children and youth was the undenomina- 
tional common school. This conclusion had been slowly reached through the 



THE NORTHERN CHURCHES AND THE FREEDMEN. 295 

experience and perpetual conflicts of tlie two linndred and fifty years since the 
passage of the original public-school statute by the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 
1647. While a majority of the ecclesiastical organizations did favor the estab- 
lishment of the American common school in the reconstructed States of the South, 
and the more advanced of them retired from the support of primary schooling 
for the negroes as fast as it was supj^lied by the States and communities where 
they labored, and made it a permanent feature of their policy to train teachers 
for all grades of these schools, the schools of the Methodist Ei)iscopal Church 
were, at first, as far as possible, connected with churches. In 1868 the majority 
of the school teachers were the missionary workers, the same buildings being used 
for the school houses and churches, and the administration of the entire enter- 
prise was so interlocked that it would be impossible to separate in any way the 
exclusively educational plant. 

But the inevitable tendency of American thought and action in respect to uni- 
versal education planted every Southern State, by 1870, on the American i)olicy 
of an unsectarian common school, and, outside a few Southern communities, the 
attempt to subsidize denominational schools in these States has not been a sticcess. 
In obedience to this condition of affairs and urged by the impossibility of educat- 
ing 6,000,000 people, all in 1866 practically illiterate, by Northern Christian char- 
ity, all these great mission schools, like the denominational colleges and academies 
of the North, have modified their sectarian character, and to some extent con- 
formed to the policy of similar institutions of learning in the*new South. Still, 
ill testing this plan of school education among the negroes, it should always be 
understood that the only just and correct point of view is the whole field and its 
necessities as suzweyed and organized by the larger Protestant Christian sects, and 
that the educational was always subordinate and tributary to the need of the 
religious uplift and moral reformation of these people. 

It is not strictly in line with the purpose of this essay to give an elaborate 
record of the doings and results of this great missionary movement in the South 
for the past thirty-five years. As a feeder to the common-school system, on 
which the race must more and more rely* for the training of its children and 
youth for reliable manhood and womanhood and good American citizenship, it 
has maintained, and must for a considerable period to come continue to maintain, 
a vital and necessary connection with the founding of the American common 
school. It will be observed that, more and more, its academical and normal 
schools are conforming to the methods of instruction and discipline and especially 
of industrial training that are best known under the general title of '"The new 
education." Still, the fundamental purpose of all these great ^-nd useful bodies 
is the same as that of the churches by which they are sujiported and also mainly 
relied on to shape their policy, and whose teachers are chiefly found in all 
important positions in their school work. 

It is not necessary that the most earnest advocate of the American common 
school in all its departments should look with disfavor or in any spirit of hostile 
criticism on any of these great schools, which are regarded by their workers in con- 
formity to popular nomenclature as ' ' Christian ' ' instead of ' ' secular. ' ' The great 
\vork of the moral and spiritual ui)lift of mankhad is the radical motive of these 
schools, as of the Christian churches, and much as we may deplore the inevitable 
results of these sectarian divisions and the hindrance to educational development 
by the contentions and rivalries of the denominational system of schooling in 
general, there was never a better work done by any people in any land than has 
been achieved by the results of forty years of missionary and educational activity 
in the type of schools now under consideration, and there has been no expenditure 
of time, money, and effort for the general uplifting of God's "little ones" that 
has resulted in more benefit than has been achieved by the disbursement of more 



296 EDUCATION REPORT, 1901-1902. 

than $50,000,000 tliro-agh the schools and churches in the social and industrial 
improvement of the colored and white people of the humbler class in 16 States. 

The churches of the Methodist Episcopal body of the North responded to the 
original appeal with remarkable promptitude, although the country was in the 
agonies of one its periodical spasms of " financial depression. " In the seventeen 
months ending March 31, 1868, $58,477.69 ($.54,231.73 in cash) was collected, of 
which $35,815.83 was expended in field work in 9 States. There were 59 schools 
with 124 teachers, and, in 1868, 7,000 pupils. Only half the teachers drew full 
support from the territory and the remainder cost $10 per month. A large num- 
ber of the teachers were ministers of the gospel who labored both in church and 
school, and all the teachers served in the Sunday as well as the day schools. The 
general outcome of the work could not be better described than in the words of 
the superintendent: 

Our schools have rendered essential aid in the work of restoring social order; 
in bringing about friendly relations between the employers and laborers; in pro- 
moting habits of cleanliness, industry, economy, purity, and morality; rendering 
more emphatic the grand distinctions between right and wrong, falsehood and 
truth; enforcing fidelity to contracts; portraying the terrible consequences of 
intemperance, 'licentiousness, profanity, lying, and stealing; teaching them to 
respect the rights of others while they are prompt to claim protection for 
themselves. The teachers have furnished for the freedmen a vast amount of 
valuable information in regard to the practical matters of life which could be 
obtained novfhere else. The schools have met a great want which no military or 
political organization could supply, and without which it will be impossible for 
peace and harmony to be restored. Our teachers have been pioneers in the work 
of reconciliation, and are laying a foundation upon which the most enduring 
superstructure can be reared. 

In fact the only fair and appropriate way of estimating this peculiar combina- 
tion of church, school, and home in the Southern educational work during the 
past generation among the negroes is to regard it as a vast university of all work; 
a continental training in the new American civilization to which the younger 
generation of the freedmen had been so wonderfully summoned. Like the 
lyceum of the old and the Chautauqua assembly and summer school of the later 
times, it was a characteristic development of our American educational life, as 
sincere and praiseworthy in motive, in social and religious as in industrial and 
political affairs. As the years go on and the educators of the colored race come 
to a full recognition of their opportunities and obligations in respect to this class 
of pupils, much of what was an imperative necessity in the first generation will be 
dropped and the more imi^ortant of these seminaries will become the permanent 
academical, industrial, and collegiate foundations for the increasing numbers of 
this race. And then it may be seen that the apparent presumption of naming a 
school of 500 boys and girls in the elements of useful knowledge, the first genera- 
tion of their people ever gathered in a schoolroom , a " college " or " university , ' ' has 
been justified by giving to the country half a century later a class of institutions 
of the higher education in the best sense, seminaries of the higher Christian civil- 
ization, "universities" more in accordance Vi'ith the grand ideal of John Milton 
than are yet to be found in any of the great educational institutions of to-day. 

The report for 1868, from which these facts are drawn, was accepted with 
marked favor by the general conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church for 
that year, and from that day to the present the Freedman's Aid Society has gone 
steadily forvv^ard along the high road to success. The conference, took a wide and 
practical view of its duties in the situation. In its announcement it says: " When 
the Southern States are fully reconstructed and a wise common-school system is 
established, and a returning prosperity shall enable the maintenance of free 
schools, the work of this society may possibly be superseded. Already the society 
reports the establishment of three normal schools at Nashville, Tenn., Huntsville, 



THE NORTHEKN CHUKCHES A'SB THE FEEEDMEN. 29T 

Ala., and Columbia, S. C."' These early normal schools were as yet rather 
academies, where the superior young colored people received the schooling neces- 
sary for a teacher's work, with biit little of what is regarded the professional 
training now everywhere demanded in the teachers of the people's schools. The 
necessity of help for teachers and preachers is noted in the report. Arrangements- 
were made for the employment and assistance of Dr. Rust, of Cincinnati, Ohio, 
as corresponding secretary, whose services during many years were so valuable 
over the entire field of Southern educational work; also Rev. J. M. Walden, after- 
wards most widely knovni as the chief traveling bishop of his church, was assigned 
to this work. 

Another decade passes, and in 1878 the eleventh ann-aal report of the Freed- 
man's Aid Society opens a view over a wider field -vvith greater results. The 
Methodist Episcopal Church has now 28 conferences in the South, 14 largely of 
white and 14 principally of colored members. 

These 28 conferences already contained 396,000 members, although the Meth- 
odist Church South and several great organizations of colored Methodists were 
working in the same field. In this territory there were 6,32G traveling and local 
preachers, of whom 3,365 were colored. There were 4,381 Sunday schools, with 
240,671 scholars, of which 2,033 schools and 96,474 scholars were colored. The 
church property developed by this ten years' work was valued at $8,732,716, of 
which $1,868,503 was in use by the colored members. Already this great school 
missionary effort by the different churches of the North had borne abundant 
fruit. The negroes themselves had not been deficient in zeal, and report 448,000' 
members of the African Zion and Colored Methodist Episcopal churches of 
America. One of the shadows cast by the denominational '"pairing off" of 
Northern Christians into church missionary associations was the development 
of the sectarian spirit in the negro race, while the church parochial school, 
adopted as a necessary expedient in the early stages of educational work, was now, 
after a generation, found often to be a positive and obstructive hindrance to the- 
building up of the effective system of common-school instrxiction. which always- 
must be the agency of civilization to the negro race. 

The school work of the Freedman's Aid Society had not lingered behind the 
church enteri^rise. Five chartered institutions, with three denominational theo- 
logical schools, two medical colleges, and ten seminaries of the academical grade 
were reported, with an attendance of 3,040 students, 1,000 of whom were classed 
as normal, in 11 States. It was estimated that 64 per cent of the'colored people of 
school age vfere abiding in the darkness of ignorance. " Of the 5,000,000 colored 
people of the country — one-third, perhaps, seem to have risen to a higher degree 
of comfort and a higher phase of life — one-third have sunk down to a lower plane, 
and one-third are left the victims of circumstances. ' ' The report brings to notice 
the vast field of Christian work open to women in the reformation of the family. 
" The great opportunity for the women of America is presented in this work, 
which God has placed at our door." In two of the schools a medical education 
can be obtained. The financial side of the society gives the least favorable 
accotint of itself, reporting $63,403.85 expended in 1878— only $3,000 more than 
ten years before. In the eleven years of its operation the Freedman's Aid Society 
had disbursed $715,852.40; 100,000 pupils had been taught by teachers educated 
in the schools of the society. For reasons not explained the public-school attend- 
ance had fallen off in 6 of the Southern States during the year. Even in Ken- 
tucky not half the school population had ever been enrolled in the common school. 
There was still a great field of labor awaiting the fit workers in the building for 
the children of the South. 

In 1880 the writer of this essay began the first of a series of annual visitations 
among the schools of all sorts in all the Southern States that has contimied under 



298 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1901-1902, 

the name of " a ministry of education " tmtil the present day. In the Clark Uni- 
versity, Atlanta, Ga., founded by Bishop Gilbert Haven, he found the most 
successfnl attempt to introduce industrial training in the mechanical and domes- 
tic arts ontside the Hampton Institute. This feature has since been developed in 
the schools of the Freedman's Aid Society to a remarkable degree. On the same 
college campus as Clark University we -now find the Gammon Theological Sem- 
inary, the most important of this class in the South, endowed and vnth belong- 
ings even superior to the average of " divinity schools " in the North. 

Another decade has passed and the report of 1888 reveals a steady progress. 
" One theological school, 13 institutions of college grade, 2 medical, 6 noi*mal, 3 
legal, and 12 with industrial departments, with 28 academies, have been sup- 
ported and aided. In these 41 centers of intellectual and moral power 328 teach- 
ers have faithfully done their work and 7,682 different students have been 
instructed, an increase of 10 institutions, 40 teachers, and 715 students over the 
preceding year. ' ' The race question is practically settled on the American policy 
of " local option." {1) " One society and administration for all people and con- 
ferences. (2) Schools among colored and white people, to be so located as to best 
serve the interests of the conferences to be benefited. (3) There is to be no exclu- 
sion on account of race, color, or ' previous condition.' Supervision in schools, as 
in conferences, is to be by the choice of the people themselves." It is noted that 
while the attempt to employ the educated class of the colored race as teachers in 
the mission schools " has resulted only in a partial siiccess in a few fields," the 
general field open to the colored graduate has been greatly enlarged by the Freed- 
man's Aid Society. During the year a new chapel has been built at Clark, and 8 
schools have been designated as centers where college studies could be pursued. 
The Gammon Theological School has been declared the center of this department, 
with arrangements for practical theological training, while the 12 academies are 
restricted to the sections nearest them. Four colored schools, admitting white 
pupils, were also undertaken. Different courses of study were arranged for 
every class of schools. In all these institutions there were 4,048 in the collegiate, 
269 in the theological, 66 in the medical, 67 in the legal, 1,455 in the industrial, 
and 3,589 in the academical departments. The teachers in the "collegiate cen- 
ters " make reports to the superintendents of the pupils pursiiing college studies. 
The society was already in debt $133,619.41, largely due to the purchase of lands 
and "building." The managers plead for an annual income of $280,000, of which 
the schools were- expected to pay in tuition and rent $48,179. According to an 
estimate of the society, the population of the 16 slave States was estimated at 
12,784,612. Of these 4,715,381, 10 years of age and over, were illiterate, 3,042,435 
of the colored race. In the conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the 
South there w^ere 447,016 members, of whom 226,833 were colored. There were 
7,326 preachers, teachers, and workers employed. These people were gathered in 
48 conferences, 32 consisting of colored and 16 containing only white people. 

i In the central mountain regions of the South, where the v/hite people were gen- 
erally loyal during the Vs^ar, the Methodist Episcopal Church, in 1890, had 100,000 
members, organized in 7 conferences. One hundred and fifty thousand volunteers 
went into the United States Army from that territory. The negro population in 
this region was very small. There were then 100 Grand Army posts in this region 
and the U. S. Grant University at Chattanooga was in effective operation. 
Largely by donations from the Slater fund, under the management of Dr. Attictis 
G. Haygood, the industrial work in the schools had greatly increased. The 
society eeemed to be fully alive to this important annex to its educational forces. 
The Woman's Home Missionary Society was founding schools of domestic economy 
in five of the larger institiitions, and the local missionary v/ork had been greatly 

. aided by the establishment of a missionary home located among the people, to be 



THE NOETHERN CHURCHES AND THE FREEDMEN. 299 

the residence of the woman missionary and the model for the imitation of the 
well-to-do colored people. One of these college centers, Claflin University, at 
Orangeburg, S. C. , one of the largest of tlie scliools for colored youth in the South, 
was for several years a department of the University of South Carolina, under 
the direction of the same board of trustees as the old college of South Carolina 
and the military school at Charleston for white youth. 

It is unnecessary to continue the record of the great work of the Freedman's 
Aid Society, the deeply interesting details of which have been written in the 
annual reports and a bimonthly publication devoted to this work of the arssocia- 
tion. The Methodist organization, discipline, and instruction in its mission 
schools are essentially the same as developed in the American Missionary Associa- 
tion. They do not vary in all these denominational schools, save in the polity, 
and, in some respects, the type of the membership. Few churches have done 
more of the proper i>ersonal school work than the Metlaodist Ei^iscopal. During 
the first thirty years of its existence the Freedman's Aid Society expended more 
than §6,000,000. Its chief school of the university type continues to be Wilber- 
force University, in Xenia, Ohio, established in 1857. The 65 institutions sap- 
ported by all branches of the Methodist Church for colored students, as late as 
1895, included 388 teachers, 10,100 students, $1,905,150 property, and $650,500 
expended in administration. Dr. Hartzell, one of the ablest and most effective 
workers in the educational affairs of the society, has recently been elected to the 
office of bishop, and is now established in Africa. 

The great develppment of the Methodist Episcopal Church in its educational 
policy is one of the notable features of the liistory of editcation in the United 
States during the past thirty years. The Chautauqua Assembly, established thirty 
years ago by the present Bishop Vincent, a native of Alabama, is one of the raost 
characteristic and triumphant developments of American genius for all educa- 
tional work. The new American University at Washington, D. C. , will fitly crown 
this half century of effort. 

In 1901 the Freedman"s Aid Society reports: "From its humble beginning of 
more than a quarter of a century since, when there was only one teacher, A\dth a 
borrowed capital of $800, it has to-day 47 institutions of Christian learning, about 
eqtially divided between the negroes and the poor whites, in all the former slave 
States, with lands and buildings worth $2,l'o5,000." It is able to declare: " Dui-ing 
all these years not a single student or graduate has ever been charged with crimes 
against virtue.". The reports from the schools were most encouraging. The 
attendance was the largest since the financial panic of 1892-93 and the number of 
gradfiates the largest in the history of the society. It is encouraging to note that 
special stress is jjlaced on the normal department and English branches. "Our 
aim has been not only to secure good English scholars, as opposed to Latin and 
Greek scribblers who can not speak their mother tongue, but especially to pre- 
pare well -trained teachers." It boasts that it has more teachers in the irabiic 
schools of the South than any otlier benevolent institution doing work in that 
section. After a temporary interrui:)tion, caused by the financial panic, the society 
had taken up its industrial work with new vigor, and asserts: " We have more 
industrial students, teach more industrial pursuits, and have moi'e graduates than 
any institiition or set of institiitions in the Soiith. The total number of students 
in all the industrial schools the present year is 2,906." The society approi)riates 
$90,625 annually; $79,975 to colored pupils, for 1 theological school, 2 medical 
schools, 10 institutions with the title of college ov university', and 10 academies, 
with 3 universities and 22 academies for white students. It expended for colored 
schools during the year 1900, $171,773.01; for white schools, $47,815.66; total, 
$219,588.67, besides a miscellaneous expenditure of $136,216.79; its total receipts 
having been $355,805.46. It still has an indebtedness of $154,891.34. The presi- 



300 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1901-1902. 

dent of tlie society is Bishop J. M. Walden, who, with Vice-President R. M. Rust, 
D. D., and W. P. Thirkeld, corresponding secretary, have been for many years, 
with Bishop Hartzell, araong the best known and most intelligent workers in the 
Southern educational field, 

THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH (NORTH ) IN CONNECTION WITH THE SCHOOLING OF THE 

FREEDMEN. 

The northern Christian denominational organizations which, at the close of the 
civil war, undertook work of education among the freedmen of the South, may 
be divided into two distinct divisions. The first includes the American Missionary 
Association, representing the Congregational; the Freedman's Aid Society, estab- 
lished by the Methodist Episcopal, and the edticational organization through 
which the Baptist churches operated. Although these were missionary enter- 
prises largely engaged in denominational propagandism, including the establish- 
ment of churches, yet in their educational work, which produced great inde- 
pendent and State institutions, of which Hampton, Va., and Tuskegee, Ala., are 
conspicuous examples, they put themselves at once into the most vital and sym- 
pathetic relations with the new common-school system for the colored race of 
every Southern State. And although for a period they somewhat failed to appre- 
ciate the importance of the normal and industrial training absolutely essential to 
the success of the colored teacher, yet they did furnish for ten years and more a 
large majority of the teachers for the more important free colored schools in 
these States. This tendency, despite a persistent ecclesiastical opposition in the 
management, is now so confirmed that these three great denominations, beyond 
comparison, retain their leadership in the Southern educational work and are 
to-day supplying probably the larger number of competent instructors, not only 
in the public schools, but in the State normal and industrial colleges throughout 
the South. 

Another division of these religious bodies, like the Presbyterian, Protestant 
Episcopal, the Friends, and several of the smaller sects, adopted at first the same 
policy as the Catholic Church, not only making their mission schools for both 
ra.ces thoroughly sectaria,n, but inclined to favor what is called the parochial 
system of schooling all the way up from the primary school connected with the 
church to the university. 

It was doubtless from the fact that these churches proposed to themselves this 
persistence in the old European method of education that their siiccess in collect- 
ing funds for establishing schools has never been commensurate with their wealth 
and general importance as religious bodies in this country. The church school of 
every degree has its uses every v/here, especially in the secondary academical and 
higher collegiate and tiniversity departments. But the educator or chtirchman, 
however zealous and consecrated, who proposes the planting of a little parochial- 
school annex by the side of every colored church, to the exclusion of iDublic schools, 
must be prepared for the indefinite postponement of even the elementary instruc- 
tion and discipline of the vast majority of the more than 2,000,000 negroes under 
the age of 20 years. After thirty years of prodigious effort by the Southern peo- 
ple themselves, aided by great missionary effort from the North, more than 50 per 
cent of the colored people of the South to-day above the age of 10 can neither read 
the Bible nor write their own name in a business transaction. The only way out 
of the inevitable disturbance from such a condition of affairs is the hearty union 
of the whole people, even better if aided by some practical scheme of national aid, 
to lift up at least one-third the population of these 16 States, of both races, into 
line with the American life of the present. 

Among the Protestant chiirches that adopted the parochial school system was 
the Presbyterian Church, North. As early as 1865 this church had put forth "a 



THE NORTHEEIf CHUECHES A:Nr> THE FREEDMETST. 301 

declaration in favor of special efforts in behalf of the lately emancipated African 
race." Six years later (1871), in the first annual report of the "Presbyterian 
Committee of Missions for Freedmen," we read that the first five years' work in 
1870 had resulted in a financial indebtedness of $17,789.15, besides an additional 
bnrden of $3,400 for real estate furnished. In preparing the schedule of school 
work for the year 1871, the committee "reduced it, with bnt three exceptions, to 
that which is strictly parochial, dropping with their teachers such schools as had 
no denominational church connections," with a view to scale the debt. They 
report $70,934 as the value of church property. There were 67 churches, upon 6 
of which there was an incumbrance of $5,933. There were 6,230 scholars in the 
Sabbath schools. 

In the year 1871 the entire number of schools was 45, with 58 teachers and 
4,530 pujnls. Biddlg Memorial Institute, at Charlotte, N. C, a theological and 
normal school; Wallingford Academy, at Charleston, S. C, with 800 pupils; the 
Normal School at Winchester, Va., with 95, and Scotia Seminary, for colored 
girls, at Concord. N. C, with 45 pupils, were all the institutions that were sup- 
ported outside the parochial schools. Complaint is made that the churches do 
not come to the help of the association, as was earnestly hoped they would, and 
the general assembly of the year 1871 at Chicago, " regrets to find that the work 
among the freedmen has not been sustained in a manner at all commensurate 
with its importance." 

In 1873 the expenditures amounted to $65,803.95. The churches still held back, 
and the debt was not wholly paid. The number of pupils in the schools had 
diminished by 1.000 since 1871. 

At the Scotia Seminary, for colored girls, at Concord, N. C, industrial training, 
needlework, and dom.estic economy were pronounced features. Biddle Institute, 
at Charlotte, N. C, in 1873 had some 14 Presbyterian churches in charge, was 
situated amid 8 acres of well-cultivated grounds, the property valued at $13,000, 
and had an able corps of teachers for its 100 students. In 1872 the Presbyterian 
General Assembly approved the work done and the call for $90,000. 

In 1876 the debt was finally paid. The high schools had been opened, the 
Chester, S. C, Brainerd School had increased to 331 pupils, and an enterj^rising 
colored preacher had collected $4,359 in scattered places for the work. The 
parochial type of the school keeping was still maintained. The most interesting 
of the new schools, in 1878, was located at Midway, Liberty County, Ga. Lib- 
erty County was first settled by a colony from Dorchester, Mass., v/hich, after a 
long residence at Summerville, S. C, removed to the seacoast of St. John's Par- 
ish, below Savannah, some time before the war of the Revolution. They estab- 
lished there a famous academy and a Congregational church. At the breaking- 
out of the Revolution the county distinguished itself by sending a local delegate, 
Mr. Lyman Hall, afterAvards first governor of Georgia, to the Continental Con- 
gress in place of a Territorial delegate, and received its name, on the organiza- 
tion of the State, in honor of its patriotism. For many years it remained one of 
the foremost of the educational centers of the State and flourished under its reli- 
gious organization. The close of the civil Vv^ar found the county almost depoiiii- 
lated of its white people. In 1898 the report of the school authorities informs us 
that " the freedmen of this county, in mind, manners, and morals, are evidently 
superior to this race in general," a result attributed largely to their training in 
the district Sunday schools by their former masters and mistresses. 

By 1880 the number of scholars in the Presbyterian schools had somewhat 
increased, and the expenditure was $73,000. In 1881 it is noted that the negro 
poijulation had largely increased since the war, the gain being 38 per cent; the 
white folk increasing only 34 per cent, while 33 per cent had been the average of 
colored increase during the last two decades of slavery. The colored population 



302 EDUCATION REPORT, 1901-1902. 

of the South in 1881 was estimated at 6,577,151. The management urges the 
churches to labor with more fervor in the work, and points to the reports of other 
denominations as a stimulus to greater efforts. The school at Charleston, S. C, 
had organized a distinct department of industrial education, with an attendance 
of 100 pupils. There were 1,537 students in the 5 superior schools. 

In 1883 the general assembly of the Presbyterian Church, North, authorized the 
incorporation of ' ' The Presbyterian Board of Missions for Freedmen of the Pres- 
byterian Church in the United States of America." The annual income of the 
board had risen to $108,120.85. The number of schools had increased to 65, with 
6,995 pupils and 129 teachers; all the schools " sti*ictly parochial." In 52 parochial 
schools there were 8,370 pupils, and 10,771 gathered in 158 Sabbath schools in 178 
churches with a membership of 13,883. The board urges the fact that 76 per 
cent of the freedmen in the South are still illiterate, besides 1,000,009 voters, of 
whom 69 per cent could neither read their ballots nor write their names. In South 
Carolina, Louisiana, and Mississippi the colored poiDulation was far in excess of 
the white. In 1885 a freedman's department of the woman's execiitive com- 
m-ittee of home missions was organized. In 1888 the work had been extended to 
the treaty tribes of the Indians. 

Ten years later, 1896-97, we find the work of this church for the Southern freed- 
men but little advanced. A debt had been permitted to accumulate, and the 
reports speak of schools suspended or cut down in their appropriations. The 
number of superior schools had increased to 6, the fine buildings of one, the Bar- 
ber Memorial, at Anniston, Ala., having recently been destroyed by fire. The 
day schools numbered 67, with 204 teachers and 9,443 pupils. The school term of 
13 of the 17 leading schools had been reduced one month; 12 in session only six 
months each; the parochial schools, maintained at the expense of the board, in 
session only four months in the year. The oince of the treasurer was consolidated 
with that of the field secretary. The general receipts declined to a lower figure 
in 1897 than in the previous eight years. During the twenty-seven years of the 
existence of the board $1,000,387 had been expended. A theological school for 
negro students had been opened in Alabama. 

It is not easy to understand why the powerful and wealthy Presbyterian Church 
of the E'orbhern States has fallen so far behind the Congregational and Methodist 
bodies in the support of its schools for the freedmen. It will be remembered that 
at an early date this religious sect had formed the backbone of the educational 
work for the white people of the Southern States, and has always been distin- 
guished for the cultivation, ability, and Christian zeal of its ministry. Perhaps 
an explanation will be found in the fact that in this church the central purpose 
of training teachers for the common schools of the colored people of the South 
has been almost ignored, there being only five schools of this sort, none of them 
of the first class in numbers and importance, engaged in this work. Their day 
schools have been "strictly parochial," and, of course, out of touch with the 
general work of the American common school. The financial depression of 
several years previous to 1897 told on all these missionary school agencies, and 
those that were exclusively ecclesiastical were the first to suffer. 

THE PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN THE EDUCATION OF THE COLORED RACE. 

Prior to the establishment of the commission for the education of the colored 
race in the Protestant Episcopal Church the records of church work among this 
people in the different dioceses were not kept separately. In 1866 the sum of 
$34,738 was expended in this VTOrk; in 1867, $38,309; but in 1879 the support had 
fallen to $8,519. In 1886 the sum total rose to $18,433. In that year the commis- 
sion for the colored race was established at the general convention of the church 



THE NOKTHERN CHUECHES AND THE FEEEDME^-. 803 

in Chicago. At first it consisted of a board of 15 managers— 5 bishops, 5 pres- 
byters, and 5 laymen — the entire work in each diocese in charge of the bishop. 
In 1892 the membership of the commission was increased to 21 — 7 from each 
order — and all bishops were entitled to attend its meetings. In 1895 the ntimber 
was again reduced to 15. The chairman of the commission is Right Rev. F. W. 
Dudley, D. D., bishop of the diocese of Kentucky, whose zeal and wisdom, as 
shown in his contributions to the literatiire of this work among the colored folk, 
are v.'ell established. 

The work of the commission is entirely under ecclesiastical control. It declares 
that " our chief need in dealing with the education of the negro race is to provide 
educated and consecrated ministers fully alive to the conditions and wants of 
their bretheren, and anxious to labor with earnestness and devotion to dispel 
their prevailing ignorance and lift them to a higher plane of Christian intelligence 
and life." For this reason the work of the Christian commission is to so great 
an extent mingled with the general work of the church that it can not fairly be 
treated as separated therefrom. Of the five chief institutions that have been 
established since 1865, viz, in Raleigh, N. C; Nashville, Tenn.; Washington, 
D. C; Lawrenceville and Petersburg, Va., only two — St. Augustine, Raleigh, 
and St. Paul, Lawrenceville — cover the usual type of normal and industrial 
schools. These are evidently of the better class of their kind, containing in 1900 
some 500 pupils and 23 teachers. The three theological schools have 32 students 
in preparation for the ministry. 

During the twenty years from 18GG to 1886 the Protestant Episcopal 'Church 
expended $351,514 in the entire church and school work among the negroes, 
and in the ten years from 1886 to 1896 the larger sum of $441,494, the total for 
thirty years being $793,008. The sum expended in 1895-96 was $56,880, and in 
1896-97 '$57,920. In the latter year the salary and office of general agent were 
abolished. 

The schools supported by the commission are all, with the exception of the 
five before named, of the parochial type of this church. In the fifteen old slave 
States and District of Columbia, with a negro population of 8,000,000, these schools 
had in 1896 an average attendance of 4,346. Thei*e were 61 colored churches 
in the Southern dioceses and more than 60 white clergymen in the South actually 
interested in the colored work. 

Vv''hile the work among the vast colored population of the South by this church 
is perhaps more limited than that of the other leading Protestant churches, and only 
indirectly can it be said to affect the common school interest of the different States, 
it has yet, in one respect, a decided advantage above that of some of the churches 
that are doing moi'e and are in nearer touch with the great central feature of 
popular edxication. The Protestant Episcopal Church, although divided diiring 
the period of the civil war, made haste on the advent of peace to close up its ranks 
and has wrought with great zeal and remarkable success as a united combination 
in every part of the Union. It concentrates its energies, to the great advantage of 
all the Southern churches of the body, in the work already described. Its bishops 
in all the fifteen former slave States and the District of Columbia are, in fact, the 
super\asors of the work of their own dioceses, and four of the five bishops, fotir of 
the five presbyters, and four of the five laity who compose the general commission 
are from the Southern States. The later organism, by which all the bishops are 
included as a sort of ad\'isory committee in this commission, testifies to a growing 
interest in this important mission. The Spirit of Missions has given a large por- 
tion of its space to the subject, and the discussions of the foremost clergy and 
laity are every year more decided in regard to an increasing zeal in the cause of 
the colored people. The two normal and industrial and j^robably an increasing 
number of the parochial schools are every year more and more conforming to the 



804 EDUCATION REPOET, 1901-1902. 

type of normal and industrial tuition represented by Hampton, Tnskegee, and the 
State institutions already described. In all ways it would seem that this church 
is in some respects more fully prepared than all others, save the Catholic and Con- 
gregational bodies, to concentrate its mind and treasure upon this point of mis- 
sionary work as the years go on. 

THE SOCIETY OF FRIENDS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE COLORED PEOPLE OF THE 

SOUTH. 

The record of the relation of the religious denomination of the Friends, or 
Quakers, to the institution of slavery is one of the most suggestive chapters of 
the ediicational history of the British Empire and its colonies in America. From 
the days of George Fox, the founder of the sect, its protest against negro slavery 
at home and in the colonies became stronger with every year. There were excep- 
tions to the general sentiment of the body, and Friends at different periods 
became slaveholders; but as far as possible under the conditions, especially in 
view of the severe laws against the emancipation of slaves in Virginia and North 
Carolina, the two States of the South in which the greater number of the Friends 
lived, the ijrotest may be said to have fairly represented the public sentiment of 
the body. Under discouraging circumstances, in many ways in the North and 
South they kept alive the agitation which, begun in a state of peace, finally kindled 
the flames of a civil war which ended in the complete emancipation of the 
enslaved race. 

It is asserted that the first important demonstration in the United States to bring 
before the public the duty and policy of immediate and unconditional emancipa- 
tion was by Charles Lundy, who was born in North Carolina in 1775 and died in 
1850. He removed to Tennessee in 1806. In 1814 he assisted in the organization 
of a nixmerous antislavery society and spent several years in this work. In 1817 
he removed to Ohio and published the Philanthropist. He gave up the use of all 
slave-grown produce and in 1842-43 worked with the antislavery forces in Indiana. 
His effort in the advocacy of unconditional and immediate emancipation preceded 
that of William Lloyd Garrison in the North. In 1821 Lundy removed from Ohio 
to Tennessee and for three years published the Genius of Universal Emancipation, 
the paper afterwards being removed to Baltimore. 

The result of these efforts was to strengthen the hands of the majority of the 
sect of the Friends who in Virginia and Maryland and through the South had 
steadily labored against the "peculiar institution." Besides emancipating their 
own slaves they had persuaded others to " go and do likewise," and several thou- 
sand negroes were sent through their aid to the North, although some of the West- 
ern States framed laws forbidding their reception. 

But the most decisive result of this opposition to slavery was seen in the emi- 
gration of large numbers of the Friends from all the States of the South Atlantic 
to the new land of freedom in the Northwest. Begun in 1769 in Virginia, the 
movement was accelerated by the opening of the West, through the settlement at 
Marietta, Ohio, in 1788. As the years went on and the protests of the yearly 
meetings of the sect became of less effect, and even numbers of their people were 
still found among the slaveholders, the scattering departure of Friends changed 
to their migration by groups and in some cases of the entire membership of a 
yearly meeting. The tables compiled by Dr. S. B. Weeks, formerly of the U. S. 
Bureau of Education, in his exhaiistive treatise on The Southern Quakers and Slav- 
ery, give the names of 2,178 persons, representing 1,000 families, who were recorded 
by the yearly meetings as " going West " from 1801 to 1860. 

The majority of these people found their new home in Ohio and Indiana, and 
several of the most substantial counties in these States bear witness to the excel- 



THE NOETHERN CHURCHES AIS'D THE FEEEDMEInT. 305 

lent quality of this popxilation, Wayne County, Ind., witli Riclimond as its county 
town, being a representative region of this description. Indeed, it is estimated 
that in I80O one-third of its population was composed of whit-e Carolinians and 
their children of the first generation. Although not all or probably the majority 
of Quaker ancestry, yet this denomination of Christians so largely represents the 
wealth, worth, and intelligence of many of these counties that their presence wa& 
not only a powerful influence against the growing i)ower of slavery in the Union, 
but an encouragement of the immigration of large numbers of the nonslavehold- 
ing i)oorer class of Southern whites, for whom life in their native States had little 
of hojje for themselves or their children. No class of immigrants to the West 
during the progress of the years has given a better account of itself in the develop- 
ment of distingiiished characters than the southern Friends. Besides numerous 
eminent persons in. jjublic and professional life, many a prosperous community 
of the old East beyond the great central mountains has l^een indebted to them for 
leadership. 

From an early period the qiiestion of the education of their children came to 
the front with increasing interest. In 1833 the celebrated Friends' Boarding 
School in Guilford County, N. C, was chartered. It was coeducational and 
received only the children of Friends, but its suijeriority broke down this limit 
and in 1S65 70 per cent of the pupils were from families who sent their children; 
on account of the merits of the institution. It oi^ened in 1837 with 2~) boys and 
25 girls. In 1850 there were 94 and in 1858, 139, of whom only GO were Quakers. 
In 1860 it foiTnd itself burdened with a debt of $39,000, which the yearly meet- 
ing was unable to provide for. During the civil war it was conducted as a> 
private school and came out intact in 1865. The influence of such an institution 
in a county so small could not be otherwise than great. In 1851 there were 854 
Quaker churches in North Carolina and 1,038 young people were taught in ISO' 
schools, all coeducational. Of 1,853 children only 8 over the age of 5 were out 
of school. In 1855, of 1,080 children between 5 and 21, none over 5 wei-e grow- 
ing up in ignorance. 

At the close of the civil war the migration of the Friends broke forth with nev>r 
energy. Between 1866 and 1873 10,000 people left North Carolina alone, among- 
whom were many Quakers. An effort was made, responding to a request from 
high quarters, to prevent this wholesale departure of a people so reliable. The- 
Baltimore Association of Friends, to assist and advise Friends in the Southern- 
States, was organized in 1865. Large supplies of provisions were sent and some- 
of the people were persuaded to return and others to remain in the old home. 
The president of the association made 35 journeys to North Carolina and lalwred 
with great zeal in prosectiting this vv^ork. The denominational schools were rehabil- 
itated and in 1866 reported 160 students. A normal school for training teachers,, 
the first in the State, was kept up for several months and the teachers thus- 
instructed were in great demand. In 1866 $33,534.51 was expended. In 1865 the^ 
Friends in North Carolina had been left destitute of schools. A superintendent 
was sent from Indiana, who labored for three years, followed by a second front 
that State for eight years. In 1866 30 schools had been reestablished, which 
received aid from the Baltimore association. In 1868 the number had increased 
to 40, with 3,588 pupils; 1,430 being children of Friends — the schools in ses.sion 
sis and one-half months in the year. In 1871 the number remained the same. Ik 
central North Carolina the movement was hailed as " one of the most favorable- 
evidences of reconstruction. ' ' In 1867 a normal school for the training of Simday- 
school teachers was organized. 

This movement eventually extended to the schools for the freedmen. In 1867 
the committee of management reyjorted 6 day and 33 Sunday schools, with 1,600 to- 

ED 1902 20 



306 EDUCATIOlSr EEPORT, 1901-1902. 

2,000 colored children in attendance. In 1869 34 day and 35 Sunday schools contained 
1 ,707 pnpils. Dr. J. M. Tomlinson, brother of one of the most successful of the group 
of able superintendents of the new graded schools of North Carolina, was appointed 
superintendent of these colored schools in 1869. In 1871 there were 800 pupils in 16 
schools, educated at an outlay of $1,308.61. After this the movement for the colored 
schools seems to have declined. The excellent character of the Quaker schools, 
always the most pronounced of all the Protestant sects in respect to parochial educa- 
tion, doubtless told against the rapid development of the common school for the 
negroes. Indeed, for a long time in all the Southern States the movement for popular 
education for white as for colored children was confined to the country and village 
district school, leaving the more ambitious of the colored students to find their 
opportunity for the secondary and higher schooling in the different institutions 
established largely and supported by the Northern churches, the majority of 
which, if they did not assume the name "college" or "university," contained 
a class in high-school and college studies. A positive addition to the facilities for 
the advancement of the negroes y<r&s a model farm, provided in 1867 in Guilford 
County, named after Swarthmore College, Pennsylvania. A great interest in 
improved agriculture was awakened thereby, and it was declared that the influ- 
ence of this movement extended so widely that 15,000 acres of land had been put 
into cultivation from this experiment. 

In 1872 the schools were placed under the general charge of the " Yearly Meet- 
ing." There were 32 schools, with 62 teachers and 2,358 pupils, and not a child of 
Quaker parentage in North Carolina or Tennessee had been overlooked. In 1880 
it was said that probably no child of this sect between the ages of 7 and 21 in 
North Carolina was unable to read and write. The moneys sent to North Carolina 
during the eleven years of this movement exceeded $138,300, $130,000 of which 
was for schools. Guilford College, to which many of these schools were tribu- 
tary, received the gift of a new normal building. 

The Pennsylvania Friends engaged in the work for the freedmen in 1869 
reported 29 day schools, 40 teachers, and 2,000 pupils schooled at an expense of 
$6,000. The Friends of New York by 1874 had invested $18,000 in schools for 
v/hite and colored pupils, and established a seminary of the higher education later 
in North Carolina. The New England Yearly Meeting has a college for colored 
girls at Maryville, Tenn., and the Indiana Yearly Meeting one in another location. 
The first class of Giiilford College v/as graduated in 1889. At present it ranks as 
one of the most prosperous in the State. In 1895 the Friends of North Carolina 
report 6 academies, taught eight months in the year, with an attendance of 530, at 
the cost of $1,776.25, with 14 schools, all preparatory for Guilford College. At 
the last report there vfere some 6,000 in the schools in North Carolina alone. In 
Tennessee, Florida, Arkansas, Loiiisiana, and Texas there are also the traces of 
the persistent educational work of this body. In respect to all classes of her peo- 
ple North Carolina has been a great center of educational life, as from her have 
gone forth some of the most important leaders of education in several of the 
Western and Southwestern States. 

Since the dissolution of the Baltimore association there seems to have been no 
general working arrangement of this sect for the stipport of their schools, although 
the effort has not closed, and probably funds to some extent have been collected. 
The Pennsylvania Friends still contribute to two of the best seminaries of the sec- 
ondary, higher, and industrial training among the negroes. The work of Miss 
Martha Schofield in her normal and industrial school at Aiken, S. C, is well 
known. This is one of the most successful of all institutions of the sort in the 
South. At one time it was. accepted by the public school authorities of the city,' 
a noted place of winter resort, for the schooling of all the children of the colored 
race. This school was established in 1868 under the auspices of the Friends, and 



THE NORTHEKN CHURCHES AISTD THE FREEDMEN. 307 

for twelve years it remained a day scliool. In 1882 it was rebiiilt and reorganized, 
and has now a large attendance. Its classes in printing and other departments 
of industrial training are recognized as of the most encouraging character. A 
flourishing school at Charleston, S. C, is also dependent on the Pennsylvania 
Friends for aid. 

The reports of the Swarthmore Corporation of Friends at Swarthmore College 
in 1896 reveal a growing movement away from the exclusive devotion to the 
parochial school among the more educated Friends, among whom is Dr. De Gamo, 
at that time president of the college, but later a professor in Cornell University. 
It was urged that the directors should more fully incline themselves to favoring 
the common schools, thus giving to the college access to a more extended con- 
stituency oiitside the sect. The increasing demand of the great body of the 
well-to-do Friends for superior schools ■wn.U doubtless more and more bring the 
leading educators among the Quakers into harmony with the great central 
arrangement of the American peoj^le for universal education. 

THE BAPTIST CHURCH OF THE NORTHERN STATES IN THE EDUCATION OP THE 
COLORED RACE IN THE SOUTH. 

The Baptist Church of the Northern States w^as one of the earliest to enter the 
field in respect to the education of the freedmen. The Home Mission Society, 
established in 1832, originally had in view "the preaching of the Gospel in desti- 
tute regions, more especially in the West." But at the call of the exigency in 
1861-1865 the society at once entered upon the "perplexing, difficult, hitherto 
iintried experiment of providing for such a vast multitude a competent leadership, 
composed of men and Avomen who had received some degree of training to fit them 
especially for the duties of teachers and preachers." 

Naturally the work done in the schools founded by the mission societies for 
these people at first was crude, tentative, elementary, sometimes misleading and 
unsatisfactory; j^et it proved on the whole to be of great value. Slowly, during 
the lapse of more than thirty years, these primitive schools have developed into 
institutions of learning modeled in large part after Christian schools of the North, 
but gradually adapting themselves in their ideas of instruction, discipline, and 
management to the peculiar necessities of the people for whom they were 
designed. 

The changed conditions among the colored people, of which one of the influen- 
tial causes has been the missionary work of the Northern churches, have been rec- 
ognized by no board of management with more intelligence than by that of the 
Baptist Church. No church has given to the superintendency of its educational 
work a trio of more competent administrators than Morgan, McVicker, and 
Gregory, who since 1891 have been in constant touch with the schools for colored 
students and pupils. The reports of these gentlemen have discussed the real 
problems of negro education in the South with a fairness and consideration of the 
difficulties and hindrances attending it that have been a model for all missionary 
work in the same field. It was inevitable that the early missionaries, coming to 
this inviting and romantic work at the close of a revolutionary epoch, filled mth 
Iiatriotic ardor and religious zeal, but practically unacquainted with the history 
and social and industrial conditions of the South, many of them for the first time 
engaged either in educational or proper missionary work, should have rather 
attempted to impose a higher Anglo-Saxon civilization upon their credulous and 
childlike disciples than studied the nature, character, and actual history and 
possibilities of the first generation of a race that had never set its foot on the 
threshold of any schoolroom. We may commend the reports of these able and 
devoted men, published in the proceedings of the Baptist Home Mission Society 



308 EDUCATION REPORT, 1901-1902. 

from 1893 to the xiresent year, as among the most important documents amid the 
blinding clond of literature in which the entire field of the education of the negro 
in the South has been enveloped. 

In the report for 1896 attention is called to the unquestioned improvement 
made by the colored people during the past thirty years — ' ' the dawn of a new 
day." The elements of this remarkable progress are noted as: (1) The establish- 
ment and support of a system of public schools for this race, including every 
grade of institution from the plantation primary to the industrial and normal 
college, supported by public taxation, as in all the public school States, at the 
expense of the general taxpaying class, 90 per cent of it being for the white popu- 
lation. It is believed by wise observers, all men of long experience and national 
reputation in common school affairs, that in due time this movement will "bring 
a common school education within the reach of all the colored youth of the coun- 
try;" (2) the great service of the Peabody, Slater, and Hand funds in furnishing 
industrial and normal instruction for the colored people; (3) the missionary work 
of all the Northern churches, by which " raany millions of dollars have been 
expended in the South in establishing distinctively Christian schools for the 
colored people;" (4) " the A. B. H. M. Society during this period of a generation 
has invested nea.rly $3,000,000 in this great work, by which many thousa,nds of 
colored youth have been taught and trained through periods of time varying from 
ten days to as many years. " 

On a careful inspection of the higher schools for the negroes of all the Christian 
missions in 1880-1884 by the author of this essay the most pressing need was found 
to be an adequate supervision of their educational work by experts thoroughly 
acquainted with common school affairs. The religious, social, and raoral train- 
ing in all these seminaries was conducted with great intelligence, good policy, and 
remarkable zeal and self-sacrifice in a way that greatly redounded to the credit of 
the workers in this department, and developed the marvelous genius for civilization 
that is the most hopeful characteristic of the negro race. But the management 
of the proper school work in the majority of these large seminaries was often 
little more than the transplanting of the college, academy, and district school 
methods of half a century ago by boards of denominational management not 
acquainted with the ideas and methods of ' ' the new education ' ' already in prac- 
tice in the common schools of the principal educational centers of the country, 
sometimes prejiidiced against any new departure from "the good old way." 
While these " old "ways " were getting modified, especially in the Northern States, 
by the pressiire of all the powerful agencies developed in a revolutionary epoch 
brought to bear on the school life of the new generation, many of them were 
almost pernicious when applied to a people like the freedmen. On the contrary, 
the vital spirit and methods of the new education were especially adapted to the 
schooling of a people whose only university up to a very recent past had been the 
life on a Southern plantation and the training of nature, with the undoubted 
powerful influence of the institiition of American negro slavery as perhaps the 
most effective elevator from barbarism to the verge of civilization up to that time 
knovrn in human history. 

The movement for thorough superintendence of the school work in all these 
institutions, save a few which, like Hampton, had been i^iloted in the right way 
from the beginning, was appreciated and adopted with great effect by the Baptist 
management. The three superintendents above named, each in turn, brought to 
the work indomitable energy, clear intelligence, and a thorough comprehension 
of the existing condition of elementary education in the most progressive of the 
common-school States. Among the supervisors in this entire region of educa- 
tional life, none has been more capable than Dr. McVicker, who, in 1890, was 
appointed general superintendent of schools by the Baptist Home Mission Society. 



THE NORTHEEN CHURCHES AND THE FREEDMEN. 309 

Dr. McVickei- came to New York from r.n excellent training in tlie Dominion 
of Canada and, for several years, was president of the New York State Normal 
School at Canton, St. Lawrence County. In 1893 a most valuable contribution 
was made to the general board of management by the election of Gen. T. J. Mor- 
gan as general secretary and practically superintendent of the work. General 
Morgan, after a valuable military experience in the civil war, had already served 
as principal of State normal schools in New York and Rhode Island, followed 
by an administration of four years as the head of the Indian Department at Wash- 
ington. At a later period, Dr. Gregory, who for many years had been known as 
one of the most distinguished educators in several of the Western States, was 
called to the office of siTperintendent of the Baptist educational work in the South. 

The report of 1891, by Dr. McVicker, contains a list of 14 schools of the second- 
ary and higher education, established by the Baptist Church movement in 12 
States and in the District of Columbia, dating from the foundation of the Way- 
land Seminary in Washington, D. C, in 1865 to Spelman Seminary for girls in 
Atlanta, Ga., in 1888. There were also 15 academical schools in 13 States and 
the Indian Territory tributary to these. By the aid received from the John P. 
Slater fund 4 of these large schools had been able to introduce a course of indus- 
trial training and had made a decidedly forward step in their organization for 
training teachers. The vigorous superintendency of Dr. McVicker had already 
borne the fruit of an organization of schools aiming to facilitate the much- 
needed schooling of the masses of students and act as fitting schools to the insti- 
tutions above them. The instruction of all the academical and industrial schools 
was carefully graded, especially for the aid of the colored people for whose 
benefit it was set up. 

In discussing the vital question, to what extent the society should contribute to 
the prosecution of this work and what modification of its policy should be made, 
Superintendent McVicker rises above the local sectional and sectarian views 
which too often have embarrassed the operations of the Northern workers and 
reacted against the edvicational operations of the teacher. The great benefaction 
to education in the Spelman Seminary, Atlanta, Ga., by Mr. John D. Rockefeller 
had provided a gift that enabled this school to largely extend its work of second- 
ary instruction. Still the friends of the cause understood the lilain fact that a 
crisis had come in the educational affairs of the colored race in the South. After 
a prolonged inspection of all the schools established or aided by the society, 
Superintendent McVicker urged the establishment of secondary schools managed 
and largely supported by the colored people themselves and easily accessible for 
the more ambitious youth of the masses of the people, as a most effective agency 
in the impending crisis. He urges the all-important point that the next vital 
condition of the development of the negro race is a manhood and a womanhood 
Christianized by self -development, self-sacrifice, self-control, honesty, steadiness 
of purpose, and thrift. These are qualities which are not the production of mere 
knowledge nor of mere school instrttction, however essential they may be consid- 
ered. They are acquired rather through well-directed and i)ersistent self -effort. 
It is self-evident that the colored people have now reached that stage of advance- 
ment that fits them properly for the exercise of a much higher degree of self -effort 
in educational matters than in the past. 

The general conclusions of the superintendent are that ' ' While remarkable 
progress has been made by a certain portion of the colored people during the past 
twenty-five years in everything that pertains to mental, intellectual, and moral 
advancement, it has been confined to a comparatively small number of the 
6,741.951 colored population of the United States. The masses of these are still in 
a deplorable condition."' Six present causes are named that explain this fact: 
(1) ''Unfavorable and exacting conditions; "' (2) "Indolent and improvident 



310 EDUCATION REPOET, 1901-1902. 

habits;"' (3) " The one-room cabin; " (4) "The imldnd and in many cases cruel 
and criminal treatment given to the women and children by the men; " (5) "The 
comparatively low degree of the social and parental relation and the presence among 
the people of many ignorant and in some cases nnprincipled leaders, ministei-s and 
others, who for purely selfish motives dominate over them." (6) ".It is dotibtfnl 
if sufficient emphasis is placed in the schools njpon the phases of work that are 
naost desirable and best fitted to render efficient help in elevating and instructing 
the masses of the negro race.'' He dwells with vigor upon a very notable fact — 
that while the students in thes^ great schools are " the cream of the negro race," 
yet, too often, after all the espendittire of money, zeal, and •self-sacrifice in their 
behalf, "their education fails to produce the self-sacrificing missionary spirit in 
any considerable number of them. ' ' 

The pupils in the schools are younger than at first and more inclined to prefer 
technical scholarship to the neglect of the character and of the disposition to 
engage in hard work and render self-sacrificing and effective service in helping to 
better the condition of the suffering and oppressed. His idea of missionary work 
corresponds to that so aptly described by Gen. S. C. Armstrong, as pushed to the 
very degree of failure among the natives of the Sandwich Islands. While urging 
a broader training and development in the industrial arts and especially the qual- 
ity of self effort, he still inclines to the fact that even this does not send forth 
yoimg people with the spirit of naissionary work for the vast body of the race. 
This is the most difficult and important work to be done with those who are com- 
ing forward as leaders of this people. 

The superintendent also speaks a much-needed warniiig concerning the inad- 
equacy of the teaching force. With all praise for the personal character and fxill 
appreciation of the work of the teachers in this great service, and full acknowl- 
edgment of the advancement, moral, social, and educational, due to this influ- 
ence, he asserts that the time has come when the claims of students, their aspira- 
tions and needs, and the higher range of their life Tvork demand a superior order 
of teaching. The investigations of the past year have brought out the fact that 
it is no longer possible to secure this higher grade of instruction by relying on 
the spirit of self-sacrifice and missionary zeal in the workers. The superior 
teachers, he says, in all these schools are now working for half the salaries they 
might command elsewhere, indeed many of them can hardly " raake ends meet " 
through the long Southern summer vacation if compelled to return home for rest 
and recuperation. In one leading seminary in eleven years the teachers had 
given to the school in gratuitous service, often through the expense of long sick- 
ness contracted in the work, the large srcm of $70,729, an amount nearly equal to 
all that has been contributed to this school by the whole of ISTew England. The 
plant of these schools should be again enlarged and especially the great work of 
training teachers and women missionaries should be eztended. The total receipts 
for schools during the year 1893 were $57,627.48. 

The report for 1894 opens with an inspiring summons to the negro race : ' ' Called 
as the negro is to compete with the white race in every department of activity, he 
must be prepared to comiDcte on equal terms. He must not be handicapped by 
any inferiority of preparation. He must neither ask nor receive any favor on the 
ground of race and color, but in the stern conflict of life he miist give and take on 
the basis of eqiial manhood." The place of Dr. Tui:)per in Shav/ University, 
Raleigh, N. C, one of the most successful of the early founders of colored schools, 
had been taken by Prof. Charles F. Meserve, siipeiintendent of one of the largest 
United States Government schools for the education of the Indians, a positive addi- 
tion to the upper strata of male educators in the South. The expenditure for the 
year amounted to $95,155 for salaries of teachers, the Home Mission Society con- 
tributing $75,315 and the Woman's Baptist Home Mission Society $19,840. In 



THE NORTHEEN CHUBCHES AND THE EEEEDMEN. 311 

addition there had been expended for buildings and other purposes, chiefly for the 
enlargement of schools, $77,824, making a total of $173,979 in a year of marked 
financial depression. The total attendance was 5,033, of whom 1 ,830 were prepar- 
ing to teach. An important f eatiu-e of the professional department was the nurse- 
training course at the Spelman Seminary for girls, in Atlanta, Ga. "A large 
proportion of the whole number have received systematic training in some line of 
industrial work." The society paid, in whole or in part, the salaries of 172 teach- 
ers, of whom 100 were women, 124 in the schools for colored youth. Fifteen of 
tiiese schools were under the entire control of a board of colored trustees, three of 
the higher and twelve of the secondary, although subject to visitation by the super- 
intendent of ediication. Thirty-nine of their 89 teachers v/ere entirely siipported 
by their own i^eople, who, in 1894, contribtited $13,202 in this way. 

The Baptist Board of Missions seems to have favored the inevitable tendency 
toward the instruction and management of colored schools by their own people 
earlier than the other Northern missionary boards. The public schools for chil- 
dren and youth, \s^th the exception of a few in cities, are under the direct care of 
teachers of their own race, although in the majority of cases directly responsible 
to a school board of which the majority — sometimes all the members — are white, 
besides the general superintendency of the school system of the place. In the City 
of Washington, D. C, where the schools for the negroes are most completely 
developed, the general board, containing two colored members, governs the entire 
system, while a colored assistant superintendent has immediate charge of the 
colored schools. For many years this office was filled with great success by a 
member of the Cook family, noted for its early and continuous connection with 
the schools of the free negro people of the District. In the State colleges for the 
higher and industrial training of the race the same policy is pursued, the teachers 
being all colored, while the State superintendents and boards of edtication have 
complete control of the outside administration. In the States of Virginia and 
Alabama the famous institutions of Hampton and Tuskegee are subsidized to a 
limited extent by the State, while their general affairs are in charge of boards of 
trustees representing both sections of the country and both races. 

The American Missionary Association, Freedmen's Aid Society, and Committee 
of Missions for Freedmen, of the Congregational, Methodist, and Presbyterian 
churches, respectively, the most conspicuous rivals of the Baptist Plome Mission 
Society in this work, have ijursued a more conservative i^olicy in this respect, 
their teachers being almost entirely Northern white persons. The Hampton Insti- 
tute has always relied on graduates from the most celebrated institutions for 
Northern white students for its teaching corps, with a very small mixture of col- 
ored instructors. Mr. Booker T. Washington, afterwards the celebrated president 
of the Tuskegee, Ala., Normal and Industrial Institute, was called to that work 
from a responsible position as the head of the Indian department at Hampton. 

It was easy to foresee that here was a jn-oblem that would tax the wisdom of 
all these organizations from the North. It can hardly be supposed that these 
great religious bodies will go on forever at the i^resent rate, pa jdng out a million 
or more dollars a year for the support of a system of schools which is constantly 
growing upon their hands and capable of indefinite expansion. As to the very 
large investment in the buildings and furnishings of these schools, which are 
among the best in that section of the country, there comes a question of deliver- 
ing up a property so valuable even to the white, miTch more to the colored people, 
to the South. Already in the Baptist, and to a less extent in all these schools, the 
question of promoting colored teachers to responsible positions has been consid- 
ered and has threatened disturbing dissensions. Superintendent McVicker, while 
urging the necessity of making the colored people more self-dependent and com- 
petent for administration in education, throws in an early note of warning in his 
report of 1894. He says of certain institutions: 



312 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1901-1902. 

The management of these schools is not in many cases what it shotild be. The 
men charged with it are not always wisely selected. They are inexperienced and 
have only a very imperfect knowledge of what constitutes a good school and of 
the functions and duty of trustees. They are easily biased by persuasion of friends 
and neighlx)rhoods in the selection of teachers and disposed to interfere unwisely 
in the management of the schools. 

Such warnings from an educator so competent and experienced in school work 
were timely, not only for the mission, but in the administration of the public 
schools in the South for this race. A great deal of the inefficiency complained of 
in the comm-on schools for colored youth in all the Southern States is due to a mis- 
taken policy by public boards of education in giving their administration entirely 
into the hands of the colored members. While it would seem that this policy was 
dictated, as it doubtless often is, by a desire to treat the colored population fairly, 
yet the practical result is the same — almost inevitably iilunging the entire admin- 
istration of the colored school department into the vortex of petty jealousies and 
exasperating contentions that so largely interfere with the proi>er influence of 
their churches. It would seem to be the duty of such boards, while giving the 
colored race a fair representation through their wisest and best men and women, 
to insist that the schools shall not fall under the control of a group of contentious 
preachers or politicians, but that the children and youth should be defended, often 
against the inexperience and even more destructive defects that still characterize 
the administrative work of this people. 

Attention was also called to the fact that in all these schools it should be 
impressed on the pupils that every year there should be sent forth an increasing 
number of young people who in some useful way could be missionaries of a true 
American civilization to their own families and neighborhoods, which often at 
great sacrifices and with greater expectations had given to their young what were 
to them ext7;aordinary opportunities for superior training and culture. It was 
also shown that the 5,000 students in all these schools, one-half of whom were in 
the professional classes, were being instructed at a sum many hundred dollars 
less than the one city of Baltimore paid its teachers in either one of its high or 
large grammar schools. 

The superintendent ansvv^ers the question of the Eastern contributors whether 
the chief responsibility of superintendency and management in these schools 
should be placed upon the colored public teacher, by a decided '' No." With all 
the encouraging signs in the material and other development of this people he 
declares that this policy would surely result in a rapid retrograde movement and 
lead to the ultimate ruin of the schools. The weak point of the colored people, 
even in the better educated class, is the lack of executive capacity and the dan- 
ger -from perpetual jealousy and contention fatal to the success of educational 
affairs. He returns to his former topic concerning the conditions of the masses 
of the freedmen after thirty years of liberty and a quarter of a century of 
American citizenship. It would seem that no argument was required on this 
point to any fair-minded educator after a, careful observation of the entire field. 
It was always necessary to meet the persistent demand of a growing party among 
the colored people that this great amount of school property and appliances 
should be committed altogether to themselves. But here is the problem which, 
before another thirty years have passed, will tax the seamanship of these great 
educational bodies to keep this splendid fleet of educational craft afloat in the 
open sea. The State industrial and normal colleges will avoid this peril, from 
the fact that the entire public school system is under the superintendence of State 
and local boards which will be largely composed of white persons in all these 
States of the South. 

But all these matters of administration fall into comparative insignificance 
before the previous question of the colored support of this sphere of education by 



THE NOETHERN CHUECHES AND THE FEEEDMEN. 31 S 

the Baptist Church. This church had ten years ago a colored membership of 
1,400,000, more than one- third of the entire number of the denomination in the 
United States. In the fifteen years of the service of Dr. McVicker as correspond- 
ing secretary the schools had increased from 8 to 34, from 38 teachers to 200, from 
an attendance of 1,191 to 5,000 or 6,000 pupils. Thirty-five substantial build- 
ings had been reared and a school property of $1,000,000 placed on the ground. 
The schools had greatly improved in quality and the cost of their maintenance 
had accordingly increased. At least 7 of the larger schools put in an immediate 
demand for a stronger corps of instruction. In five years $150,000 would be needed 
for the annual expenditure. The i)owerful competition of the schools of other 
churches woiild leave the schools of this sect in the background when left to the 
test of respective merits. The Home Mission Society has already found it impos- 
sible to meet this demand except by the sacrifice of important missionary and 
ediicational enterprises. 

The society is steadily falling behind in pecuniary affairs. A reduction of 40 
or 50 per cent in missionary appropriations shouM be made, if the schools in 
the South are kept up. It is safe only to appropriate $50,000 a year for this 
important vfork. A permanent fund of $1,000,000 is imperatively needed, as the 
present expenditure requires the income of $'3,000,000 at 5 per cent interest. In 
view of these facts, Superintendent McVicker urges the impossibility of siipport- 
ing schools of any save the superior class. The training of leaders should be the 
chief if not the only work of the schools of the society. The graduates should be 
not only prepared as teachers and ministers, but trained for leadership in every 
department of life, industrial, social, civil, private, and public. All theological 
work should be confined to the school at Richmond, Va. Only a limited iiumber 
of schools should be allowed to do proper college work, seven at the most, and not 
more than two schools be permitted to give a full professional training for v/hich a 
normal diploma should be granted. A careful system of examination and inspec- 
tion should be inaugurated in all the schools and the quality as well as quantity of 
the teaching force should be strictly considered. A large portion of the report 
deals with a bad condition of affairs in one of the institutions in Texas, and the 
burning by incendiary fires of several of their school buildings in Arkansas, 
Texas, and South Carolina. 

In 1895 the Baptist church had made a hoi:)efnl advance toward the improve- 
ment of the school work in the aiipointment of an advisory committee in connec- 
tion with the schools for colored people in the South supported by the Home 
Mission Society. The committ«e was to be only advisory, with no general or 
educational authority, but to have access to all schools and invited to present the 
results of their investigation to the two Home Mission Boards and the acting 
authorities of the institutions. This was a favorable movement toward what 
must inevitably come, the practical union and cooperation for all general purposes 
of the great educational missionary bodies, especially of the Protestant evangelical 
churches in both sections of the Union. Indeed, the practical beginning of this 
outAvard advancement toward some union of the sort is to-day evident to all 
observers competent to hold in one view the past experience and the inevitable bur- 
den that will fall upon these denominations if they continue the purely sectarian 
policy of expansion that has ali-eady brought the richest and most zealous of 
them to the brink of a financial crisis. 

The amount expended in 1895 for schools was $117,480.50, with a total expenditure 
of $134,554.83. There were 233 teachers, of whom 130 were colored, with 4.358 stu- 
dents. The report for 1897 shows a singular condition of affairs in the work of 
schooling the colored race in the South. The 29 schools were supported at an expense 
of $108,869.75. A gratifying feature in the case was the fact that the colored 
people, represented by the 5,000 students, supplied for teachers $20,137.32, and 
the board, $64,079.57. This sum, increased by other gifts to $32,591.31, made 



314 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1901-1902. 

a total of $106,808.30. There seemed yet to be no response to the call for the 
general endowment, regarded essential to the continued existence of the higher 
schools, although the secondary seminaries were aided by special gifts. 

Beside this large expenditure now during forty years in behalf of the colored 
children and youth in the South by the churches of every sect in the Northern 
States, there ha,s been a large amount of money contributed and a great deal of 
good work done by personal and private effort. Indeed, one of the most philan- 
thropic divisions of the religious public, including the Unitarian and Universalist 
denominations, and perhaps the larger bodies of the Christian connection may be 
added, with a great number of gemireligious benevolent associations, has never 
followed the example of other sects in establishing schools, although in pro- 
portion to its numbers and means it is probable that as much has been con- 
tributed, especially to Hampton, Tuskegee, and a variety of smaller enterjprises, 
as by the great organized ediicational and missionary boards. Numbers of faith- 
ful men and devoted women, some of the.best in the land, have through all these 
years kept alive, in the more* destitute districts of the Southern States, schools, 
missions, churches, along with an amount' of private charity which has done 
much to supplement the public efforts of the communities to which their benefi- 
cence has been directed. 

Here ends the account of the special movement which for the past forty years 
has wrought every year in a growing connection with the greater labors of the 
Southern people, directly and indirectly, in building their first general system of 
common schools. It was essential to the truth of history and to a fair estimation 
of the interest by the North and the nation in the civilization and education of 
millions of the new colored citizenship that this should be put in permanent 
record. All this has been done by these educational boards in a spirit as praise- 
worthy as has often been found in the similar work of the Christian church in 
any age or land; and every year it has been better appreciated by the sufjerior 
class in the States which have been the great field of their operation. Indeed, the 
time has already passed when this remarkable movement in behalf of the colored, 
people is regarded with disparagement by any considerable class of iDeople any- 
where. There will still be inevitable differences of opinion concerning the best 
m.ethods of educating a people in a condition so peculiar. It may be that at 
times and in special places the school instruction has been too far above the 
capacity of the: majority of pupils to be thoroughly or very largely incorpor- 
ated into the character and living, especially of large numbers who were too 
young and remained too short a time in school to be permanently affected 
thereby. But in the great rivalry of the educational agencies now at work all 
m.ethods have an opportunity of being tested, and a general drawing together of 
the superior educational workers in these schools will inevitably bring to the 
front the most valuable elements and forces developed by the entire movement. 
The churches have still a great work before them; first of all, " to settle up " all 
their differences which refer to the past, especially those connected with the 
j)eriod of sectarian contention and sectional hostility, through the twenty years 
from 1860 to 1880. There is certainly, ahead, in the opening century, a vast field 
of effort among the destitute places of our own population at home and in our 
new possessions around the world in which the united energies of the National 
Government, the chiirches, and the whole people may be brought to bear for the 
extirpation of the illiteracy of the millions who bear the name of American citi- 
zen or aspire to the possession of American citizenship. And when the people 
are lifted above the deplorable strife of partisan politics and sectarian ecclesiasti- 
cism it may be revealed to them that there is no grander work than the training 
of owv twenty millions still involved in the great national slough of illiteracy 
toward the broad upland of that American citizenship which is the loftiest posi- 
tion yet offered to a whole people in the history of mankind. 



CHAPTER XLI. 
SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE. 



References to preceding publications of the United States Bureau of Education in which this subject 
has been treated: Annual Reports— 1870, pp. 61, 337-339; 1871, pp. 6, 7, 61-70; 1872, pp. xvii, xviii; 
1873, p. Ixvi; 1875, p. xxiii; 1876, p. xvi; 1877, pp. xxxiii-xxxviii; 1878, pp. xxviii-xxxiv; 1879, pp. 
xxxix-xlv; 1880, p. Iviii; 1881, p. Ixxxii; 1882-83, pp. xlviii-lvi, 85; 1883-84, p. liv; 1884-85, p. Ixvii; 
1885-86, pp. 596, 650-656; 1886-87, pp. 790, 874-881; 1887-88, pp. 20, 21, 167, 169, 988-998; 1888-89, pp. 
768, 1412-1439; 1889-90, pp. 620, 621, 624, 634, 1073-1102, 1388-1392, 1395-1485; 1890-91, pp. 620, 624, 792, 
808, 915, 961-9S0, 1469; 1891-92, pp. 8, 686, 688, 713, 861-867, 1002, 1234-1237; 1892-93, pp.15, 44*2, 1551- 
1572,1976; 1893-94, pp. 1019-1061; 1894-95, pp. 1331-1424; 1895-96, pp. 2081, 2115; 1896-97, pp. 2295- 
2333; 1897-98, pp. 2479-2507; 1898-99, pp. 2201-2225; Introduction to Annual Report for 1898-99, pp. 
Ixxxviii-xcii; 1899-1900, pp. 2501-2531; 1900-1901, pp. 2299-2331; 1901-2, pp. 191-224, 285-307, 2063- 
2095; Circulars of Information— No. 3, 1883, p. 63; No. 2, 1886, pp. 123-133; No. 3, 1888, p. 122; No. 5, 
1888, pp. 53, 54, 59, 60, 80-86; No. 1, 1892, p. 71; Special report on District of Columbia for 18<39, pp. 
193, 300, 351-400; Special report. New Orleans Exposition, 1884-85, pp. 468-470, 775-781. 

This chapter exhibits, so far as information could be obtained, tlie present 
status of negro education in the United States. Tlie 15 tables require but little 
explanation. The amount of money expended each year since 1870 in the 16 
former slave States and the District of Columbia for the public education of both 
races, and the separate enrollment of whites and negroes since 1877, may be seen from 
Table 1. It is estimated that at the present time about 20 per cent of the public 
school funds in the South is for the support of schools for the negroes. The table 
shows that for the year 1902-3 the sum of $39,582,654 was expended for the schools 
of both races. The public school expenditure for the entire South since 1870 has 
aggregated $727,867,089. It is estimated that at least $132,000,000 of this sum has 
been expended to support common schools for the colored race. 

Comparative statistics of the schools for both races will be found in Table 2 for the 
year ending June, 1903. Summaries of the statistics of public high schools for 
negroes will be found in Tables 3 to 6, while Table 13 gives a list of such high 
schools, with information in detail. Tables 7 to 12 summarize the statistics of private 
institutions devoted to the secondary and higher education of the negro race, 
Tables 14 and 15 giving in detail the statistics of these private schools. 

Table 1. — Sixteen former slave States and the District of Columbia. 



Year. 


Common school 
enrollment. 


Expendi- 
tures 
(both 
races). 


Year. 


Common school 
enrollment. 


Expendi- 
tures 
(both 
races). 




White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


1870-71 




SIO, 385, 464 
11,623,238 
11,176,048 
11, 823, 775 
13,021,514 
12, 033, 865 
11,231,073 
12, 093, 091 
12, 174, 141 
12, 678. 685 
13, 656, 814 
15,241,740 
16, .363, 471 
17, 884, 5.58 
19, 253, 874 
20, 208, 113 
20,821,969 
21, 810, 158 


1888-89 


3,197,830 
3, 402, 420 
3, 570, 624 
3, 607, 549 
3, 697, 899 
3, 848, 541 
3,846,267 
3, 943, 801 
3,937,992 
4, 145, 737 
4, 144, 643 
4,231,369 
4, 301, 954 
4, 397, 916 
4, 428, 842 


1, 213, 092 
1,296,959 
1,329,-549 
1,354,316 
1,367,515 
1,432,198 
1,423,593 
1,449,325 
1,460,084 
1,540,749 
1,509,275 
1,560,070 
1, .594, 308 
1,. 587, 309 
1,578,632 


$23, 171, 878 
24,880,107 
26 690 310 


1871-72 




1889-90 


1872-73 1 




1890-91 


1873-74 1 




1891-92 .. . 


27 691 ' 488 


1874-75 






1892-93 


28 535 738 


1875-76 






1893-94 


29 223, .546 


1876-77 


1,827,139 
2,034,946 
2,013,684 
2,215,674 
2, 234, 877 
2,249,263 
2,370,110 
2, 546, 448 


571, 506 
675, 150 
685, 942 
784,709 
802, 374 
802, 982 
817, 240 
1 005! 313 


1894-95 


29, 443, 584 
31 149 724 


1877-78 


1895-96 . 


1878-79 


1896-97.. 


31,286,883 
31 247,218 


1879-80 


1897-98 


1880-81 


1898-99 


33, 110, 581 


1881-82 


1899-1900 

1900-1901 

1901-2a 

1902-3 n 

Total .... 


34, 805, .568 
35 998 667 


1882-83 


1883-84 


37, ,567, 552 
39, 582, 654 


1884-85 


2,676,911 1,030,463 
2,773,145 1,048,659 
2,97.5,773 1,118,556 
3,110 606 1 140 4n.T 


1885-86 


1886-87 






727, 867, 089 


1887-88 














' ' 





" Subject to correction. 



2253 



2254 EDUCATION REPORT, 1903. 

Table 2. — Common scliool statistics of the South, 1903-S. 



State. 


Estimated number of 
persons 5 to 18 
years of age. 


Percentage of the 
whole. 


Persons enrolled in 
public schools. 


Per cent of per- 
sons 5 to 18 
years enrolled. 




White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 


White. 


Colored. 




346, 241 
333, 290 
41, 185 
42, 968 
99,356 
403, 914 
602, 912 
245,207 
271, 969 
221, 981 
905, 569 
429, 672 
188, 423 
508, 552 
865, 979 
374, 293 
302,550 


296, 136 

128,458 

9,133 

20, 660 

75, 812 
376, 445 

88, 580 
230, 830 

71, 686 
332, 141 

46,469 
228, 526 
294, 962 
161, 919 
234, 655 
232, 144 

11,951 


53.90 
72.18 
81.85 
67.53 
56.72 
51.76 
87.19 
61.51 
79.14 
40.06 
95.12 
65.28 
38.98 
75. 85 
78.68 
61.72 
96.20 


46.10 

27.82 
18.15 
32.47 
43.28 
48.24 
12.81 
48.49 
20.86 
59.94 

4.88 
34.72 
61.02 
24.15 
21.32 
38.28 

3.80 


a 239, 055 
249,694 
c 30, 754 
32, 987 
a 69, 541 
300, 596 

c 438, 601 
136,488 

/ 176, 747 
192, 881 
672, 936 

a 314, 871 
134, 330 
393, 542 
558,061 
257, 138 
231, 720 


a 126, 116 

87, 895 

c 6, 141 

15, 768 

a 42, 843 

201,418 

e 62, 981 

72, 249 

/ 48, 257 

210, 766 

31, 257 

ag 149, 798 

154, 383 

99,234 

142, 075 

118, 463 

8,998 


69.04 
74.92 
74.67 
77.00 
69.99 
74.42 
72.73 
55. 66 
64.62 
86.89 
74.31 
73. 45 
71.29 
77.38 
64.44 
68.70 
76.59 


42.59 




68. 42 




67.24 


District of Columbia 
Florida 


76.27 
56.61 




53.51 




71.10 


Louisiana 


31.30 


Maryland 


67.32 
63.46 




67.28 


North Carolina 

South Carolina 


65.26 
52. 31 
61.29 


Texas 


60. 54 




61.03 


West Virginia 


75.29 


Total, 1902-3.. 
Total, 1889-90. 


6,184,060 
'15,132,948 


2, 840, 497 
2, 510, 847 


68.52 
67.15 


31.48 
32.85 


4,428,842 
3, 402, 420 


1, 578, 632 
1,296,969 


71.63 
66.28 


55.56 
51.65 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

West Virginia 

Total, 1902-3 . . 
Total, 1889-90 . 



Average daily attend- 
ance. 



White. 



ab 150, 000 
159, 225 
c 21, 500 
25, 918 
a 46, 283 
190, 368 

e 268, 720 
102, 189 

/ 112, 803 
115, 079 

d 444, 940 

a 185, 598 
97, 708 
274, 300 
365, 961 
157, 075 
149, 612 



2, 857, 169 
ft 2, 165, 249 



Colored. 



ab 90, 000 

64, 147 

c 3, 800 

12, 120 

a 29, 881 

120, 032 

e 41, 116 

53, 605 

/ 22, 712 

118, 096 

d 20, 191 

ag 83, 406 

111, 681 

68, 331 

88, 718 

67, 694 

6,924 



991, 453 
813,710 



Per cent of enroll- 
ment. 



White. Colored. 



62. 75 
63.77 
69.91 
78.63 
66.55 
63.33 
61.28 
74.87 
64. 18 
59.66 
66.12 
58.94 
72.74 
69.70 
63. 78 
61.08 
64.52 



64. 51 
63.64 



71.36 
61.60 
61.88 
76.91 
69.75 
59.59 
65.28 
74.19 
47.06 
56.03 
64.60 
66.68 
72.34 
68.86 
62.44 
57.14 
65.84 



62.80 
62.74 



Number of 
teachers. 



White. Colored. 



a 4, 451 

5,986 

ccl 693 

925 

a 2, 129 
6,890 

e 9, 021 
3,634 

f 4, 198 
6,524 

16, 174 

a 6, 898 
3,492 
1,Til 

13, 380 
6,871 
7,071 



104, 114 
78,903 



ag 



a 1,852 
1,488 
cdl38 

446 
«670 
3,452 
e 1, 428 
1,184 
/838 
3,398 

749 
2,833 
2,455 
1,965 
3,270 
2,173 

291 



28, 620 
24, 072 



a In 1901-2. 

b Estimated bv State superintendent. 

c In 1899-1900." 

d Estimated. 



e Approximatelv. 

/In 1900-1901. 

(/Including Croatans (Indians). 

h United States census. 



SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE. 



2255 



Table o.— Teachers and stadenis in jniUic high schools for the colored race in 1902-3. 





o 

o 

o 

CO 


Teachers. 






Pupil.s 


enrolled. 








6 

"3 


"3 

a 


3 

g 




Total. 




Elementary. 


Secondary. 


State. 




0) 

"3 

a 


"3 
1 


6 
"3 


aj 
"3 

i 
&i 


"3 
1 


"3 


0) 

"3 



"5 





3 

5 
2 
3 

4 

2 

6 
6 
1 
1 
7 
19 
1 
2 
3 
1 
6 
11 
29 
7 
4 


6 

9 

SO 

4 

5 

2 

10 

18 

3 

9 

7 

32 

1 

4 

5 

1 

7 

17 

39 

7 

5 


11 

18 

19 

14 

4 

4 

5 

5 

2 

9 

9 

20 

3 

2 

2 

""2 

8 
25 
14 


17 

27 

49 

18 

9 

6 

15 

23 

5 

18 

16 

52 

4 

6 

7 

1 

9 

25 

64 

21 

5 


58 

72 

218 

45 

67 

21 

119 

137 

41 

107 

140 

310 

16 

29 

20 

8 

87 

198 

489 

153 

61 


127 

186 

595 

104 

116 

77 

227 

413 

52 

197 

422 

695 

49 

52 

43 

9 

152 

415 

930 

478 

87 


185 

258 

813 

149 

183 

98 

346 

550 

93 

304 

562 

1,005 

65 

81 

63 

17 

239 

613 

1,419 

631 

148 






58 

66 

218 

15 

65 

21 

63 

136 

41 

107 

140 

310 

16 

29 

20 

8 

42 

173 

272 

114 

29 


127 

174 

595 

51 

91 

77 

149 

391 

52 

197 

422 

695 

49 

52 

43 

9 

93 

384 

697 

381 

51 


185 








240 


Diistrict of Columbia. . . 
Florida 


\ \ 


813 


30 


42 


72 


66 




156 




1 




98 




56 

1 


78 
22 


134 
23 


212 




527 




93 




' 1 


304 




1 1 


562 




1 1 


1,005 




1 1 


65 


Ohio 


1 1 


81 




i 1 ... 


63 




1 1 


17 


South Carolina 


45 
25 
215 
39 
32 


59 
31 
333 
97 
36 


104 

56 

548 

136 

68 


135 

557 




869 




495 


West Virginia 


80 






Total . . . 


123 


221 


176 


397 


2, 396 


5,426 


7,822 


443 


698 


1,141 


1,943 


4, GSO 


6, 623 







T.\BLE 4.— Classification of colored students in public hiqh schools hij cov) 

1903-3. 



^es of stud)/ 





Students in classi- 
cal course. 


Students in scien- 
tific course. 


Students in Eng- 
lish course. 


Students in busi- 
ness coiirse. 


State. 


3 


0) 

1 


"5 
1 


■3 


"3 

a 


s 

c 


05 
"3 


"3 

a 


1 


_2' 
"3 


"3 

a 


3 









1 




58 
29 


114 
51 


172 
80 


30 


« 


70 




3- 
109 


8 
379 


11 
488 


1 












46 


32 


78 




3 


5 


8 


9 

3 

16 

26 

2 


35 
8 
60 
58 
23 


44 
11 

76 
84 
25 






54 


98 


1.52 






5 
21 
27 


17 
43 
71 




22 
64 
98 


i 1 




13 
11 


62 
24 


65 
35 


15 


23 


38 
















56 


76 


132 








14 
90 
.59 
16 


36 
303 
134 

49 


50 
393 
183 

65 










3 
169 


9 
435 


12 
604 


12 

5 


36 
17 


4M 


Missouri 


19 


55 


74 


22 






Ohio 


17 
9 

1^1 
2 

75 
9 


39 
30 

4 

187 

20 


56 
39 

2 
35 

6 

262 

29 


7 


21 


28 


1 






1 


1 




Pennsyi vania 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 








6 
36 
25 
52 
105 
10 


9 
50 
55 
104 
356 
19 


15 

86 
80 
1.56 
461 
29 


r " 




11 
.59 
99 
34 


53 
131 
234 

83 


64 
190 
3&3 
117 


6 
2 


4 
2 


10 
4 


Virginia 


































Total 


393 


993 


1,386 


438 


1,102 


1,540 


5.56 


1.454 


2,010 


116 


163 


279 



2256 



EDUCATION EEPOET, 1903. 



Table 5.- 



-Number of normal students, manual-training students, and graduates in 
colored public high schools in 1902-3. 



State. 


Students, normal 
course. 


Pupils receiving in- 
dustrial training. 


Graduates in high 
school course. 




Male. 


Female. 


Total. 


Male. 


Female. 


Total. 


Male. 


Female. 


Total. 










30 
30 
105 


49 
300 
191 


79 
130 
296 


10 

3 

31 

6 

1 

2 

12 

22 

3 

16 

11 

27 

1 

5 

1 


20 

14 

112 

9 

1 

7 

16 

54 

6 

20 

40 

112 

9 

9 

10 

3 

19 

49 

65 

77 

4 


30 










17 










143 




1 
1 


4 


5 

1 


15 




15 
15 


80 

58 


95 
73 


2 


Illinois 




9 










28 


Kentucky 












76 


Louisiana 














9 










103 


177 


280 


36 










51 






38 
9 


38 
10 


389 


544 
38 


933 

38 


139 


North Carolina 


1 


10 


Ohio 


14 
















11 


Pennsylvania 














3 




15 
2 


20 
2 
4 

32 


35 
4 
4 

35 


8 


13 


21 


8 
11 
24 
15 

1 


27 




60 










89 




3 


5 




5 


92 


West Virginia 




5 




23 














Total 


109 


132 


700 


1,250 


1,950 210 


656 


866 











Table Q.— -Financial summary of Ihe colored ^yublic high schools, 1902-3. 



State. 


i 

"3 
o 

■gbi 
m a 

^, ft 

a 


a 

o 

> 


o 
o 

In 

D 

a 

3 


5S 

II 
bX)S P 

S2ft 
> 


i 
u 

o 
o 

o g 
u ft 

g 

3 


o 

■" ft 
a 3 

§a 

a 

< 


i 

o 
o 

o 3 

t. ft 
<p 

a 

3 


a 

o 
Is 

0) O 

Sl 

3 
o 

a 


i 
O 

o 

Is 
-si 

s.. ft 

0) 

a 

3 


F^ 

o 

a '^ 

3 
O 




1 

3 

1 
1 
3 
2 
5 
5 
1 


1175 

150 

2,370 

50 

290 

629 

959 

770 

3,993 


1 

3 
2 
1 
4 
2 
4 


$1, 800 
.53, 500 
285, 709 
20, 000 
12, 000 
23, 650 
36, 000 






















i 














1 


126, 230 


Florida 










Georgia . . 


1 
1 


S700 
2,000 






1 
1 


200 








2,000 


























1 70. ''60 


































4 

18 
1 
2 
3 
1 
2 
7 

22 
3 
3 


807 

3,927 

630 

700 

275 

25 

1,150 

1,549 

4,154 

952 

1,002 


5 

14 

1 

2 

1 


29, 500 
224, 300 

8,000 
12, 000 

1,500 


3 


5,340 


1 


8200 


2 


5,340 




















Ohio 


















I 


















2 


1,770 




3 

9 

24 

1 

4 


3,300 

60, 160 

179,316 

15, 000 

30, 000 














2 
8- 


1,120 
7,560 










Texas 


3 


131 6 


8,506 








1 


15, 000 






1 


1,500 










Total 


88 


24, 557 


82 


1,065,885 


16 


31, 720 


4 


331 


14 


45, 546 







SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE. 



2257 



Tablet. — Teachers and students in secondarif and higher schools for the colored race in 
1902-3 {not including public high schools). 





o 
o 
x> 
o 

Hi 


Teathers. 


Students. 




6 


6 
"3 

a 


3 
g 


Elementary. 


Secondary. 


Collegiate. 


Total. 


State. 


"3 


"3 

a 


3 

o 

H 


"3 


6 
"3 

a 


i 


"3 


"3 
1 


■3 



6 
"3 


"3 

a 


s 
e 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 


14 
5 
1 
2 
5 

19 
4 
6 
5 
8 
2 
1 

19 
1 
1 
2 

11 
7 
9 

12 
2 


134 
21 

5 
76 
19 
82 
19 
58 
22 
35 
16 

5 
86 
17 

7 
14 
66 
78 
60 
80 
14 


154 

28 

1 

23 

30 

176 

13 

62 

29 

67 

14 

7 

120 

6 

2 

6 

93 

87 

83 

122 

11 


288 

49 
6 

99 

49 
258 

32 
120 

51 
102 

30 

12 
206 

23 
9 

20 
159 
165 
143 
202 

25 


1,923 
432 


1,873 
471 


3,796 
903 


870 
159 

17 
169 

88 
838 
181 
277 
171 
237 
188 

37 
800 

48 

16 

24 
634 
354 
472 
399 

72 


1,288 
184 

17 
132 

85 
1,365 
110 
481 
176 
375 
194 

53 
1,201 

69 

27 

82 
706 
552 
571 
481 

86 


2,158 

343 

34 

301 

173 

2,203 
291 
758 
347 
612 
382 
90 

2, 001 

117 

43 

106 

1,340 
906 

1,043 
880 
158 


90 

61 

11 

410 



274 

42 

91 

2 

15 

7 



572 

107 


74 

26 

9 

138 



79 

29 

37 

1 

6 

1 



119 

163 


164 

87 

20 

548 



353 

71 

128 

3 

21 

8 



691 

270 


2,883 

652 
28 

659 

351 
2,588 

293 
1, 305 

220 
1,023 

262 

55 

2,103 

155 
83 

306 
1,812 
1,456 
1,066 
1,440 

112 


3,235 

681 

26 

338 

472 

4,026 

228 

1,768 

353 

1,201 

268 

70 

2, .563 

232 

128 

188 

2,108 

1,486 

1,425 

1, 7G7 

150 


6,118 

1,333 

54 


Dist. Columbia. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

New Jersey 

North Carolina. 
Ohio 


80 

263 

1,476 

70 
937 

47 
771 

67 

18 
731 


68 

387 

2,582 

89 

1,250 

176 

820 

73 

17 

1,243 


148 

650 
4,058 

159 
2,187 

223 
1,591 

140 

35 

1,974 


997 

823 
6,614 

521 
3,073 

573 
2,224 

530 

125 
4,666 

387 


Oklahoma 


67 
74 
1,101 
575 
467 
967 
40 


101 

106 

1,367 

748 

780 

1,270 

64 


168 
180 
2,468 
1,323 
1,247 
2,237 
104 


211 


Pennsylvania.. 
South "Carolina. 

Tennessee 

Texas 


208 

77 
527 
127 

74 



35 
186 
74 
16 


208 
112 
713 
201 
90 


494 
3,920 
2,942 
2,491 
3, 207 

262 


Virginia 

West Virginia.. 












Total 


136 


914 


1,134'2,048 

1 


10, 106 


13, 485,23, 591 6, 051 


8,235 


14,280 


2,695 


993 


3, 688|18, 852 

1 


22, 713 


41, 565 



Tablk 8.- — Classification of colored students, by courses of study, in secondary and higher 

schools, 1902-3. 



State. 


Students in classi- 
cal courses. 


Students in scien- 
tific courses. 


Students in Eng- 
lish course. 


Students in busi- 
ness course. 


Male. 


Fe- 
male. 


Total. 


Male. 


Fe- 
male. 


Total. 


Male. 


Fe- 
male. 


Total. 


Male. 


Fe- 
male. 


Total. 


Alabama 


15 
27 

3 

163 

16 

76 

1 
32 


19 

19 



33 

8 

89 

3 


34 

46 

3 

196 
24 

165 
4 
39 


31 

12 

9 

7 


23 

8 
8 
4 


54 
20 
17. 
11 


1,324 

401 

4 

62 

87 
260 


823 

401 

5 

59 

83 

421 


^,147 
802 
9 
121 
170 
681 


15 
22 


17 

7 


39 


Arkansas 


09 


Delaware 




District of Columbia .. 
Florida 


6 


15 


21 


Georgia 


22 


55 


77 








Kentuck V 


3 

2 


2 
13 


5 


Louisiana 


64 


87 


151 


205 

25 

499 


225 
5 

484 


430 

30 

983 


15 


Mary land 




Mississippi 


43 

1 




57 



100 
1 


1 





1 








Missouri 


8 


4 


12 


New Jersey 
















North Carolina 

Ohio 


160 

8 

1 

147 

118 

90 

136 

96 


49 
10 
1 

76 
84 
89 
96 


209 
18 
2 
147 
194 
174 
225 
192 


88 



75 
23 


163 
23 


533 


687 


1,220 


39 
29 


30 
12 


69 
41 


Oklahoma 










Pennsylvania 














2 
127 

9 
41 
20 
10 


8 
97 

6 
23 
24 

6 


10 


South Carolina 

Tennessee 


3 



64 

19 




2 

59 

14 


3 

2 

123 

33 


639 
148 
226 
455 
50 


656 
227 

317 

783 

46 


1,295 
375 
543 

1,238 
96 


224 
15 


Texas 


64 


Virginia 


44 


West Virginia 


15 
















Total 


1,133 


640 


1,773 


320 


358 


678 


4,918 


5,222 


10,140 


333 


203 


596 



ED 1903— VOL 2- 



-66 



2258 



EDUCATION EEPOET, 1903. 



Table 9. — Number of colored normal students and graduates in secondary and higher 

schools, 190^-3. 





Students hi nor- 
mal course. 


Graduates of high 
school course. 


Graduates of nor- 
mal course. 


Graduates of col- 
legiate course. 


State. 




a3 

a 







6 

a 


"3 


H 


6 
"3 


a5 
'3 

a 


"3 



_a3 
"3 


a5 
'3 

a 


"3 


H 




302 
54 

1 
23 
11 
32 

3 
18 


531 

89 

3 

139 

13 

87 

3 

44 


833 

143 

4 

162 

24 

119 

6 

62 


48 
2 


18 
2 


66 

4 


27 
5 


10 
1 
4 

12 
6 
1 
2 
9 


31 


38 
7 
2 

50 
2 

51 
7 

14 
9 
9 
2 
4 

37 


65 
141 

2 
60 

3 

55 
19 
20 
10 
11 
11 

4 
68 


9 

10 
1 

8 


2 
5 

1 
1 


11 




15 




2 


District of Columbia . . 


18 


8 


26 


9 




21 


33 


54 


ii 


11- 


22 








25 
5 

19 

16 


49 


40 


30 
6 

5 


65 
5 

49 

22 


54 


















91 

147 



182 

28 

13 

7 

215 

159 

246 

84 

30 


130 

159 

4 

311 

61 

22 

46 

238 

273 

415 

155 

52 


221 

306 

4 

493 

79 

35 

53 

453 

432 

661 

239 

82 


10 
2 


31 






1 


10 




2 


New Jersey 





North Carolina 

Ohio 


32 


















1 




2 
30 
17 
71 

25 


8 
21 

8 
43 
23 


10 
51 
25 
114 
48 














South Carolina 

Tennessee 


74 
14 
81 
34 
11 


80 
39 
48 
83 
18 


154 
53 
129 
117 
29 


1 
26 
12 

9 


3 

7 
2 
4 


4 
33 




14 




13 




















Total 


1,646 


2,765 


4,411 


348 


245 


593 


322 


500 


951 


130 


37 


167 







Table 10. — Colored professional students and graduates in secondary and higher schools, 

1902-3. 











Professional students and graduates. 




fessional courses. 


Theol- 
ogy. 


Law. 


Medicine. 


Dentistry. 


Phar- 
macy. 


Nurse 
training. 


State. 


6 
'3 



"3 

a 


"3 



-a 
m 


1 
-a 



en 
m 


"3 

a 



1 


-a 



a 

1 


CD 
'3 

3 

g 



-J2 



0) 

■a 

13 
CO 





"S 

-a 

3 


3 

1 






9 

17 


24 



33 
17 


9 
17 




















24 


7 
















































District of Columbia. . 
Florida 


392 


23 


415 


71 


12 


83 


20 


150 


27 


48 


7 


33 


17 


30 


13 




110 


23 


133 


109 


22 


1 
















23 


9 


















? 




67 


5 


72 


19 








43 




10 
































7 


3 


10 


7 




















3 1.... 




























































189 
15 


5 

1 


194 
16 


46 
16 


4 


13 


2 


113 


21 






i7 


3 j 5 


1 


Ohio 



































61 
48 
349 
116 
60 



2 
30 
15 



61 

50 

379 

131 

60 


61 


























48 

27 

116 

60 




















2 






'ii' 

10 


13 




339 














Texas 












15 














































































Total 


1,440 


131 


1,571 


606 


59 


110 


22 


645 


48 


58 


7 


50 


20 


102 


23 







SCHOOLS FOE THE COLOEED EACE. 



2259 



Table 11. — Industrial training of colored students in secondary and higher schools, 1902-3. 





Pupils receiv- 
ing industrial 
training. 


Students trained in industrial branches. 


State. 






"5 
o 


t4 

t^ 


f-, 

6 


ti 
a 
"?. 

03 

3 



ho 

a 

'Eh 

3 


'3 
Cm 


ai 


hi 

.9 
'3) 

Fh 




S3 


hi) 

a 

a 

a> 

,d 

VI 


bo 

a 

a 

Oh 


hi 

el 

■^ 

0) 
CO 


hi 

a 






m 

■a 
g 




Alabama 


1,796 
104 

20 
113 
110 
725 

38 
196 
138 
687 

14 

23 
549 


1,778 

344 

16 

85 

263 

2,357 

66 

378 

251 

850 

200 

71 

1,016 


3,574 

448 

36 

198 

373 

3,082 
104 
574 
389 


488 
■■■■4 

'""46 

57 

3 

39 

85 


308 
40 
20 
54 
96 

230 
3 

150 
7 

244 


....1... 


36 


14 


73 
24 


82 
15 
4 


29 



59 
26 

2 
54 

4 
86 
10 
27 

5 

5 


1,350 

343 

16 

61 

263 

2,091 

47 

220 

227 

783 

20 

44 

722 


556 
109 


935 






Delaware 


6... 


1 






District of Columbia 


;::: :::: 


'""78 

364 

12 

98 

124 

208 

194 

19 

251 


29 


Florida 


1 


11 
2 


1 








Georgia 


8... 


19 


49 


34 


19 


569 


Kentucky 


47 




1 . 


5 

7 
46 


1 






70 


Maryland 


....! 7 
....1 24 









Mississippi 


1,537! 240 


a --. 


12 


41 


261 




214 

94 

1,565 










New Jersey 


6 
31 


23 
132 
















2 


North Carolina 


72 


1 


4 




23 


12 


8 


22 


65 


524 


Ohio 






83 

18 

1,026 

251 

400 

918 

95 


128 
171 

1,331 
665 
861 

1,464 
110 


211 

189 
2,357 

916 
1,261 
2, 382 

206 


""sie 

29 

116 

1,055 

12 


25 

18 
213 

94 
188 
196 

42 










13 


25 






i28 

78 

1,183 

565 

773 
1,303 

109 


""ni 

221 
168 
160 
568 
66 


20 




12 
118 










12 
66 
59 
69 
21 


68 


South Carolina 




57 

1 

5 

24 


::;: 


13 
12 
24 

23 


43 
16 
9 
20 


15 

""5 
45 


302 


Tennessee 


198 


Texas 

Virginia 


1 

18 
1 


"18 


109 
10 


West Virginia 


















Total 


7,304 


12, 405 


19, 709 


2,527 


2,083 


360 


19199 


56 


283 


268 


176 


578'l0, 326 


3,367 


3,144 



2260 EDUCATION REPOET, 1903. 

Table 12. — Financial summary of the 136 secondary and higher colored schools, 190S-S. 





■o 






o 




o 




o 


o 










o 




o 




o 






fi 






43 




A 


3s fl 


A 


-S-o 




^,h 






U,h 




&!hn 


2 .2 


m bi) 


^•s 




a 






P 


■ 


C 


60 ^ 


a 


m^ 


State. 


O IH 

o 






o 


el 
o 




-^'22 


o 


■S.& 




u ft 


<v 

a 


a5 


(-. ft 






235ft 


>- ft 


M 




a 


o 





a 




3 


a 


oa 
a 







o 


03 







;d 




3 




!z; 


> 


> 


"A 


m 


^ 


;> 


^ 


< 


Alabama 


13 


23, 195 


819, 857 


1 


$1, 000 
500 


13 


S986, 994 


6 


$17, 377 




4 
1 
2 
4 


2,513 

500 

42, 604 

1,900 


1,735 

500 

100, 800 

1,900 


1 


4 
1 
1 
4 


165, 200 

27, 000 

1, 000, 000 

79, 000 

1,225,260 

115, 000 


1 


3,789 










1 
1 


42,100 








4,000 




16 
2 


38, 091 

1,697 

11, 142 


28, 300 
2,300 


1 


31,000 


14 

3 


1 
1 


500 




8,000 




6 


7,610 
4,800 


1 


500 


6 


457, 150 






3 


6,300 


1 


5,991 


3 


115,850 


2 


3,000 


Mississippi 


8 


20, 300 


11, 300 


1 


1,200 


8 


586, 000 


1 


8,000 




1 


300 


300 






1 


55, 000 


1 


16, 175 




1 


400 


400 






1 


2,000 
738, 950 


1 


6,000 


North Carolina . . . 


15 


33, 909 


26, 670 


1 


10, 000 


15 


7 


18,505 


Ohio 


1 
1 


5,000 
700 


5,000 
500 






1 
1 


202, 000 
33, 994 


1 
1 


30, 000 








21,000 




9 


20, 500 
14, 196 
24, 998 


9,000 
12,100 
23,870 


1 


271,000 










South Carolina . . 


10 

7 


2 
1 


6,325 
17,000 


10 

7 


629, 750 
904, 000 


3 
4 


21,840 


Tennessee 


6,050 




8 
10 


18, 309 
28, 395 


21,500 
22, 487 


4 
2 


21,500 
80, 461 


8 
10 


492, 250 
1,555,675 


1 
1 


20,500 


Virginia . 


20, 000 




2 


7,500 


7,000 






2 


165, 200 


2 


28, 500 










Total 


117 


302,449 


307,929 


17 


446,477 


113 


9,536,273 


36 


275,336 





State. 



Alabama 

Arkansas 

Delaware 

District of Columbia . 

Florida 

Georgia 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

New Jersey 

North Carolina 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Pennsylvania 

South Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Virginia 

West Virginia 



Total. 



$12,899 
4,500 



16, 206 

1,519 
16, 409 

1,100 
16, 752 

2,641 
12, 700 

1,600 

333 

20, 018 

4,000 



1,156 
11,626 
30, 030 
14, 430 
10, 384 
436 



178, 739 



34 



9,904 



14, 640 

1,600 

650 

563 

900 



9,263 
1,400 



21,386 
9,883 
3,000 
3,078 

55,344 
1,132 



156,216 






O "5 

+j cd 

oil 

a^o 



220, 975 
13,422 

5,000 

7,479 
14, 500 
79, 303 

5,567 
17, 625 

2, 700 
56, 568 

2,675 



71,215 

6,000 

2,719 

12, 090 

45, 801 

29, 694 

43, 495 

171,497 

5,719 



814,044 I 107 






$274, 824 

21,711 

5,000 

75,689 

20, 019 

110, 852 

16. 167 
35, 027 

8,904 

78. 168 
20,450 

6,333 
119, 001 
41,400 
23, 719 
34, 632 
89,150 
68, 774 
81,503 
257, 225 
35, 787 



1, 424, 335 



2262 



EDUCATION" EEPOET, 1903. 

Table 13. — Public high schools for negroes — Teachers, 



Kame of school. 



Teach- 
ers. 



Pupils enrolled. 



Total. 



Ele- 
men- 
tary 
grades. 



Second- 
ary 
grades. 



Students. 



Clas- 
sical 
course. 



Scien- 
tific 
course. 



lO 



11 



la 



13 



14 



ALABAMA. 

Birmingham . . . 

Mobile 

Tuscumhia 

AEKANSAS. 

Fort Smith 

Helena 

Hot Springs 

Little Rock 

Pine Bluff 

DISTEICT OF CO- 
LUMBIA. 



Washington . 
do 



Fernandina . 

Gainesville .. 
Jacksonville. 

GEORGIA. 



Athens 

Madison 

Rome 

Sandersville. 



ILLINOIS. 



Cairo 

East St. Louis 



High School 

Broad Street Academy. 
High School 



Howard High School 

Peabody High School . .. 
School Street School* ... 
Capital Hill High School. 
Missouri Street High 
School. 



Armstrong Manual 

Training School. 
M Street High School . . . 



High School 

Union Academy 

Stanton High School . 



West Broad High School. 

High School 

do 

Sandersville College 



INDIANA. 

Evansville 

Jeffersonville.. 

Madison 

Mount Vernon 
New Albany... 
Vincennes 

KENTUCKY. 

Covington 

Lexington 

Louisville 

Owensboro 

Paducah 

Paris 

LOUISIANA. 

New Orleans... 



MARYLAND. 

Baltimore 



Sumner High School 

Lincoln High School 



Clark High School 

High School 

Broadway High School 

High School 

Scribner High School . . 
High School 



William Grant High 

School. 
Russell High School * . 
Central High School. .. 
Western High School* 
Lincoln High School .. 
Western High School.. 



SouthernUni versify and 
Agricultural and Me- 
chanical College High 
School. 



Colored High and Train- 
ing School. 



379 



16 26 



12 31 



107 197 

i 



* Statistics of 1901-2. 



SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE. 



2263 



students^, courses of stud ij, etc., 1902-3 . 



students. 






Pupils 
receiv- 
ing 
manual 
train- 
ing. 


oi 
u 
.a 

a 

a 



2'o 


-a ■ 

P 03 

Sg 

3 a> 

<5<^ 


a 
2 

S _, 

0) 



a 
< 


a 


■3 a) 

> 

c S 
§^ 

a 


a 
2 

li 

3 


a 


03 

0) 

1.1 . 

ST 

a)g 

as 
.9 

"3 


H 




Eng- 
lish 
course. 


Busi- 
ness 
course. 


Nor- 
mal 
course. 


Gradu- 
ates. 




■2 


6 
"3 

a 


"3 


"3 

a 


6 

"3 


6 
"3 

a 


6 
"3 


"3 

a 




oi 
"3 

a 




15 16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 




30 

28 


49 
65 


30 


49 










30 


49 




















10 


17 


























3 






175 


«1,800 














20 
6 
3 


25 
12 
14 












^ 


30 


100 


















1 1 


57 
53 


40,000 
3,500 


















1 1 


1 





















....,....|.... 


1 
























.. .i---^ 


3 

11 
20 

1 
3 
2 

1 


S 






50 
2,370 


10,000 

178,800 
106,909 


















46 


32 






30 


105 


191 






826 


$230 














S") 






















1 


















3 
6 


30 






1 


4 


5 
3 






50 
























20,000 

2,500 
3,000 
5,000 
1,500 

3, 160 
20, 500 




















5 




200 
30 
60 

609 
20 















1.... 






1 




1 














1 






1 






1 














3 

15 
1 


8 

58 
2 






1 


1 

1 
1 

1 
3 


1 
R 


is 80 


»700 
2,000 






200 


S2,000 












15 


58 
















4 












5 


13 






fi 


















61 21 






6 
1 






106 
225 
100 
278 
250 

20 
75 


20,000 






































4 11 






1 


■> 






6, 500 
2, .500 
8,000 














10 


10 


1 


4 


1 


















it; 26 






2 2 










1 














1 


4 


























4' 9 
12 27 


! 






] 








1 






1 


1 














1 






1 




3 

11 




300 

75 

300 

3, 993 














j 






1 


5 


1 














2 9S 






1 


" 


1 






1 


















3 6 






70, 260 














14 


afi 










10 


20 


103 177 














1 



























2264 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1903. 

Tablk ]3. — Public high schools for negroes — Teachers, 



Location. 



Name of school. 



Teach- 
ers. 



Pupils enrolled. 



Total. 



Ele- 
men- 
tary 
grades. 



Second- 
ary 
grades. 



Students. 



Clas- 
sical 
course. 



11 



12 



Scien- 
tific 
course. 



13 



MISSISSIPPI. 

Columbus 

Greenville 

Jackson 

Meridian 

Port Gibson 

Sardis 

Vicksburg 

MISSOUKI. 

Boonville..' 

Brunswick 

Carrollton 

Chillicothe 

Fulton 

Glasgow 

Hannibal 

Harrison ville... 

Kansas City 

Louisiana 

Macon 

Marshall 

Mexico .. 

Moberly 

Richmond 

St. Joseph 

St. Louis 

Sedalia 

Springfield 

NORTH CABOLINA 

Durham 

OHIO. 

Gallipolis 

Xenia 

OKLAHOMA. 

Guthrie 

Kingfisher 

Oklahoma City. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Carlisle 



SOUTH CAROLINA. 



Central 

Columbia 

Darlington . . 

Easley 

Spartanburg. 
Yorkville 



TENNESSEE. 

Brownsville .. 
Clarksville ... 

Columbia 

Dickson 

Jackson 



Union High School 

High School 

Smith Robertson School. 

High School 

High School No. 1 

High School 

Cherry Street College 



Sumner High School . . . 
B. K. Bruce High School 
Lincoln High School . . . 
Garrison High School. . . 

High School 

Evans High School * . . . 
Douglass High School . . 
Prince Wepple School *. 
Lincoln High School . . . 
Lincoln High School... 

Dumas High School 

Lincoln High School . . . 
Garfield High School... 
Lincoln High School . . . 
Lincoln High School... 

High School 

Sumner High School . . . 
Lincoln High School... 
Lincoln High School . . . 



Whitted High School. 



Lincoln High School 

East Main Street High 
School.* 



Lincoln High School* .. 
High School 

Douglas High School 



Lincoln High School ■ 



Olive Grove School... 
Howard High School. 

Mayo School 

Graded School 

High School 

Graded School 



Dunbar High School 

High School 

do 

Wayman Academy . . 
High School. 



1 .. 
1 
2 

1 .. 
1 .. 



* Statistics of 1901-2. 



SCHOOLS FOE THE COLORED EACE. 

students, courses of study, etc., 1003-3 — Continued. 



2265 



■ students. 






Pupils 
receiv- 


u 

i 

a 
3 

> 


Value of grounds, build- 
ings, furniture, and sci- 
entific apparatus. 


u 

+i 

a« 


a 
s 

0) 0) 

3 


^3 

3 


a 

-J! 


a 
2 

T) 3 

3 

a 


1 

t^ 

OJ ^^ 

30 

3 


a 


eg 
H 
0. 

<u 

as 

3 



H 




Eng- 
lish 
course. 


Busi- 
ness 
course. 


Nor- 
mal 
course. 


Gradu- 
ates. 


ing 
manual 
train- 
ing. 






6 

a 


6 


.2 
"3 

a 




6 
"3 

a 

1^ 


"3 


6 
"3 

a 




"3 


"3 

a 

a) 




15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


'iO 


21 


23 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


> 


28 
2 


47 
Ifi 










4 
2 


6 
5 
5 

7 








$10, 000 


11,390 








SI , 390 


34 














32 






35 
















125 








1 




S6 




....L... 








4 






600 


9,600 
3,000 
1,000 
6,000 

5 000 


3,750 


$200 


1 


3,950 


37 


















38 




12 


36 
















200 










3<» 


60 
6 


■'40 






1 


17 

1 
1 
2 
3 
4 
2 
3 
4 

^1 
2 

1 
4 
1 






50 
400 










40 


•?4 
























41 










4 






85' 2 .500 












42 


6 


12 










91 


88 


80 
500 
138 
207 
500 
360 


1,500 
7,000 
3,500 
2, 200 
1,500 
2,500 












43 






















44 


6 


14 


























45 










3 
















46 


1 
6 


9 
4 










200 
10 


225 
11 












47 






















48 










2 












49 


10 
5 
6 

10 


12 

8 

12 

15 














600 
67 

50 
300 
175 

60 

150 

250 

50 

60 

630 

200 
600 

75 

50 

150 

25 














50 










1 






4,800 












51 
























5? 










3 


10 


10 


10,000 












53 














1 




54 






























55 


2 


8 


5 


17 






3 

4 
3 
4 

1 

2 
3 


9 

46 

5 

9 

9 

2 

7 

2 
1 

3 






18,000 

150,000 

800 

15, 000 

8,000 

7,000 
6, 000 










56 




38 


78 


210 










57 


3 


6 
















58 


















j 




59 


16 


49 






1 


9 




38 






! 




60 














61 


























6'> 




























63 




















1,500 












64 













1 
















65 


6 
14 


9 

18 


























66 


6 


4 


10 


12 







10 














67 


5 

1 

'"2 


7 
4 
4 
4 


1.50 
1,000 












68 


4 

7 
6 
5 

11 


6 
9 

12 
6 

24 














2,000 
300 


.i . 








69 








3 


2 


3 










70 








1 








71 






5 


5 








1,000 

3, 500 

13, 005 

5, 500 

2, .500 

15,000 


1 








7? 














50 
160 
200 

60 

775 












73 










1 
















74 


5 


15 












I 








75 
















1 








76 






1 i 










i 








77 



2266 



EDUCATIOIsr EEP03.it, 1903. 

Table 13. — Public high schools for negroes — Teachers, 



Kame of school. 



Teach- 
ers. 



Pupils enrolled. 



Total. 



Ele- 
men- 
tary 
grades. 



Second- 
ary. 



Students. 



Clas- 
sical 
course. 



Scien- 
tific 
course. 



10 



11 



13 



13 



14 



TENNESSEE— con. 



Knoxville 

McMinnville 

Memphis 

Murfreesboro 

Nashville 

Rockwood 



TEXAS. 



Austin. 



Bastrop 

Beaumont.. 

Bryan 

Calvert 

Clarksville . 
Corsicana . . 

Crockett 

Cuero 

Dallas 

El Paso 

Fort Worth. 
Galveston .. 
Gonzales ... 
Hempstead. 

Houston 

Lagrange... 
Livingston . 

Mexia 

Navasota . . . 
Palestine . . . 
Paris 



San Antonio. 
Sherman 



Terrell 

Tyler 

Victoria 

Waco 

Waxahachie 

VIRGINIA. 



Danville 

Lynchburg . 
Manchester 
Petersburg . 
Richmond.. 
Staunton ... 
Winchester. 



WEST VIRGINIA. 

Clarksburg 



Huntington ... 
Parkersburg... 
Point Pleasant 



Austin High School . . 

High School* 

Kartrecht High School . . 

Bradley Academy 

Pearl High School 

High School * 



Robertson Hill High 

School. * 
Emile High School * . . . . 
Central High School * . . . 

High School , 

....do 

..;.do 

....do 

do 

do 

do.* 

Douglass High School... 
East Ninth Street School . 

Central High School 

High School , 

do 

do 

do 

North End High School 

High School 

do 

Lincoln High School * . 
Providence Street High 

School. 
Douglass High School . . 
Fred Douglass High 

School. 

High School 

do 

do 

do 

do 



High School 

do 

do.* 

Peabody High School ... 
Highand Normal School . 

High School 

do 



Water Street High 

School. 
Douglass High School... 

Sumner High School 

High School 



34 



45 



8 14 

li 6_ 

91 15 

lOi 13 

4 11 

25 51 

6 6 



13 



15 



.i 10 
.1 10 



23 



14 



* Statistics ol 1901-2. 



SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE. 



2267 



students, courses of study, etc., 1902-3 — Continued. 



Students. 






Pupils 
receiv- 


2 



a 

3 
O 


So 

■SorS 

C £ cS 

»^§ 


-a . 
-2 -a 

^1 

So 
CO 3 

^ 

C m 

3 
P 


a 
2 

> 1) 

d 
0) 

g 

a 


a 

-S 
-a 3 

m 3 
>"« 

2? 
3 

2 
< 


i 

•S3 

gs 

a> 

00 

3 


a 
< 


>* 


A 

u . 
oeo 

as 


3 



H 




Eng- 
lish 
course. 


Busi- 
ness 
course. 


Nor- 
mal 
course. 


Gradu- 
ates. 


ing 
manual 
train- 
ing. 




6 


6 
"3 

a 

u 
6h 




"3 

i 
1^ 




"3 

a 

0) 


"3 


a5 
"3 

a 


"3 


"3 

a 




15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


ai 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 




6 


9 










1 


11 
1 
7 
8 

22 








8750 




820 






8670 


78 


















79 














2 
2 
6 






250 








1 




80 


1 


3 














2,400 

15,000 

2,500 






1 




81 
















54 










82 


2 

, 7 


........ 


2 


2 


•) 








$1,100 








1,100 


83 


5 






1 

1 
1 
1 


2 

2 
2 
3 
2 






50 








84 


9 












8,000 


1,300 


850 






1,350 


85 






1 












86 








1 






100 
300 


5, 000 
2,000 
2,000 
12,000 
3,000 












87 










1 










■ 






88 


26 


S7 














1,470 








1,470 


89 




" 








2 






250 
25 








90 


1 
15 


17 
30 






4 4 














1 


91 














2,000 


35 






2,035 


92 








1 


13 








35,666 
12, 900 






93 










....!.... 






300 
200 
400 
75 
100 
210 
100 
325 








1 


94 












2 
1 


5 
1 
1 
3 
5 












1 


95 
















1,500 
2,500 










96 
















1 . .500 


75 







1,575 


97 




::;::::: 




















98 














4 






29, .566 

2,000 

.500 








1 


99 






















! 


100 












8 


7 






800 








101 


















15 1,500 «on 


34 






934 


102 














1 


•> 






30^ 3. 000 










103 








1 




5 

2 








4,316 






...... 




104 






1 










512 

lef 

300 
120 


8,000 

30,000 
l,.50O 






.................. 


105 








1 
















1 


106 


1 


r. 




1 
















' 


107 


















3,000 
2, 500 
1,000 
5,600 
3,000 


1,070 


72 






1,142 


108 
























109 




















200 
250 
125 












110 














2 


7 
















111 
















1, 200 




...1 




112 


16 


38 










3 


1> 














113 












8 

5 


5 




41G 














114 










3 














115 


17 

62 

1 

2 

2 


38 

236 

12 

8 

3 










4l 8 
3 33 














1 




116 






3 


32 






300 
236 








1 




117 








3 

8 

1 






15,000 








118 










2 












119 














3.52 

500 
1.50 


20, 000 

1,000 
6,000 
3.000 


1,500 








1,500 


120 


















1 


121 


8 


16 










1 


^ 












122 


















1 


123 












1 










1 


1 





2268 



EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1903. 

Table 14. — Secondary and higher schools for negroes- 



Location. 



Name of school. 



Religious 
denomina- 
tion. 



Teachers. 



White. 



Col- 
ored. 



Pupils 

en- 
rolled. 



Total. 



ALABAMA. 

Athens 

Calhoun 

Huntsville 

Irma 

Marion 

Mobile 

Montgomery 

Normal 

Selma 

Snow Hill 

Talladega 

Troy 

Tuscaloosa 

do 

Tuskegee 

Waugh 

ARKANSAS. 

Arkadelphia 

Little Rock 

do 

do 

Pine Bluff 

Southland 

DELAWARE. 

Dover 

DISTRICT OF CO- 
LUMBIA. 



Washington . 
do 



do 

FLORIDA. 

Jacksonville. 

do 

Live Oak 

Martin 

Ocala 

Orange Park 

Tallahassee.. 

GEORGIA. 



Athens 
do. 



Atlanta.. 
.....do... 

do... 

do... 

do... 

Augusta . 



Trinity Normal School « 

Calhoun Colored School 

Central Alabama Academy 

Kowaliga Academic and Indus- 
trial Institute.* 

Lincoln Normal School 

Emerson Normal Institute * 

State Normal School for Colored 
Students.* 

Agricultural and Mechanical 
College. 

Alabama Baptist Colored Uni- 
versity.* 

Snow Hill Normal and Indus- 
trial Institute. 

Talladega College 

Troy Industrial Academy « 

Oak City Academy * 

Stillman Institute 

Tuskegee Normal and Indus- 
trial Institute. 

Mount Meigs Colored Institute. 



Arkadelphia Baptist Academy, 

Arkansas Baptist College * 

Philander Smith College 

Shorter University 

Branch Normal College , 

Southland College a , 



Nonsect 
M. E . . . 

Nonsect 



Cong . . . 
Cong 

Nonsect 



Nonsect 

Bapt 

Nonsect 
Cong ... 



17 



Bapt 

Presb , 

Nonsect 

Nonsect 



Bapt 

Bapt 

M. E 

Af.Meth. 
Nonsect . 



40 

50 

1015 



State College for Colored Stu- 
dents. 



Howard University 

National Kindergarten Train- 
ing School." 

Washington Normal School 
No. 2. 



Nonsect 



Cookman Institute 

Florida Baptist Academy 

Florida Institute a 

Fessenden Academy « 

Emerson Memorial Home 

Normal and Manual Training 
School. 

Florida State Normal and In- 
dustrial College. 



Jeruel Academy 

Knox Institute and Industrial 

School. 

Atlanta Baptist College 

Atlanta University 

Morris Brown College 

Spelman Seminary 

Storrs School 

Haines Normal and Industrial 

Institute. 



Nonsect .. 



M. E. 



M. E.... 
Cong ... 

Nonsect 



Bapt. 
Cong 



Nonsect 

A. M. E 

Bapt 

Cong 

Presb 



* Statistics of 1901-2. 



a No report. 



SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE. 

Teachers, students, courses of sludij, etc., 1902-3. 



2269 



Pupils enrolled. 


Students. 


Graduates. 




Elemen- 
tary 
grades. 


Secon- 
dary 
grades. 


Colle- 
giate 
grades. 


Classi- 
cal 
course. 


Scien- 
tific 
courses. 


English 
course. 


Normal 
course. 


Busi- 
ness 
course. 


High 
school 
course. 


Normal 
course. 


Colle- 
giate 
course. 




11 


12 


"3 
13 


"3 

a 

14 


15 


a; 
"3 

a 

16 


<6 

"3 

17 


a 

18 


6 

1» 


"3 

a 

20 


"3 
21 


"3 

a 

22 


■3 

23 


"3 

a 

24 


6 
"3 

25 


"3 

a 

26 


aj 
"3 

27 


aJ 
"3 

a 

28 


"3 
2» 


6 
"3 

a 
30 


a; 
■3 

31 


6 

a 

32 




147 
1.5 
79 

64 
103 
191 

90 


226 

15 

123 

156 
133 
174 

103 










































1 


35 


50 

7 

233 

127 

125 

32 

50 


50 
2 

69 
23 
473 

139 

286 
50 
64 






































? 








... 






























3 






























2 
3 
9 

5 


3 

1 

8 
9 






4 






4 


16 


3 


7 


7 


23 


5 
181 

91 


3 
375 

94 






3 


1 






ft 














6 


5 


4 






4 

18 


4 

5 


90 


103 


15 


17 






2 


1 


7 










8 


90 
158 


110 
235 


58 
17 


60 
10 






58 
19 


60 
50 


1 
19 


9 

50 










1 
3 


9 

8 






9 


" 


3 


6 


7 










7 


1 


in 












40 
10 

879 

57 

22 

136 

181 

52 

41 


50 



405 

143 

23 

116 

206 

85 

41 


















40 

50 

1,015 

45 

15 
132 
194 


50 


482 

55 

20 
122 
206 






















11 


30 
136 

45 

18 
21 
52 
15 
53 




77 

55 

12 
36 
66 
25 
45 


10 



















5 




10 






15 










4 









1? 














8 

4 





7 
1 











45 



17 











13 








14 
Ifi 


43 

13 

5 


18 
3 
5 


1 

9 
6 
12 


1 
3 
5 
10 


1 
21 


1 
6 


2 


2 







2 
1 

7 


2 


3 


Ifi 


23 

9 

12 


48 
16 
10 


4 

1 


7 



17 






IS 








60 


53 










19 




















5 
80 


68 


17 
156 


17 
70 


11 
410 


9 
138 


3 
163 



33 


9 

7 


8 
4 


4 
62 


5 
69 


1 
10 


3 

77 











4 


2 
20 


1 
8 


1 

1 


?(1 


6 


15 


IS 


8 


21 






13 

18 
16 


62 

6 
11 


















13 


62 










6 


30 






?? 


87 
82 


83 
120 










16 


8 






87 


83 














?a 


























?4 














































i 



































45 

49 

62 
122 

95 



60 
48 

76 

57 
168 



' 








1 
































?,'i 


11 
43 

52 

7 

30 
07 

68 

(1 


13 

55 

134 

20 


168 
238 
146 




1 












11 




13 












] 



2 







?6 


































4 
1 

4 
6 





4 


2 








27 
•7^ 






7 

fl 


20 



15 



5 






122 


168 


















?c 


50 
30 
138 







14 




















24 

5 
6 


1 
6 
1 




3 

4 


3f 


151 .'^n 
















31 


1 

30 


22 










6 



10 
25 






S'' 



117 

178 


459 





10 


93 









16 


3r 


157 
396 








3-1 


1 


4 




1 










2 


4 
















3f 


1 


1 




1 








1 


1 




1 




1 








1 





2270 



EDUCATION REPOET, 1903. 

Table 14. — Secondary and higher schools for negroes — 



Name of school. 



Religious 
denomina- 
tion. 



Teachers. 



White. 



Col- 
ored. 



Pupils 

en- 
rolled. 



Total. 



GEORGIA— cont'd. 

Augusta 

do 

College 

Fort Valley 

Lagrange 

Mcintosh 

Macon 

do 

Savannah 

South Atlanta . . . 

do 

Thomasville 

KENTUCKY. 

Cane Springs 

Frankfort 

Lebanon 

Louisville 

do 

LOUISIANA. 

Alexandria 

do 

Baldwin 

New Iberia 

New Orleans 

do 

do 

MARYLAND. 

Baltimore 

do 

do 

Laurel 

Mel vale 

Princess Anne... 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Clinton 

Edwards 

Holly Springs . . . 

Jackson 

Meridian 

do 

Natchez 

Tougaloo 

VVestpoint 

Westside 

MISSOURI. 

Jefferson City ... 
Sedalia 



Paine College 

Walker Baptist Institute a 

Georgia State Industrial Col- 
lege.* 

Fort Valley High and Indus- 
trial School.* 

Lagrange Baptist Academy 

Dorchester Academy 

Ballard Normal School 

Central City College 

Beach Institute 

Clark University 

Gammon Theological Seminary 

Allen Normal and Industrial 
School. 



Eckstein Norton University*. . , 
Kentucky Normal and Indus- 
trial Institute for Colored 
Persons. 
St. Augustine's Colored School, 
Louisville Christian Bible 

School, a 
State University * , 



Alexandria Academy 

Central Louisiana Academy. . . 
Gilbert Academy and Indus- 
trial College. 

Mount Carmel Academy a 

Leland University 

New Orleans University 

Straight University 



Baltimore Normal School , 

Morgan College 

St. Francis Academy , 

Maryland Industrial and Agri- 
cultural Institute. 

Industrial Home for Colored 
Girls. 

Princess Anne Academy" , 



Mount Hermon Female Semi- 
nary. 

Southern Christian Institute . . 

Rust University 

Jackson College 

Lincoln School 

Meridian Academy a 

Natchez College a 

Tougaloo University 

Mary Holmes Seminary 

Alcorn Agricultural and Me- 
chanical College. 



Lincoln Institute , 

George R. Smith College , 

Statistics of 1901-2. 



M. E. S . . . 



Nonsect 



Nonsect 



Bapt. 
Cong 
Cong 
Bapt. 
Cong 
M. E. 
M. E. 
Cong 



Nonsect 
Nonsect 



R. C . 
Bapt. 



M. E. 
Bapt. 

Meth 



Bapt. 
M. E. 
Cong 



Nonsect 
M. E.... 
R. C... 

Nonsect 

Nonsect 



Nonsect 



Christian . 

M. E 

Bapt 

Cong 



Cong 

Presb. North 
Nonsect 



Nonsect 
M. E.... 



a No report. 



SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE. 

Teachers, students, courses of studi/, etc., 1002-3— Continued. 



2271 



Pupils enrolled. 


Students. 


Graduates. 




Elemen- 

Uiry 
grades. 


Secon- 
dary 
grades. 


Colle- 
giate 
grades. 


""'ct 'tffic' ^"^^'^^^ 
cai iiiio course. 

course, counscs. 


Normal 
course. 


Busi- 
ness 
course. 


High 
school 
course. 


Normal 
course. 


Colle- 
giate 
course. 




11 

3'2 


"3 

a 

13 

55 


6 
13 

Gl 


"3 
B 

0) 

14 

87 


15 

10 


"3 

a 

<D 

16 


"3 
17 


"3 
§ 

18 


a; 

"3 
19 


6 
"3 

a 

20 


"3 


6 

a 

33 


"3 
IS 

33 


6 
"3 

a 

24 


.2 
"3 

35 


a; 
"3 

a 

36 


•3 
37 



1 


"3 


6 
"3 

a 

30 


"3 
IS 

31 


6 
"3 

a 

33 




31 


38 2d 




3 






• 




36 




■■■■|"" 














.... 


:::::::;i.... 








100 
104 


41 
114 


200 

10 

76 
22 
20 
96 

8 
70 
48 

1 

11 
42 

28 


30 

22 

89 
17 
55 
201 
45 
94 

15 

14 
5? 

19 


28 



10 





1 














i 






37 








114 


136 


10 


22 











1 








38 


143 

155 
56 
83 

176 


214 

375 

49 

134 

227 








1 




22 
2 


'] 


12 


9 


.... 


::::i;:::i....r' 2 


2 

7 






40 




1 



17 




1 


19 


16 
1 


48 






....I...J.... 


2 






41 


1 






1 


2 






Ij 6 






4?, 


8 


45 


















43 


















61 6 


6 


3 


4 


44 








1 












... 1 


45 


53 

23 
47 


136 

31 

58 















1 
3 


15 
3 




:::: ::::i::::i::;: 








46 


2 


2 


1 


3 










3 


2 






3 
9 


1 
6 






47 


















48 




































4<^ 






























:;::;::: 














100 

27 
15 
25 


25 

42 
18 
25 


40 


27 






























50 


25 

78 
76 


27 
79 
74 










52 

8 

101 


69 
10 
99 


3 


10 






1 

18 



5 
22 
7 










51 














] 






5? 


7 


10 





6 6 6 


























53 


610 


870 


87 
21 
102 

7 

164 




85 

11 

300 

16 
119 
41 


15 

66 

3 


4 

23 




19 
13 


7 



37, 61 


41 


25 


14 
1 




15 
15 
4 






4 


3 


6 


10 








54 






55 


148 

22 


200 
40 


27 26 


3 


22 


2 


13 


2 


3I 6 


4 

8 
1 






56 



















57 


2 


1 






1 














5 





1 






58 




26 




27 

104 






■.;::'. :..!----- 




















5«» 










1 


25 


5 






















60 














1 






















61 














1 






























55 
C2 
12 
60 


52 

« 

127 
69 
50 




12 
65 
17 
60 


45 

14 

70 

9 

130 




















5 
60 


* 


















6'> 


3 

8 


2 
2 








1 












? 


2 
5 


1 
1 






63 


5 

6 

20 


5 
5 
40 


1 





60 
23 


90 
73 






2 
1 
2 


3 
? 





64 






65 


















' 










66 














































































192 



390 

57 

in 


235 
154 
89 

' 57 
16 


34 


49 

134 

54 


35 

06 

6 

137 

57 


4 



2 



12 


7 






26 



390 


30 

202 

89 


26 



30 






7 


7 

8 


4 

15 









1 





67 













2 


68 














7 





69 


1 
6 




1 


1 


° 






134 
13 


137 






fi 





70 










8 


4 


8 


6 3' 2 


? 





71 



2272 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1903. 

Table 14. — Secondary and higher schools for negroes- 



Location. 



Name of school. 



Religious 
denomina- 
tion. 



Teachers. 



White. 



Col- 
ored. 



Pupils 

en- 
rolled. 



Total. 



NEW JERSEY. 

Borden town 

KORTH CAROLINA. 

Beaufort 

Charlotte 

Concord 

Elizabeth City 

Fayette ville 

Franklin ton 

do 

Goldsboro 

Greensboro 

do 

High Point 

Kings Mountain. . 

Liberty 

Lumberton 

Peedee 

Plymouth 

Raleigh 

.....do 

Salisbury 

do 

Wilmington 

Windsor 

Winston 

Winton 

OHIO. 

Wilberforce 

OKLAHOMA. 

Langston 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Lincoln Univer- 
sity. 
Philadelphia 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Aiken 

Beaufort 

Camden 

Charleston 

do 

Chester 

Columbia 

do 

Frogmore 

Greenwood 

Lancaster , 



Manual Training and Indus- 
trial School.* 



Washburn Seminary 

Biddle University .". 

Scotia Seminary 

Elizabeth City State Normal 
School. 

State Colored Normal School . . . 

Albion Academy, State Normal 
School. 

Franklinton Christian College* 

State Colored Normal School a . 

Bennett College * 

Agricultural and Mechanical 
College for the Colored Race. 

High Point Normal and Indus- 
trial School. a 

Lincoln Academy 

Liberty Normal College 

Whitin Normal Institute a 

Barrett Collegiate and Indus- 
trial Institute. 

Plymouth State Normal School* 

St. Augustine's School 

Shaw University 

Livingstone College * 

State Normal School 

Gregory Normal Institute 

Bertie Academy a 

The Slater Industrial and State 
Normal School. a 

Waters Normal Institute 



Nonsect 



Nonsect . . 

Presb 

Presb 

Nonsect .. 



Nonsect 
Nonsect 



Christian . . . 



M.E 

Nonsect . . 



Cong ... 

Nonsect 



Nonsect 

Nonsect 

P. E 

Bapt 

A.M. E. Z.. 

Nonsect 

Nonsect 



Bapt. 



Wilberforce Universitv* 



A. M. E 



Colored Agricultural and Nor- 
mal University. * 



Lincoln University* 

Institute for Colored Youth*.. 



Presb . . . 
Friends. 



Schofield Normal and Indus- 
trial Institute. 

Harbison Institute" 

Browning Home School a 

Avery Normal Institute 

Wallingford .\cademy* 

Brainerd Institute 

Allen University 

Benedict College 

Penn Normal, Industrial, and 
Agricultural School. 

Brewer Normal School 

Lancaster Normal and Indus- 
trial Institute. 

♦Statistics of 1901-2. 



Nonsect ... 



Cong ... 
Presb . . . 
Presb . . . 
A. M. E. 

Bapt 

Nonsect 



Cong 

A. M. E. Z.. 



«No report. 



SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE. 
Teachers, students, courses of study, etc., 1902-3 — Continued. 



227a 



Pupils enrolled. 


students. 


Graduates. 




Elemen- 
tary 
grades. 


Secon- 
dary 
grades. 


Colle- 
giate 
grades. 


Classi- 
cal 
course. 


Scien- 
tific 
courses. 


English 
course. 


Normal 
course. 


Busi- 
ness 
course. 


High 
school 
course. 


Normal 
course. 


Colle- 
giate 
course. 






6 
S 

12 

17 

61 



255 


6 
13 

37 

5 
77 


68 

46 
65 

13 


s 

14 

53 

16 



36 


15 




B 
16 




6 
17 


_a5 
"3 

a 

18 


"3 
19 




6 
"3 

a 

20 




6 
"3 


6 
"3 


22 


"3 
23 




6 

"3 

i 

S4 

4 


6 
"3 

25 




6 
■3 

a 

0) 




d 
27 



3 

41 


6 
"3 

a 

28 



6 

"3 

29 




a; 

"3 

a 
30 

4 


■3 
31 




"3 

a 
<p 

32 






11 

18 

65 

23 




«1 






7J 






70 
77 



77 



277 


2 





T. 


no 


6 1 m 






9 




14 














16 





7i 









14 









4 


7, 


152 

79 

85 


















7( 




















■ 




















7 


80 

48 


88 
38 






























11 


4 






7! 


18 














5 


6 










1 









7< 


































69 


114 


45 


25 


4 
167 















118 
153 


139 



30 


35 




5 






4 


5 


1 
11 






8( 










8 




































102 
30 


169 
20 


4 
30 


10 
35 






































8 


45 


40 






20 


10 


10 


12 


12 


13 


5 







1 








8 




















23 

14 

134 




37 

83 

144 




40 

21 
31 

75 
67 
89 
10 


68 

88 

41 
136 

97 
109 

48 


5 


5 


18 


20 


15 


19 


25 


40 


20 

21 
19 

67 


30 

88 

25 



97 


30 


25 









4 




1 
5 









8 

a 






















3 






1 






«( 


213 

28 


6f) 

8 


21 
20 


13 
16 


44 


32 


75 


136 











3 


1 


8 

8 






















" 


18 






8 


115 


177 


































9 




























.... 


























































114 

48 
16 


158 
69 

27 











13 



19 
23 


101 


139 


13 
28 
13 


# 19 
51 
22 






1 


3 










9 






107 


163 


8 

1 

147 




10 

1 



29 


12 










9 


67 


101 


















9 


208 





























9 


74 
134 


106 
186 


24 
5 


82 
2 










7 


46 


2 


8 


2 


8 










9 


























9 


















































































55 

42 
69 


100 
66 
112 


56 
15 

7 

168 

116 

62 

7 
25 


115 

. 27 

6 

209 

139 

36 

7 
20 








12 


30 





C 


34 
15 
2 


95 

27 
6 



15 


20 
27 


25 


24 


4 


4 





20 








9 
9 






5 
8 
20 





1 
4 















1 


1 


2 


1 






9 


8 

12 






4 
4 














15 


19 






10 


40 
116 

89 
126 


121 
66 

155 
16S 






60 
62 


151 


64 
36 


189 


56 
30 




75 
12 


20 


4 











2 

6 

7 
2 


10 
3 

7 



1 





1 





in 





3 


C 














10 

10 
10 




















1 







ED 1903— VOL 2- 



-07 



2274 



EDUCATION EEPOET, 1903. 

Table 14. — Secondary and higher schools for negroes- 



Location. 



Name of School. 



Religious 
denomina- 
tion. 



Teachers. 



White. 



Col- 
ored. 



Pupils 

en- 
rolled. 



Total. 



SOUTH CAEOLINA- 

continued. 



Orangeburg 
.."..do 



TENNESSEE. 

Jackson 

Jonesboro 

Knoxville 

Memphis 

Morristown 

Nashville 

---.do 

....do 

TEXAS. 

Austin 

do 

Crockett 

Hearne 

Marshall 

do 

Prairieview 

Seguin 

Waco 

VIEGINIA. 

Alexandria 

Burkeville 

Cappahosic 

Claremont 

Hampton 

do 

Lawrenceville... 

Lynchburg 

Manassas 

Norfolk 

Petersburg 

do 

Richmond 

do 

Suffolk 

WEST TIEGINIA. 

Harpers Ferry . . . 
Institute 



Claflin University 

Colored Normal, Industrial, 
Agricultural, and Mechan- 
ical College. * 



Lane College a 

Warner Institute * 

Knoxville College ■ 

Le Moyne Normal Institute*. . 
Morristown Normal and Indus- 
trial College. 

Fisk University 

Roger Williams University 

Walden University 



Meth . . . 
Nonsect 



13 



Cong 

U. Presb... 

Cong 

M. E 



Cong 
Bapt. 
M. E- 



Samuel Huston College 

Tillotson College 

Mary Allen Seminary 

Hearne Academy, Normal and 

Industrial Institute. 

Bishop College 

Wiley University* 

Prairie View State Normal and 

Industrial College. 

Guadalupe College 

Paul Quinn College * 



M. E.. 
Cong . 
Presb . 
Bapt.. 



Bapt.... 
M. E.... 

Nonsect 



Bapt-... 
A. M. E. 



William McKinley Normal and 
Industrial School. 

Ingleside Seminary a , 

Gloucester Agricultural and 
Industrial School.* 

Temperance, Industrial, and 
Collegiate Institute. 

Hampton Normal and Agri- 
cultural Institute. 

Spiller Academy a 

St. Paul Normal and Industrial 
School." 

Virginia Collegiate and Indus- 
trial Institute. 

Manassas Industrial School 

Norfolk Mission College * 

Bishop Payne Divinity School. , 

Virginia Normal and Indus- 
trial School. 

Hartshorn Memorial College... 

Virginia Normal Institute 

St. Paul's Universalist Blission 
School, * 



Storer College 

West Virginia Colored Institute , 



Nonsect , 



Nonsect 
Nonsect 
Nonsect 



9 

7 

103 



M. E. 



Nonsect . . . 
U. Presb ... 

P. E 

Nonsect .;. 



Bapt 

do 

Universalist 



Free Bapt . . 
Nonsect 



9 


35 


16 


228 


S 


18 


14 


108 


n 





1(> 


225 


3 


120 


9 


42 


16 


70 



* statistics of 1901-2. 



a No report. 



SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE. 
Teachers, students, courses of study, etc., 1902-3 — Continued. 



2275 



rupils enrolled. 


students. 


Graduates. 




Elemen- 
tary 
grades. 


Secon- 
dary 
grades. 


Colle- 
giate 
grades. 


Classi- 
cal 

course. 


Scien- 
tific 
courses. 


English 
course. 


Normal 
course. 


Pusi- 

ness 

course. 


High 
school 
course. 


Normal 
course. 


Colle- 
giate 
course. 




6 
"3 
1^ 

11 

225 
205 


6 
"3 

a 

13 

239 
163 


"3 
13 

63 
110 


a 

14 

69 
76 


"3 
15 

12 

45 


"3 

a 

16 


"3 
17 


a; 

a 

18 

10 

25 


QJ 

'5 
19 


6 

"3 

a 

ID 

30 


6^ 
"3 

21 


"3 

a 



33 


"3 
33 

47 
42 


"3 

a 

34 

61 
23 


"3 
35 


'3 

a 

36 


"3 
37 

21 


6 
"3 

a 

28 

16 


6 

"3 

39 

10 
45 


aJ 
"3 

a 

30 

14 
25 


"3 
31 




■ 6 
'3 

a 
(p 

32 

2 




2 28 

25 45 




105 






315 


239 


87 


54 


106 




















37 
116 
170 

118 

82 
52 


38 
150 
275 
143 

99 
43 


14 

58 
80 
25 

54 

47 
76 

14 

34 



18 

97 

40 

147 

59 
63 




31 

59 
100 
85 

118 
44 
115 

20 

42 

100 

29 

72 
20 
143 

85 
60 





15 




9 




14 




8 





' 


51 


68 




48 
80 
25 



51 
100 

85 















4 
3 
4 


3 



6 
9 

5 

12 

7 








107 
108 


























109 




!... 




97 


159 


9 


6 


110 


67 
29 
416 


26 

3 

148 










12 
5 


4 
4 


14 
12 


7 



111 


29 
47 


2 

74 





1 








6 


3 


25 
12 

8 








112 


98 

30 



12 

104 

168 


35 
20 


120 
54 

126 
17 

158 

224 



62 
19 

20 






85 


124 


8 


12 














114 








1 





14 


' 


" 





6 



1 

6 








115 









100 






116 










16 


23 


13 

7 
32 


67 
22 




24 

2 

20 



129 

18 




3 













117 


9 

34 

6 

31 
47 




1 

16 

2 

40 
15 




63 

26 

6 

40 


24 
18 
2 

45 


27 
6 

147 

63 





56 
26 
143 

74 

8 




6 
8 


57 


3 
1 


39 


2 


26 

47 


2 

1 

10 

28 


1 

1 
2 

5 
3 








1 



1 




118 






18 


12 


5 


6 


119 




18 
16 




13 
14 




120 

121 
122 


























123 


41 

39 

374 


59 

25 

446 


11 

8 

176 


19 
39 

88 



2 





8 





4 
G 




21 





2 





14 



52 
21 



78 

32 





17 
33 



31 
31 


3 

12 
5 


6 

18 




3 




14 





3 

23 



12 
"21 



2 




4 



124 
125 
126 
















































19 

35 
206 


57 
100 

20 
20 


8 

59 

359 



104 

80 



110 

30 
34 


11 


32 






























3 
5 




14 







3 
4 



1 


1 







3 






127 












35 

206 



100 


59 

359 



215 














128 


22 
13 
42 


96 
20 

22 
50 


72 



144 

47 



40 

40 
46 






22 
5 



72 








6 


8 


20 

33 














129 
























7 





31 

9 







7 










130 





72 




8 



131 
132 


60 



3 




17 





21 
20 


50 



40 


46 










133 




5 



20 

22 
8 


40 

40 
12 






1 

3 

8 


1 

6 
12 


134 















10 




5 








135 
136 



























2276 



EDUCATION REPOET, 1903. 
Table 15. — Secondary and higher schools for negroes — Professional 





Name of school. 


Students 
in profes- 
sional 
courses. 


Pupils receiv- 
ing indus- 
trial training. 


Students trained in industrial branches. 




6 


6 


1 
& 


c5 
"3 


Is 

a 

6 


1 


a 
8 


& 

6 
9 


ho 

a 


10 


C 

1 
11 


C 

'i 
12 


•So 

.sa 

13 


a 
'5) 


14 


ft 


.£3 

15 


bi 

3 
OS 

a 


w 

16 


in 
17 




1 


3 


3 


4 


5 


7 




ALABAMA. 

Trinity Normal School « . 


































^ 








122 


184 


306 


286 























Central Alabama Academy 


























8 


Kowaliga Academic and 
Industrial Institute.* 








20 

100 
10 

87 

222 


35 

180 

70 

329 

246 


55 

280 

80 

416 

468 




35 


















4 






















5 


Emerson Normal Institute *. 

State Normal School for Col- 
ored Students.* 

Agricultural and Mechan- 
ical College. 

Alabama Baptist Colored 
University.* 

Snow Hill Normal and In- 
du.strial Institute. 

Talladega College 











24 


24 






















6 




30 
25 


















7 






15 




30 


10 


29 


25 


8 






Q 








35 

75 


32 
162 


•57 
237 


4 
40 


9 

75 


2 




2 




3 
11 






5 


10 














Troy Industrial Academv 1 




















n 


Oak City Academv * ! - . 
































!•> 




9 

> 



4 









9 



4 


50 

1016 

60 



492 

48 


50 

1,.507 

108 


.50 
108 


40 
94 


















33 
14 


Tuskegee Normal and In- 
dustrial Institute. 

Mount Meigs Colored Insti- 
tute. 

ARKANSAS. 

Arkadelphia Baptist Acad- 
emy. 
Arkansas Baptist College* 


105 




19 


14 


29 


72 




. 27 


15 




















^>^ 


9 
13 

3 
79 


1 
245 

64 
34 


10 

258 

67 
113 




















10 

13 

3 


17 


Philander Smith College ... 
Shorter University 


10 
S 






10 
8 


















IS 




















i<> 








40 










24 


15 






Southland College « ' . . 


















?0 


DELAWARE. 

state College for Colored 
Students. 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 

Howard University 

National Kindergarten 

Training School." 
Washington Normal School 

No. 2. 

FLORIDA. 

Cookman Institute 








20 
113 


16 
85 


36 

198 


4 


20 
54 


6 




1 






4 




2 

.54 


^>^ 


392 


23 


415 






















00 





































''1 




























''I 


Florida Baptist Academy 








29 


68 


97 


21 


22 














































Fessenden Academv f 


































■^5 


Emerson Memorial Home. . . 

Normal and Manual Train- 
ing School. 

Florida State Normal and 
Industrial College. 













56 

25 


60 
61 

74 


60 
117 

99 






















'^(i 


25 


56 

18 


















07 















11 













4 









* statistics of 1901-2. 



n No report. 



SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE. 



2277 



and industrial training — Equipment and income, 190^-3. 



students 
trained in 
industrial 
branches. 


Chief sources of sup- 
port. 


u 

o 

« . 

Geo 

CJOI 

S-S 

53 2i 

(P 

0& 

I 


Volumes in library. 


Value of grounds, build- 
Ings, furniture, and 
scientific apparatus. 


Amount of State, United 
States, or municipal 
aid. 


a 


01 a) 

> CK 

C 


a 
< 


a 


u 

•0 

•0 B 

aj a 
>•" 

> 

3 

C 
3 ft 
0. 

a 


a 
2 


t 




CO 


C 

8 


i 
g 

m 
O 


|i 

0) 

go 


a 

< 


.2 CO 

ai(M 

as 

a 

"3 


H 




18 


19 


ao 


21 


22 23 


2i 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 






















1 






114 


60 




Donation, endow- 
ment, and tuition. 

Freed man's Aid and 
So. Ed. Sec. 

Northern philanthro- 
phy, tuition. 

Amer. Miss. Assn 


«1,000 


2,360 

300 

300 

200 
500 
300 

3,735 

500 

2,500 

5,000 


$30, 000 




$977 1762121,220 


»22, 959 


1 

9 


20 

28C 

80 

329 

98 


20 


25 


15,000 

600 
IS, 000 
40,000 

76, 036 

30, 150 

35,000 

182, 000 


S260 


100' 


3, 845 


4, 205 


3 
4 






do 




'"8,'566 
4,000 


1 407' 


2,484 
4,900 

11,150 


3,891 
15,400 

15, 150 

2,200 

16, 452 

29, 478 


5 


■■«. 


87 
174 


State, Slater fund, 

Peabodv fund. 
State and United 

States. 




2,000 




6 

7 


9 2nn 






8 


8 
162 


14 

72 


23 


Charitable .sources 




35 945 


114 15. .^58 


9 


Endowment, benevo- 
lent gifts. 








1,500 


6, 088 


21,890 


10 








Tuition 








600 

90 nnn n 


270 






270 
3,000 

160, 399 

3 , 420 

660 


11 








Presbyterian church . 




3,666 




3,000 

136, 228 

900 

500 


12 


211 

48 


300 

28 


626 


State, endowment, 

donations. 
Contributions 

Colored Bapt. Church 









3,000' 533,608 
1,500 6,000 

100' 10 nnn 


4,500 

82 


3,100 
400 

150 


16, 571 
38 


13 
14 

15 












2.30 
1,700 

463 




16 


245 

64 
34 


109 




Freedman's Aid and 

So.Ed.Soc.M.E.Ch. 

A.M. E. Church '. 


500 


41, 500 

21,700 
92, 000 


"3^789 


3,200 

821 
329 


:.:;::'; 


2, 500 

3,604 

6, 818 


5,700 

4, 425 
10, 936 


17 

18 






State and United 
States. 




19 












16 
61 






State and United 
States. 

U. S. and endowment. 




500 
41,754 


27,000 
1 non nnn 








5, 000 
7,479 


5,000 

75, 689 


''0 




29 


642, 100 


16, 206 


9,904 


21 
















City 




850 


600 














22 








Freedmen's Ai<l and 
So. Ed. Soc. 









719 






719 


23 


68 


n 




in nnn 









24 






















...J : : 




! 














60 
61 

74 


1 






200; 4, 000 
500! 25, 000 

600 40,000 






i 




95 


1 


Amer. Miss. Assn., tu- 
ition. 
State and United 





4,000 


800 


I 9 nnn 


2,800 
16,500 


26 


67'.... 




12, 500 


?7 


1 1 states. 









b From United States Government. 



2278 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1903. 
Table 15. — Secondary and higher schools for negroes — Professional 





Name of school. 


Students 
in profes- 
sional, 
courses. 


Pupils receiv- 
ing indus- 
trial training. 


Students trained in industrial branches. 




q5 


6 

a 


"3 
o 


a5 
'3 


<6 
"3 

a 

0) 


3 

o 


■p 

a" 


a 

& 

03 


be 


o3 

3 


bi 

.a 

n 

1 


si 

a 

B 


CD • 

si <^ 
m C 
■ ^ 


bb 

a 

'% 

o 


o 

B. ° 
3 


bi) 

s 
3 

d 

a 

o 

m 


bo 

a 

d 
'(1 




1 


2 


3 


4 


S 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


'>8 


GEORGIA. 

Jeruel Academj'^ 






54 

16 

67 

206 





150 


60 
90 

168 
239 
475 
131 
250 


60 
144 

16 
235 
445 
475 
131 
400 






















oq 


Knox Institute and Indus- 
trial School. 
Atlanta Baptist College 

Atlanta Universitj'' 










36 
16 

24 
10 
















14 


80 


S6 


26 







9 

14 


36 



35 

14 
















Rl 










18 






6 


Vfl 


Morris Brown College. 

Spelman Seminary 


8 












3S 














24 


R4 


Storrs School 




















35 


Haines Normal and Indus- 
trial Institute. 

Paine College 




























Rfi 






























Walker Baptist Institute^.. 


































37 


Georgia State Industrial 
College.* 

Fort Valley High and In- 
dustrial School.* 

Lagrange Baptist Academy. 


































ss 











22 


42 


64 


16 


09 






2 




12 


15 






3*1 












40 


Dorchester Academy 








93 


21 
36 

41 


1S8 
206 

80 
105 

261 


231 

206 

101 
140 

302 




93 


















41 


Ballard Normal School 
























4'> 


Central City Academy 


























34 


43 


Beach Institute 


























44 


Clark University 








41 


.29 








19 


19 


19 


19 


8 


45 


Gammon Theological Sem- 
inary. 

Allen Normal and Indus- 
trial Institute. 

KENTUCKY. 

Eckstein Norton University* 

Kentucky Normal and In- 
dustrial Institute for Col- 
ored Persons. 

St. Augustine's Colored 
School. 

Louisville Christian Bible 
School, a 

State University* 


48 





48 








46 


20 
10 


112 
47 


132 

57 






















47 


1 





1 


<> 


3 
















10 


48 




:::.:: 










4q 








28 


19 


47 
















































50 


































51 


LOUISIANA. 


































5'> 


Central Louisiana Academy 


































53 


Gilbert Academy and In- 
dustrial College. 








54 


71 


125 


17 


4 






5 










4 






















54 










37 


39 


76 


22 


5] 
















55 


New Orleans University 


55 
12 


6 



60 
12 








1. 








5fi 


105 


i 
26g 


373 




. 95 














23 














... 

1 









* statistics of 1901-2. 



a No report. 



SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE. 



227y 



and industrial training — Equipment and income, 1902-3 — Continued. 



students 
trained in 
industrial 
branches. 


Chief sources of sup- 
port. 


o 

m . 

11 

0S>H 

"3 a 

li 
°& 

<j) a) 
> 


a 

a 

3 

o . 

> 


Value of grounds, build- 
ings, furniture, and 
scientific apparatus. 


11 

!° 
lid 

< 


a 

o 
o a 

(V o 

^"5 

O 

a 

< 


a 

■a 
-0 a 

0) d 

•3 ^ 
> 

SI 

a 
< 


1 



a 
< 


<!> 

a> 
,C 
■*-» 

ti . 


c 






bib 
C 

m 


be 

a 
3 
§ 


0) 

6 




18 


19 


20 21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 




51 
74 




9 

20 


Jernel Bapt. Assn. 
and A.B.H.Soc. 

Amer. Miss. Assn., tu- 
ition. 

Amer. Bapt. Home 
Miss. Soc. 

Benevolent contribu- 
tions, tuition. 

A. M. E. Church bene- 
factions. 

W.A.B.H. Miss.Soc, 
Slater fund. 

Amer. Miss. Assn., tu- 
ition. 

Freedmen Board of 
N. Branch Presb. 
Church. 

M.E. Church South... 





131,000 


350 
100 

2,500 
11,500 

1,500 

3,937 
290 

1,200 

400 


810, 000 

5,000 

80,000 

251,000 

100, 000 

293, 427 

5,000 

15,000 

45, 833 




S768 





51, 728 


12, 496 


28 











832 

2, 500 

1,275 



1,565 


8840 
1,800 





7,252 

100 

12,000 

21,208 

2, 300 


8,924 
4,400 
13, 275 
21,208 
3,865 


?0 


168 
239 
429 
131 


54 
48 
91 


140 


31 
32 
33 
34 




400 


35 












10, 260 


10, 260 


36 


1 
















1 .. 


1 


















37 


42 20 


.... 


Tuition, State and do- 
nations. 
City 




614 


19, 000 


S500 


800 




5,000 


6,300 


38 
39 


138 










700 
1,500 


11,000 
40,000 


6 


829 
3,200 


6 


6,195 
2,500 


7, 024 
5,700 


40 


'>or> 


1"'"' 


Amer. Miss. Assn., tu- 
ition. 




41 


80 
140 

261 


50 




4'' 




Amer. Miss. Assn., tu- 
ition. 

Church and contribu- 
tions. 

Endowment 




500 

850 

12, 000 

150 

500 
1,197 


250, 000 
100, 000 





1,340 
3,300 




9 7fin 


4,100 
11,300 
12, 000 


43 


91 




8, 000 

1" 000 


44 
45 


132 

47 


10 
12 




Amer. Miss. Assn 

Contributions 












46 


20,000 
50,000 


" '8,' 666 


900 
200 


"i,'566 


687 
4,880 


1,587 
14,580 


47 


'" 


State and United 
States. 

Colored Ed. Soc 




48 






47 


49 






































45, 000 

150 

5, 000 
-fi, 000 












50 








Tuition, Freedmen's 

Aid. 
Bapt. Assn., tuition, 

contributions. 
Freedmen's Aid and 

So. Ed. Soc. of the 

M. E. Church. 





17 

100 

2,525 





252 
700 




60 

475 

3,000 


302 
1,175 
3,000 


51 








5'' 


15 


10 


70 


53 












25 




Endowment, contri- 
butions. 

Freedmen's Aid, M. 
E. Church. 

Amer. Miss. Assn. 
Slater fund and 
Daniel Hand fund. 


500 


3,000 
3,000 
2,500 


150, 000 
126, 000 
100, 000 




13, 900 




6,100 


20, 000 


54 

55 


205 


63 







1,900 


650 


8,000 


10, 550 


56 



2280 



EDUCATION REPORT., 1903. 
Table 15. — Secondary and higher schools for negroes — Professional 





Name of school. 


Students 
in profes- 
sional 
courses. 


Pupils receiv- 
ing indus- 
trial training. 


Students trained in industrial branches. 






"3 

a 


o 


a5 

"3 


"3 


1 


OS 


oS 


C 

P 


C 


bi 
G 

'3 
Ph 


1^- 


C 
o 


c 
o 

S3 

." o 

o 
OS 


bi 

c 
!S 

ai 

a 

o 
jC 
en 


ti 
c 

a 

'Eh 
Ph 

17 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


13 


13 


14 


15 


16 


f>7 


MAKYLAND. 

Baltimore Normal School... 


































58 


Morgan College 








113 


25 




97 

45 
5 

104 


210 

45 
30 

104 


60 


7 






7 




7 






5 


5ct 


St. Francis Academy 
















60 


Maryland Industrial and 
Agricultural Institute. 

Industrial Home for Col- 
ored Girls. 

Princess Anne Academy « .. 














25 




















fii 










































6'' 


MISSISSIPPI. 

Mount Hermon Female 

Seminary. 
Southern Christian Institute 

Rust University 

Jackson College 









48 
40 



40 


50 
44 
60 

69 
130 


50 

92 

100 

69 
170 






















fi^ 








19 


12 
39 






3 






12 




5 


64 




7 


3 



3 

7 










65 




















(\n 


Lincoln School 




1 


















Meridian Academy « 










1 


















Natchez Collegea 
















( 
















67 


Tougaloo Universitv 








120 


439 


14 

23 

25 

77 





182 
220 

95 

194 
6 

71 

76 


22 

152 


302 
220 

534 

194 
20 

94 

101 

77 

22 
152 


57 
10 

154 


53 17 








24 








68 






















6^ 


Alcorn Agricultural and 
Mechanical College. 

MISSOURI. 

Lincoln Institute 




... 




140 






43 








41 




70 














71 


George R. Smith College 


























20 


r> 


NEW JERSEY. 

Manual Training and In- 
dastrial School.* 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

Washburn Seminary 











6 
2 


23 

25 
14 
















7? 


















74 


Biddle University 


17 





17 


15 












22 


12 


7=> 


Scotia Seininary 












76 


Elizabeth City State Normal 
School. 

State Colored Normal School 

Albion Academy, State 
Normal School. 

Franklinton Christian Col- 
lege.* 

State Colored Normal 
School." 

Bennett College* 




























77 




























78 


































7<1 


6 





6 


12 


28 


40 














































80 








167 


. 70 



70 
167 






















81 


Agricultural and Mechan- 
ical College for the Col- 
ored Race. 

High Point Normal and In- 






7 


32 30 


1 


2 


6 


12 


5 




















dustrial School, a 



































* Statistics of 1901-2. 



a No report. 



SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE. 

and induslrial trahibig — Equipment and income, 190J-S — Continued. 



2281 



students 
trained in 
industrial 
branches. 


Chief sources of sup- 
port. 


CM 

■u 

"S C 

■ li 
. a" 

°& 

3.0 

> 


1 

S 

o 
> 


Value of grounds, build- 
in gs, furniture, and 
scientific apparatus. 


11 
5 '^ 

|i 

'J} o 
O m" 

< 


a 

o 

> QJ 

1 

o 

a 
< 


a 
g . 

■a 
•a c 

Oi s 

f._ 

'S 9 

il 

S a. 

a 
< 


a 
2 

li 

|i 

^ u 



a 
< 


u 

OJ 

iS 





Eh 




bi 

C 

m 


ti 

a 

3 
o 
o 
o 


m 

-a 

o 




18 


1920 


21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 










State 




2,000 
4,000 


»20,000 
85, 850 


»2,000 








«2,000 
4,404 


57 


73| 69 
45 10 




M. E. Church and |5,991 
tuition. i 


12, 491 


1213 


SI, 700 


58 
59 


5 5 




State 1 


300 


10, 000 


1,000 


150 356I 1 nnn' •> kiw 


60 


104; 40 


Citv and State L .. 




i 


», 


























50 

34 

110 

69 
130 


50 

6 

30 








400 

1,000 

10, 000 

1, 200 
300 


25, 000 
60, 000 
125, 000 

40,000 
3,000 




500 


200 


2,500 


3,200 


fi'' 




C. W. Board of Mis- 
sions, tuition. 

Freedmen's Aid and 
So. Ed. Soc. M. E. 
Church. 

Amer. Bapt. Home 
Mission Soc. 

Amer. Miss. Assn., 
tuition. 


1,200 


63 




10, 000 




10,400 


20, 400 


64 
65 




40 




700 




1 
1,000; 1,700 


06 
























155 
220 

15 
194 


i62J.... 


Amer. Miss. Assn 




4,000 
700 

2,700 
300 


125; 000 
50,000 

168,000 

55, 000 

2,000 

6, 000 
207, 000 

65,000 




1 500 


16, 7001 l.H 200 


67 


W. M. Soc. Presb. 

Church. 
State and United 

States. 

State and United 
States. 

So. Ed. Soc. M. E. 
Church. 

State 












68 


20 


221 


8,000 
16, 175 

6,000 




700 


25, 968 


34, 668 

16,175 
J 971^ 


69 

70 






1,600 
333 





2 675 


71 


44 
76 


19 


2 




400 

200 
13,000 

2,200 

609 


1 


72 


Amer. Miss. Assn 

Presb. Church, board 

and tuition. 
Presb. Board for 

Freedmen, tuition. 






73 




10 


! 4,666 

Oj 600 

! 


250 3, 750 8, 000 
1 
1 17,261 17,861 

1 1 


74 
75 
76 


19 


22 














1 


1 


77 




i 












....:::::::: 


78 


25 


25.... 


Endowment and tui- 
tion. 










. 




79 
















1 1 




70 


17 


72 


Freedmen's Aid and 

So. Ed. Soc. 
State and United 

States. 




3,000 
929 


30,000 
8S, 000 










80 


v r,m 






31, 189 


43,689 


«1 










































2282 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1903. 
Table 15. — Secondary and higher schools for negroes — Professional 





Name of scliool. 


Students 
in profes- 
sional 
courses. 


Pupils receiv- 
ing indus- 
trial training. 


Students trained in industrial branches. 




'3 


0) 


"3 
o 


"3 


6 
'3 

a 


3 
^ 


S3 
S ■ 


H 
& 


a 


bb 
a 

s 


a 

g 
'3 
P-, 


4i 

.3 a 


bo 

a 
o 


ft 
o 

o 


bo 

g 
3 

a 

ID 

o 


bi 
C 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


lO 


11 


13 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


i>.9. 


NORTH CAROLINA— cont'd. 

Lincoln Academy 

















16 


16 






















88 


Liberty Normal College 

Whitin Normal Institute a . . 


















































84 


Barrett Collegiate and In- 
dustrial Institute. 

Plymouth State Normal 
School.* 

St. Augustine's School 

Shaw University 








18 

21 

85 
94 


3C 

171 

91 
142 


48 

192 

176 
236 


16 


6 


15 














30 


85 




















8fi 



166 


5 



5 
166 


6 


29 
26 


12 














25 


87 




2 


17 




3 




88 


Livingstone College * 










89 


State Normal School 


































90 


Gregory Normal Institute. . . 
Bertie Academy a 











50 


180 


230 














































The Slater Industrial and 

State Normal School, a 
Waters Normal Institute 

OHIO. 

Wilberforce University * 

OKLAHOMA. 

Colored Agricultural and 
Normal University. * 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Lincoln University * 

Institute forColored Youth*. 


































91 



15 




1 



16 





38 


38 






















9'? 






















9?, 


83 


128 


211 




25 










13 


25 






94 


61 





61 














95 


18 
139 


171 
188 


189 
327 


8 


18 
8 


r> 














12 
6 


9fi 


SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Schofleld Normal and In- 
dustrial Institute. 
Harbison Institute a 


"o 












1 








15 
















Browning Home School" . . . 


































97 

98 


Avery Normal Institute 

Wallingford Academy* 











5 


111 


116 
































99 


Brain erd Institute 











76 


118 


194 


60 


10 






2 










4 


00 


Allen University 














01 


Benedict College 


48 


2 


50 


79 

74 



25 

268 

860 


105 

102 

162 

20 

261 

264 


184 

176 

162 

45 

529 

624 


12 

74 


12 
150 




74 



12 

46 

63 








4 














30 

10 



n-^ 


Penn Normal, Industrial, 

and Agricultural School. 

Brewer Normal School 

Lancaster Normal and In- 
dustrial Institute. 
Claflin Universitv 


103 

04 
































05 








40 

78 




20 
30 




13 


13 

30 




16 


Ofi 


Colored Normal, Industrial, 
Agricultural, andMechan- 
ical College. * 

TENNESSEE. 

Lane College a. 
























L07 


Warner Institute * 











6 


^6 


?!?. 


6 




........| 















*Statistics of 1901-2. 



a No report. 



SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE. 



2283 



and industrial training — Equipment and income, 1902-3 — Continued. 



students 
trained in 
industrial 
branches. 


Chief sources of sup- 
port. 


O 

goo 

.2c!i 

03 th 

^% 


a 

o 

a 


2 taoS 

.=;c"o 

>• 


ll 

t-) a 

-3 

s. a 

CO o 

*^ 0) 

aaa'tj 


a 

2 

■C a-- 

<U tU 

> tu 

..-<«4-( 

« 3 
§ 

a 
< 


a 
2 . 

■a 
-a a 

0) 3 
'53 m 

o > 

£■2 

!h o 

3 
3 o 

3 ^ 

o a 

a 
< 


a 

o 

'Si 

^c t-, 

§o 
o 

a 


o 
t-l 

o 


o 




c 


C 

o 

o 


1 

O 




18 


19 


ao 


21 


23 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 






16 




Amer. Miss. Assn. of 

Cong. Churuh. 
Tuition 




350 
500 


19,000 
3,000 


13170 








1170 
2,280 


f>.'> 


280 


S2.000 






S3 


















24 


21 










6,000 

1,800 

70,000 
92, .500 

125, 150 

5,000 

18,000 






$1, 150 


1,150 

1,857 

20, 134 
6,037 

12,300 
1, 858 
1,400 


84 


192 

"•is 


State 




21 

2, 500 
1,500 

8,000 
200 
400 


1,857 






85 


150 
1-10 


150 


Tuition, contributions 
Amer. Bapt. H. M. 

Soc, Slater fund, 

tuition. 


810,000 




1,600 

1,858 



3,900 
4, 683 

3,350 


$2, 733 
280 

6,000 


13, .501 
1,074 

1,350 


86 
87 

88 








State 




89 


180'.... 

1 


50 


Amer. Miss. Assn 


6 


1,400 







90 


■■■■|"" 
























38 






Amer. Bapt. Home 
Mis. Soc. , donations. 





500 

5,000 

700 

16, .500 


12, 500 
202, 000 
33,994 

271,000 


240 
30,000 
21,000 


85 
4,000 


1,400 


1,940 2,265 

1 
6,000 41,400 

2,719^ 23,719 

! 

! 
12,090: 34,632 

1 


fli 






99 


128 




20 


Territory and Morrill 
fund. 




93 


1,156 


21, 386 


91 


781 171 


68 
44 






4,000 




95 


188 


57 


Contributions 


325 


1,000 


60,000 


200 


165 


3, 815 


i 
5, 000 9, 180 


96 






1 


.:.:.:::i:::;;;. :::::;:: 








1 




116 







Amer. Miss. Assn., 

tuition. 
Tuition- and Miss. 

Board. 
Presbyterian Church . 
A. M.'E. Church .. 


1,000 


25,000 

2,500 

20, 000 

35,000 

200,000 

12, 000 

6,000 

175,000 

94, 250 





2,650 
102 


6 

62 


3,000 


5,650 
224 


97 

9S 


118 


43 






400 
80 


99 








640 

21,000 


1,298 
1,741 

260 


' "6,'666 
fi 




1 9QS 


100 


97 

102 

162 

30 

170 

200 


20 

48 

18 
85 


21 

164 
73 


Endowment, Am. 
Bapt. H. M. Soc, 
tuition. 




3,466 

400 

200 

400 

6,500 

750 


8, 866 16, 607 

2, 581 2, 847 

1, 200 

600 1, 390 

20,000 24,000 

5 754 ''i^' "5J 


101 
109 


Tuition, benevolent 

contributions. 
Churcli and State 




1,200 

150 

4,000 


103 
10't 


Freedmen's Aid and 
So. Ed. Soc. of M.E. 
Church, Slaterfund. 

State 


6,000 


105 
106 
















26 


26 


.... 


. Amer. Miss. Assn 




24 


6,666 


320 


12 


6 


480 


8i2 


107 



2284 



EDUCATlOlsr EEPORT, 1903. 

Table 15. — Secondary and higher schools for negroes- — Professional 





Name of school. 


Students 
n profes- 
sional 
courses. 


Pupils receiv- 
ing indus- 
rial training. 


Students trained in industrial branches. 




6 


0) 

S 


o 


o 
1 
S 


0) 


3 

o 
H 


a 


"S 
o 


bib 

a 

o 


1 


fci) 
c 

g 
■3 
p-( 


3'3 


1 

(3 

1 


ft 

i 

Bo 


bib 
C 
3 

a 

0) 


A 


bib 

.s ■ 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


lO 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


108 


TENNESSEE— continued. 
Knoxville College 


4 







4 



23 
170 

46 


120 
275 
159 


143 
445 
205 


23 


45 
25 
22 
















22 
22 
12 


im 


LeMoyne Normal Institute*. 
Morristown Normal and In- 
dustrial College. 

Fisk University 
















no 










12 


16 




m 


2 

5 

338 






30 


2 

5 

368 










112 

lis 


Roger Williams University.. 


6 


85 


91 





2 








1 














3 


114 


TEXAS. 

Samuel Huston College 




25 




117 


7 

65 

226 
46 

161 


7 

90 

. 226 
46 

278 






















^^f) 









24 

10 



82 













15 







24 

10 



97 




23 
















1 


nfi 


Mary Allen Seminary 

Hearne Academy, Normal 
and Industrial Institute. 
















117 






















118 




117 






3 






9 




27 


119 












120 
121 


Prairie View State Normal 
and Industrial College. 


147 

49 
62 

10 


129 

135 
92 

15 


276 

184 
154 

25 


26 

28 
62 




14 

24 
10 





1 







2 





20 
4 





5 




24 
17 

15 


12'' 








1''3 


VIRGINI.\. 

William McKinley Normal 
and Industrial School. 






































1''4 


Gloucester Agricultural and 
Industrial School. * 

Temperance,Iudustrial,and 
Collegiate Institute. 

Hampton Normal and Ag- 
ricultural Institute. 











52 
18 
550 


78 
25 
534 


130 

43 

1,084 


130 


11 

1.1 


















1''5 






13 
11 












126 








899 38 


18 


18 




7 


20 


7 


6 
















St. Paul Normal and Indus- 
trial School." 

Virginia Collegiate and In- 
dustrial Institute. 








1 
























127 
128 











10 

35 

35 



108 


80 

59 

375 



at a 


40 

94 

410 



356 


5 
21 




















33 










2 








129 


Norfolk Mission College* 


















38 



""6 


130 
131 


Bishop Payne Divinity 
School. 

Virginia Normal and Indus- 
trial School. 

Hartshorn Memorial College 

Virginia Union College 

St. Paul's Universalist Mis- 
sion School. * 

WEST VIEGINIA. 











" 


























132 




. ! 






















133 


60' 1 


60 





100 (^ 


100 
100 

55 
150 




100 


















134 







c 
c 




25 
7C 


100 

30 
80 


















135 


U 


20 

22 


















136 


West Virginia Colored In- 
stitute. 


1 








23 






8 





















♦ Statistics of 1901-2. 



"No report. 



SCHOOLS FOR THE COLORED RACE. 



2285 



and industrial training — Equipment and income 190-2-3 — Continued. 



Students 
trained in 
industrial 
branches. 


Chief source.s of sup- 
port. 


Value of benefactions or 
bequests in 1902-3. 


03 

.£ 

c 

a 

D 
O 
> 


Value of grounds, build- 
ings, furniture, and 
scientific apparatus. 


11 

la 

O ^' 


a 

o 

>$ 

Is 
0; O 

«'3 

3 
O 

a 


a 

52 

5 a. 

a 
< 


a 



>i 
'? o 

^ u 

a 

go 
o 

a 
< 


1-1 

S3 
D 

h 




ti 
C 

£ 
18 


3 
o 
o 
o 

19 


1 
a; 
O 
20 




21 


22 


23 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 




120 
175 
159 


32 
25 

85 


"i98 


Prcsb. Church, State.. 




2,500 
2. 700 
1,000 

7, 274 
7,000 
4,500 

1,100 

2,000 

500 


S115, 000 


»5_ 000 


S300 
4,. 500 

1,884 

5,000 

834 

17, 500 

1,118 
750 


83,000 






110, .500 
4,000 
10,584 

130 
4,000 


»15, 800 

8, 5.50 

12, 408 

8,000 

1,644 

21.. 500 


108 


Tuition, benevolence. 

Freedmen's Aid Soc. 
M. E. Church, tui- 
tion, donation. 

Amer. Miss. Assn. .tui- 
tion. 

Amer. Bapt. Mi.ss. Soc. 
of New York. 




117, 000 



45,000| ' 50 
75, 000 

1 

350,000, 
155, 000 680 
158,000 


109 
110 

111 


85 







112 
113 


65 

226 
23 

133 


30 
46 

16 


1 


F. A. Soc. of M. E. 
Church, tuition. 

Am. Miss. Assn., tui- 
tion. 

Church contributions. 

Am.B. H. M.Soc. and 
Tex. Mis. Ed. Con. 

Am. Bapt. Home 
Miss. Soc, tuition. 

Freedmen's Aid, S. E. 
Soc. M.?l Church. 

State and United 
States. 


3,000 



50, 000 

40, 000 

50, 000 
7,000 

150, 000 

65,250 

80, 000 
50, 000 






1 

1,500' 2,018 
6, .500; 7, 2.50 
5, OOO: 5. 000 


114 

115 
116 


500 


SOO 












117 


13,000 4,000 
5, 000 4. ,500 


20, .500 

6 


3,594 

3,000 



400 

5, 568 


1,778 


1,300 


6,820 

10, 000 



9,000 
4,675 

694 


12, 192 

13, 000 

20, .500 

10, 700 
10, 243 

694 


118 
11<» 


7-1 

153 
92 


43 

25 


94 

"ii 

10 




909 
5, 000 


120 


Tuition and church .. 




V)o 


Subscriptions 







lo-^ 




















65 

17 

515 


65 
25 

246 






40,000 

25, 975 

823, 500 


4«n 


0| 5, 875 

1,187! 

1 
50,607128,829 


6, 355 

2,462 

179, 436 


194 


Tuition, contributions 

United States, endow- 
ment, contributions. 


3,500 1,697 
76,961 12,698 






1,275 



125 
126 








1 








1 




30 

59 

287 


230 


35 

43 

86 



68 


'""6 


M. E. Church 


sno 


53 noo 




6 


480 


n' 1.50 fian 


127 






300 56 700 


2 OOo' 


2, 700 4, 700 
7,720 9,470 
5, 000 5, 500 

600' 21 son 


128 


Church and tuition . . . i 


600 
500 

2,500 

1,500 
8,000 


70,000 


1,7.50 



500 




3,000 

50 
1,132 


129 


Endowment, contri- 


130 


butions. 
State 






165, 000 

.50, 000 
.^on nnn 


20, 000 




2,500 
26,000 


1,200 

1,124 
2,000 

75 

320 
116 


131 


Mis.sionary Societies.. 
Am. Bapt. H. M. Soc, 


5,429 
14, 000 

500 

719 
5,000 


6, 5.53 
19,000 

625 

4,671 
31,116 


132 
133 


100 

30 
79 






C9ntributions. 


30o' 1 - 500 


134 


20 
46 




vention. 

State and Free Bap- 
tist Mission. 

State and United 
States. 




.5,500 
2,000 


50,000 
115,200 


135 
136 



\ 



\ 



-JUL i' "^ 



